ES · 2019-05-13 · Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019 Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil Page 5 Fibers: including cellulose

Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019

Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil Page 0



Table of contents

Unit I: Food chemistry ............................................................................... 2

Introduction ........................................................................................... 2

Chapter 1: Carbohydrates ...................................................................... 3

Chapter 2: Lipids .................................................................................... 6

Chapter 3: Proteins ................................................................................ 9

Chapter 4: Vitamins and Minerals ........................................................ 14

Chapter 5: Nutritional requirements .................................................... 16

Chapter 6: The principal foods ............................................................. 18

Chapter 7: Food Diet ............................................................................ 19

Unit II: Current medicinal drugs .............................................................. 21



Unit I: Food Chemistry

Introduction

A. Food: is a substance that consists of the following nutrients: (Carbohydrates,

Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins and Minerals) needed by the body to maintain life and

growth by supplying energy and building or replacing tissues.

Food contains 5 types of nutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins

and Minerals.

Mother’s milk is considered as a complete food.

B. Nutritional requirements of food for the human body:

Energy Growth and structure Protection and control of body functioning

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Partially proteins

Proteins

Some minerals (Ca and P)

Water

Vitamins

Minerals (Na and K)



Chapter 1: Carbohydrates

1. Definition: carbohydrates are organic substances that consist of Carbon(C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) atoms with general formula Cn(H2O)n. They have two functional groups:

- Carbonyl group (-C=O) - Hydroxyl group ( -OH)

E.g.: Glucose C6H12O6; Sucrose: C12H22O12

Reaction of natural synthesis of carbohydrates: CO2 + H2O ---Sunlight--- > Carbohydrates + O2

2. Classification of carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main groups: - Monosaccharides. - Disaccharides or oligosaccharides. - Polysaccharides.

General formula

Role Chemical elements

Functional groups Type of compounds

Cn(H2O)n - Provide us with instant and stored energy. - Enter in the functioning of the organism

C, H and O - Carbonyl group (-C=O) - Hydroxyl group ( -OH)

Organic



Monosaccharides (1 unit)

Disaccharides or oligosaccharides (2 on 10 units)

Polysaccharides ( > 10 units)

1. Glucose. 2. Galactose. 3. Fructose.

1. Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose. 2. Lactose = Glucose + Galactose. 3. Maltose = Glucose + Glucose.

1. Starch (Plant source). 2. Glycogen (Animal

source). 3. Cellulose( Plant Source)

Characteristics: - Soluble in water - Formed of only 1 unit/sugar. - All common monosaccharides are reducing sugars (P.s: A reducing sugar is a sugar that has free carbonyl group that allows it to undergo oxidation by an oxidizing agent) - To identify the presence of a reducing sugar we must use the Fehling test with heat. Reducing sugar + Blue Fehling solution Red brick precipitate.

Characteristics: - Soluble in water, - Formed of 2 to 10 units. - Lactose and Maltose are reducing sugars but Sucrose is not due to the absence of a free carbonyl group which is engaged in the glycosidic linkage. - The bond/linkage between two units is called: “Glycosidic bond” (- C – O – C -)*. - Disaccharides are formed by condensation reaction and decomposed by hydrolysis reaction in the presence of water.

Characteristics: - Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of more than 10 monosaccharides units bonded together by a glyosidic bond or linkage. - Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. - Cellulose is the structural component of the cell wall. - Starch, Glycogen and cellulose are all formed of glucose units only!! (Starch/Glycogen/Cellulose: glu-glu-glu-glu-glu-glu-…). - Starch and Glycogen are soluble in water while Cellulose is insoluble in water. - To identify the presence of starch in food we must perform the Iodine solution test (brown color) without heat, if we will observe dark blue color it means this food contains starch.

*: It is a bond that links 2 monosaccharides in the carbohydrate molecule formed between the two carbonyl groups or between the carbonyl group and the hydroxyl group. Notes: (!!!! VERY IMPORTANT!!!!) Glucose: grape sugar. Lactose: milk sugar. Sucrose: table sugar (beet or cane sugar). Maltose: malt sugar.

Glucose + Glucose <𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬 Maltose + Water

Glucose + Fructose <𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬> Sucrose + Water

Glucose + Galactose<𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬> Lactose + Water



Fibers: including cellulose are not considered as nutrients since we don’t have the enzyme that digest or hydrolyze them. They are good to prevent colon cancer and to prevent constipation by facilitating digestion. Advantage: Fibers are easily digested and do not require any enzyme to

hydrolyze them! In order to distinguish between polysaccharides we must look at:

1. The nature of monosaccharide units. 2. The type of linkage. 3. The length of the chain. 4. The degree of branching.

Hydrolysis of starch: i. By an acid:

Starch Dextrin Maltose Glucose. (Polysaccharide) (Polysaccharide) (Disaccharide) (Monosaccharide)

ii. By an enzyme: Starch ---Salivary amylase--- > Maltose -----Maltase ------ > Glucose.

(Polysaccharide) (Disaccharide) (Monosaccharide)

Diabetes mellitus: is a disease related to the decrease in the glucose metabolism cause by too little amount of insulin in the body. Recommendations to avoid diabetes mellitus:

1. Avoid meals rich in carbohydrates. 2. Practicing exercises. 3. Taking insulin by injection.



Chapter 2: Lipids 1. Definition: Lipids are organic substances that consist of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H)

and Oxygen (O) atoms. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents and they can be identified either by the formation of a translucent grease spot on a paper or by the Sudan III test (appearance of a red color). Their functional group is the carboxyl group (-COOH). The groups of lipids are: triglycerides (Fat and Oil); Waxes; Cholesterol; Phospholipids and steroids.

2. Role of lipids: (3) a. They are considered as the principal form of energy storage. b. Cholesterol enters in the synthesis of Vitamin D and Steroid hormones. c. Phospholipids and steroids enter in the constituents of Cell membrane.

3. Classification of lipids: (2)

a. Simple lipids: formed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen elements only. E.g.: Triglycerides.

b. Complex lipids: formed of Carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen elements and other elements like Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N). E.g.: Phospholipids.

4. Formation of lipids: Fatty acid + Alcohol Lipid + water (general case) C. Formation of triglyceride or Esterification reaction: Very important!! Word reaction: Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride + 3 molecules of Water. Chemical reaction:



Characteristics of this reaction:

a. Slow reaction.

b. Reversible (it occurs in both directions)

c. Athermic (it occurs at a constant temperature)

5. Fatty acids: are carboxylic acids that contain long unbranched hydrocarbon chain. Types of Fatty acids: (2)

a. Saturated lipids: contain only simple covalent bonds(C-C) in the carbon chain. They are in the form of solids at room temperature.

b. Unsaturated lipids: contain at least one double covalent bond (C=C) in the carbon chain. They are in the form of liquids at room temperature.

Note:

Monounsaturated fatty acid: has one double bond.

Polyunsaturated fatty acid: has more than one double bond.

Representation of fatty acids: (X:Y) Fatty acids are represented by two letters “X” and “Y”, where:

- “X” stands for the number of Carbon atoms in the chain. - “Y” stands for the number of double bonds between carbon atoms. P.S: If “Y”= 0 no double bonds in the chain Saturated fatty acid Solid. If “Y”> 0 presence of double bond in the chain Unsaturated fatty acid liquid. E.g.: (16:0): fatty acid that has 16 carbon atoms in the chain with no double bond, so it

is saturated, solid at room temperature. (18:1): fatty acid that has 18 carbon atoms in the chain with one double bond, so it

is unsaturated, liquid at room temperature.

Melting point (M.Pt.) of fatty acids: the melting point of fatty acids is used as an indicator of their state of matter.

- The melting point decreases with the increase of the degree of unsaturation (= when the number of double bonds in the chain increases.)

- The melting point increases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms.

Hydrogenation reaction of fatty acids: It is the transformation of an unsaturated fatty acid into a saturated one by the addition of 2 hydrogen atoms. Upon hydrogenation, the melting point ↗ while the degree of unsaturation ↘.

M. Pt ↘ when the degree of unsaturation ↗ M. Pt. ↗ when the num. of C- atoms ↗



Iodine value: represents the number of double bonds which is obtained by the

addition reaction of iodine to fatty acid.

As unsaturation of fats ↗ increases, the iodine value increases ↗



Chapter 3: Proteins.

1. Definition: proteins are polymers formed of many units of α-amino acids (monomers) connected to each other by a peptide bond (-CO – NH-). They consist mainly of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) and Nitrogen (N) elements. These organic compounds contain two functional groups: Carboxyl group (-COOH) and Amine group (-NH2)

2. Role of proteins: (7) a. Energetic role. b. Structural role (e.g.: Meat) c. Synthesis /Enzymatic activity. d. Regulatory activity (e.g.: Insulin) e. Transport activity (e.g.: Hemoglobin) f. Nutritive activity (e.g.: Albumin) g. Defense activity (e.g.: Antibodies)

3. Amino acid: an amino acid is an organic compound formed of C, H, O and N

elements. It has 2 functional groups (amino group and carboxyl group). P.S: An α-amino acid is an amino acid where the carboxyl group and the amino group are connected to the same carbon atom. It has the following general formula:

Types of α-amino acid: (20)

Essential amino acids (9): should be taken from food.

Non-essential amino acids (11): can be synthesized by the body.

Role of α- amino acids: a. Synthesis of proteins. b. Their oxidation gives energy.

4. Classification of proteins: (2)

Proteins are classified into 2 classes: a. Simple proteins: are formed only of α-amino acids. b. Complex or conjugated proteins: are formed of α-amino acid + additive group.



E.g.: Glycoproteins (a.a + carbohydrate) as immunoglobin/ Lipoproteins (a.a + lipid) as plasma / Phosphoproteins (a.a + phosphate group) as casein.

5. Formation of a protein or “condensation reaction”: A condensation reaction occurs when 2 or more amino acids combine together by a specific linkage or bond called: “peptide bond” with the release of one or more water molecules in order to form a longer chain molecule. P.S: the backward reaction is called “hydrolysis” that occurs by the addition of a water molecule.

Note:

By combining 2 a.a together we will obtain a dipeptide (Only one peptide bond and a release of one water molecule)

By combining 3 a.a together we will obtain a tripeptide (2 peptide bonds and a release of 2 water molecules)

By combining many a.a together we will obtain a polypeptide.

By combining more than 100 a.a together we will obtain a protein.

Question: How many peptide bonds can you detect in this chain?



6. Structures of proteins (4)

Structures Figures Characteristics

Primary (I)

Amino acids are connected in linear shape.

Secondary (II)

Amino acids are connected in helical shape.

Tertiary (III)

Amino acids are connected in helical shape but twisted together.

Quaternary (IV)

A mixture of all previous

structures.



7. Protein denaturation: it is the partial or complete disorganization of the structure of protein caused either by chemical or physical agents. It is irreversible and doesn’t affect the primary structure.

Physical agents Chemical agents

Heat

High pressure

Radioactive rays

Ultrasonic vibrations

Acids

Bases

Ethanol

Detergents

The bonds that are broken in proteins during denaturation are called hydrogen bonds.

The bonds that are formed between denaturized proteins during coagulation are called disulfide bonds.

8. Biological value of proteins “B.V”: Note: B.V (animal proteins) > B.V (plant protein)

9. Factors that affect the quality of nutritional value of proteins: (2) a. Content of essential α-amino-acids. b. Rate of its digestion.

B.V= 𝐑𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐢𝐧

𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐛𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐢𝐧 X 100





Chapter 4: Vitamins and Minerals.

Minerals Vitamins

Definition Minerals are inorganic chemical elements other than Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. They are present in food mostly in the form of inorganic salts (e.g.: Sodium Chloride.)

Vitamins are organic compounds that can’t be synthesized by the human body but taken from food.

Role They are needed for the proper functioning of the human body.

They are needed in small quantities for the proper functioning of the human body.

Classes Macro Minerals

(6)

Trace Minerals

(4)

Hydrosoluble vitamins (9)

Liposoluble vitamins(4)

Ca – Mg – P – Na - K – Cl

Fe – Cu - Zn – I Vitamins soluble in

water

1 vitamin C

8 Vitamins B They are found

in fruits & vegetables.

They are rapidly eliminated outside the body so an excess quantity of them will not lead to toxicity.

Vitamins soluble in lipids

Vitamin A

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Vitamin K They are

found in fats & liver.

They are

stored in fat tissues so an excess quantity of them will lead to toxicity

Daily needs

>100 mg/day <20 mg/day

In general vitamins and minerals are needed for the growth, structure or proper functioning of the body.

Role of minerals and vitamins:

In general, vitamins and minerals are needed for growth, structure and proper functioning of the human body.



Mineral Role Mineral Role

Ca Formation of bones and teeth.

Liposoluble vitamins

A (Retinol)

Important for bone growth and vision.

P Important for bone structure and energy transfer.

D (Calciferol)

Promotes Ca and P absorption and their fixation on bones.

K and Na Responsible for nerve transmission.

E (Tocopherol)

Protects other vitamins from oxidation.

Cl Responsible for food digestion (HCl)

K (Naphthoquinone)

Contributes to blood clotting and hemorrhage.

Mg Muscle contraction.

Hydrosoluble vitamin

C (Ascorbic acid)

- Protects other vitamins from oxidation.

- Promotes absorption of iron.

Cu and Fe

Formation of hemoglobin.

B1

(Thiamine) For the nervous system

Zn Formation of insulin.

B2

(Riboflavin) Supports mucous membrane

I Regulation of energy rate.

B3

(Niacin) For growth

B9

(Folic acid) Treats anemia

B12

(Cobalamine) Important for blood cells and nervous cells.



Chapter 5: Nutritional requirements

Consumed food will be used by the human body to synthesis energy (by the oxidation reaction) and to form new cells (by the assimilation reaction). 1. Nutritional requirements: Nutritional requirements are classified into: - Energy requirement. - Growth requirement.

Energy requirement Growth requirement

It is provided by the energy released from the oxidation reaction of lipids, carbohydrates and partly proteins. This energy will be used by our body for: - Mechanical action. - Metabolic reactions. - Regulation of our body temperature

It is provided mainly by the assimilation reaction of amino acids in order to produce new cells/proteins/hormones/enzymes …

2. Biochemical reactions: We can distinguish between two biochemical reactions: - Anabolic reaction/ Anabolism (= formation – needs energy). - Catabolic reaction/Catabolism (= destruction – releases energy). The sum of these two biochemical reaction will lead to the catabolic reaction /Catabolism.

Anabolic reaction (Form) Catabolic reaction (Cut ✂) Metabolism

It is a reaction during which small molecule are joined together to form large molecules with the absorption of energy.

A + B --energy-> AB E.g.: Formation of sucrose. Synthesis of proteins …

It is a reaction during which large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules with the release of energy.

AB ----> A + B + energy

E.g.: Hydrolysis/Oxidation/Digestion reactions.

The summation of anabolic and catabolic reaction pathways that occurs simultaneously in the body.

3. Pathways of energy production:

Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

https://emojipedia.org/black-scissors/



4. During starvation, there is storage nutrients that release energy : Glycogen:

Glycogen ----digestion ----> Glucose ----- cellular oxidation -----> CO2 + H2O + Energy.

Fats (triglycerides): Fat ---- digestion ---->Fatty acid + glycerin ---- cellular oxidation ---->CO2 + H2O + Energy.

5. Calculation of energy values (E.V):

Case 1: if direct masses are given for each nutrient.

Case 2: if the percentage by mass (%m) is given for each nutrient.

E.V = E protein + E Lipid + E carbohydrate = (m protein x 17) + (m lipid x 38) + (mcarb x 17) = ………. KJ Or = (m protein x 4) + (m lipid x 9) + (mcarb x 4) = ………… Kcal

Mass of nutrient = (%m/100) x total mass of the diet

(It should be calculated for each carbohydrate, protein and lipid then to be substituted below) E.V = E protein + E Lipid + E carbohydrate = (m protein x 17) + (m lipid x 38) + (mcarb x 17) = ………. KJ Or = (m protein x 4) + (m lipid x 9) + (mcarb x 4) = ………… Kcal

Digestion of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates ---digestion---> monosaccharide ---cellular oxidation---> CO2 + H2O + Energy (4 Kcal /17 KJ)

Digestion of Proteins: Proteins ---digestion---> amino acids ------Cellular oxidation ------> CO2 + H2O + Energy

(4 Kcal / 17 KJ) Protein synthesis

Digestion of Lipids:

Lipids ----digestion ----> Fatty acid + glycerol ----cellular oxidation ----> CO2 + H2O + Energy (9 Kcal / 38 KJ)

P.S: Kcal --------- x 4.18 ------> KJ Kcal <------- ÷ 4.18 -------- KJ



Chapter 6: The principal foods. 1. The principal food:

Food Essential nutrients

1. Cereals Carbohydrates and proteins (gluten)

2. Milk and dairy products

Proteins (casein) – Carbohydrates (lactose) – Minerals (calcium) and lipids.

3. Meat Proteins – Lipids – Some minerals and Vitamins.

4. Eggs Protein (albumin) – Lipids – Some minerals and vitamins.

5. Fatty substances Lipids (oil and fat)

6. Vegetables Vitamins – Minerals – Fibers and proteins (e.g.: wheat – leguminous plants – potatoes).

7. Fruits Vitamins – Minerals – Fibers and sugars

8. Microorganisms (Fungi- Bacteria – Yeast)

Proteins

2. Lactose intolerance: It is a problem in the digestion or absorption of “Lactose”, faced more by newborns due to a lack of a specific enzyme “lactase” that transforms this double sugar into two monosaccharides (glucose and galactose).

Causes Solutions

- Genetic defect. - Physiological decline with age. - Injuries in the intestine.

- Adding lactase to milk powder. (For new borns)

- Taking lactase tablet. (For elder persons).

3. Rancidity of lipids: It is the oxidation of unsaturated fatty substances under the effect of excessive heating where they are broken down into small toxic molecules. 4. Food additives: They are substances added to food to preserve it against microorganisms along time or to make it more attractive.

Food additives Role

1. Preservatives To reduce the growth of microorganisms. (E.g.: ascorbic acid)

2. Antioxidants To prevent the oxidation of lipids. (E.g.: Vit E, C, BHA, BHT)

3. Sweeteners They could be natural (aspartame) or synthetic (saccharin, cyclamates) used to give a sweet taste.

4. Colorants They could be natural (caramel) or synthetic (tartrazine) used to provide food with colors.

5. Emulsifiers and Stabilizers To stabilize food emulsion

6. Thickeners To reinforce food texture

7. Miscellaneous food additives

Flavors ; substances used to control the PH.



Chapter 7: Food Diet.

1. Energy requirements of humans:

Basal metabolism Physical activity

It is determined by all the processes that keep our body alive and maintain our body temperature. E.g.: Heartbeats – lungs functioning – biochemical reactions …. These processes might vary with: Age – body size – activity of the thyroid gland …

This energy depends on the type of activity and the physical effort. E.g.: Running – Walking – Sitting …

2. A balanced diet:

A balanced diet is characterized by the consumption of daily food requirements that contain variable quantities and reasonable qualities of the six principle groups of food: meat, fish, poultry and eggs – Milk and dairy products – Fatty substances – Cereals and leguminous grains – Fruits and vegetables – Beverages.

3. Food groups and their nutritional requirements:

Food group Nutritional requirements

Nutrients for growth &

maintenance

Suppliers of energy

Regulatory nutrients

1 Fruits and vegetables Mineral (Ca) Poor in calories

Minerals & Vit

2 Meat, fish, eggs & poultry Protein, Fe & P Lipids Vitamins

3 Milk and dairy products. Proteins & Ca Lipids & carbs

Vitamins

4 Fatty substances None Lipids Liposoluble Vit

5 Cereals & leguminous grains. Proteins Carbs Some minerals

6 Beverages Compensate the loss of water.



4. The effect of cooking on nutritive value of food:

Food Positive effect of cooking

Negative effect of cooking

Proteins Heating upon cooking facilitates their digestion.

Cooking in water will lead to the dissolution of amino acids

Lipids – - Excessive cooking of lipids leads to their rancidity forming toxic compounds.

- Diet rich in fats leads to obesity and coronary heart diseases.

Carbohydrates Cooking starch in water facilitates their digestibility.

Diet rich in carbohydrates causes diabetes mellitus and tooth decay.

Vitamins and minerals

Diet rich in fibers prevent cardiovascular diseases and facilitates digestion.

Cooking vitamins and minerals will lead to a great loss of minerals and water soluble vitamins.

5. Recommendations for a healthy diet: - Increase the intake of fibers and water. - Decrease the intake of lipids and carbohydrates. 6. Why alcohol is a food and a drug at the same time? - Food: since it produces energy. - Drug: since it modifies varies functions in the body.



Unit II: Current medicinal drugs.

A. Introduction

1. Definition: Medicinal drugs are used to treat a disease and to relief pain. 2. Sources:

a) Fermentation or from microbiological culture like antibiotics (e.g. Penicillin).

b) Synthesized like Aspirin and tranquilizers.

c) Extracted from plant and animal sources:

- Plant source e.g. Opium

- Animal sources: Hormones or insulin.

3. Classification of drugs: Drugs are classified either according to their pharmaceutical activity or according to their chemical structures. 4. Drug formulations: Tablets – Capsules – Liquids – Sprays – Ointments and Suppositories. 5. Composition of a drug: A medicinal drug is composed of an active ingredient and inert ingredients. - An active ingredient: that acts on the body, it plays the therapeutic role (e.g. to

treat fight fever, bacteria, pain …) - Inert ingredient: that are drug additives.

6. Difference between “Capsules” and “Tablets”

Tablets Capsules

Tablets are made of active ingredient and inert ingredient (additives) that

are mixed and compressed.

Capsules are made of active ingredient of a drug and a gelatinous container.

Capsules are deprived of inert ingredients (additives).

7. Additives found in tablets are: Binders – Lubricants – Disintegrators – Coating and

fillers. a) Binders: such as starch paste that provide adhesiveness of tablets. b) Lubricants: that prevent the sticking of ingredients to the machinery upon

compressing. c) Disintegrators: such as a dry starch that speeds the breakdown of tablets and helps

in absorption.



d) Coating: that solves the problem of taste and protects ingredients from air and controls the rate of release of drug.

e) Fillers: such as sucrose, lactose … that are used to increase the size of the tablets.

8. Advantages and disadvantages of capsules:

Advantages Disadvantages

Capsules solve the problem of taste, disintegration and solubility.

Capsules are more expensive than tablets.

9. Naming of a medical drug: In naming drugs we distinguish between the generic name and the trade name.

Generic name Trade name

The generic name is the name of active ingredients (active substances) which

form the medicine

The trade name is the brand or commercial name of a drug

10. The prospectus of a drug should contains: a) The name of the drug. b) The therapeutic active substances. c) Excipients (additives). d) Form of the drug. e) Amount. f) Therapeutic action. g) Negative side effects. h) Methods of administration. i) Maximum dose. j) Precautions. k) Mode of conservation. l) Expiration date.

B. Classification of drugs. We could classify drugs according to their pharmaceutical activity and the kind of treatment in which they are involved into 7 classes: 1. Analgesics. 2. Anesthetics. 3. Anti-acids. 4. Antibiotics. 5. Anti-inflammatory. 6. Tranquilizers. 7. Antidepressants.



C. Characteristics of currently used drugs.

1. Analgesics: Analgesics are substances that reduce or eliminate pain. They are divided into three groups: Narcotics – Antipyretics – Anti-rheumatics. a) Narcotics: they act on the brain in order to reduce or eliminate severe pain. E.g.

Morphine, Codeine. b) Antipyretics: they reduce or eliminate lower fever. E.g. Aspirin, Paracetamol. c) Anti-rheumatics: they reduce or eliminate inflammation of the muscles and the

joints. E.g. Aspirin. Difference between Aspirin and Panadol:

Generic name Trade name Action

Aspirin Aspirin, Aspicot … Analgesic, Antipyretic, Anti-rheumatic and anti-

inflammatory.

Paracetamol or Acetaminophen

Panadol Tylenol

Analgesic, antipyretic.

Advantages /Disadvantages and Precautions of “Aspirin”

Advantages Disadvantages Precautions

- It has the effect of reducing blood clotting. This reduces the risk of heart attacks and formation of clots.

- Local irritation. - Provokes weak

bleeding (stomach bleeding).

- It increases the hemorrhage during wounds in surgical operations, and stops the formation of blood platelets.

- Aspirin is not given for a person suffering

from ulcer. - Aspirin must be taken

with a cup of water or it must be taken with

some anti-acids.

2. Anesthetics: Anesthetics produce anesthesia which is a state of being unable to feel pain, heat and cold … They are classified into local anesthetics and general anesthetics.

Local Anesthetics General Anesthetics

- They are used on localized regions of the body.

- They act on the nerve cells and block their ability to transmit impulses.

- They are administrated by

- They are used to inhibit the whole body regions.

- They act on the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and produce a loss of sensation and consciousness.

- They are classified according to the way



injection close to the target region or applied topically to the surface.

- It is used in minor surgery. - E.g. Cocaine, ethyl chloride

(Spray).

of administration into: Inhaled Anesthetics and Intravenous Anesthetics.

Inhaled Anesthetics

Intravenous Anesthetics

Act within few minutes in inhalation. E.g.: Diethyl ether, nitrous oxide.

They are administrated by injection alone or in conjugation with inhaled anesthetic agents. E.g.: Pentobarbital.

Side effects: - Toxicity in organs and tissues. - Tremor. - Restlessness. - Respiratory failure. - Drowsiness.

Side effects: - Are related to taken dose. - Depressed cardiovascular function. - Nausea. - Overdose leads to coma. - Depression of respiration. - Vomiting.

3. Anti- acids: They are used to treat excessive gastric acid HCl. Active ingredients of anti-acids are mild bases that counter act the excessive acidity in the stomach. Effervescent anti-acids contain sodium bicarbonate and citric acid in which their reactions evolve CO2 gas. Brand name of some anti-acids: Maalox formed of Magnesium hydroxide + Aluminum hydroxide. Rennie formed of Calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.



4. Anti- inflammatory drugs: An anti-inflammatory drug is a substance that reduces or eliminates inflammation. (Inflammation is a reaction of tissues to injuries. It affects the connective tissues and constitutes a reaction of defense of the organism against external aggressions, which may result from foreign bodies, chemicals, electricity, heat, cold and microorganisms.) They are classified into two: Steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. - Steroidal anti-inflammatory agent: e.g. Cortisone. - Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent: e.g. Aspirin, Ibuprofen and Diclofenac.

General name Trade name Side effects

Aspirin Aspirin Stomach distress and nausea

Ibuprofen Advil Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Diclofenac Voltarene Anemia, digestive hemorrhage.

Side effects of steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Anti-inflammatory drugs Steroidal (Cortisone) Non-steroidal

Side effects - Fluid retention. - Unwanted hair. - Moon face

appearance. - Hypertension. - Decrease in the size of

muscles.

Increase in respiratory rate

5. Antibiotics Antibiotics produced by micro-organisms or by chemical synthesis to kill or inhibit the growth of other micro-organisms. Antibiotics may cause the death of beneficial bacteria* (Flores of the intestine) causing diarrhea. Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called bactericidal Antibiotics that kill fungi are called fungicidal Commonly used antibiotics are: Penicillin G : benzyl penicillin Sulfa drugs as: Adiazin and tetracycline. An overdose of Penicillin G may cause dysfunction of the brain, dizziness, hallucination, intense contraction of heart muscles, troubles in perception. Classification of antibiotics: Antibiotics are classified into two classes: the “Broad spectrum antibiotics” and the “Narrow spectrum antibiotics.” Antibiotics are not candies!!!!!!!!!



Broad spectrum antibiotics Narrow spectrum antibiotics

- Effective against a wide variety of bacteria.

- Usually prescribed when the invading micro-organism is unknown (when the person is attacked by more than one type of bacteria).

- They are more harmful to beneficial bacteria*(Flores of the intestine)

- Effective against a specific micro-organism.

- Usually prescribed when the invaded bacteria is identified.

- They are beneficial to bacteria

resisted to antibiotics.

Cases where bacteria can resist to antibiotics (bacteria resistant to antibiotics): a) This resistant can be natural or acquired (= resulting from a genetic modification). b) When bacteria cannot be anymore overcome by antibiotics it is said to be

resistant. c) Some bacteria can produce enzymes that deactivates the antibiotic, other cases

may result when the bacteria changes the structure of their active sites, thus protecting themselves (the antibiotics will not be able to kill them).

Cases when we use a “combination of antibiotics”: a) In case of unknown bacteria. b) In case of mixed infection. c) To obtain a more intensive effect. d) To prevent emergence of resistant antibiotic. e) To lower the dose of one antibiotic. P.s: it is a poor strategy since the two antibiotics may be antagonistic toward one another. 6. Tranquilizers: Tranquilizers are substances used to sedate without inducing sleep. They are used to relieve anxiety, excitement and restlessness.

Generic name Trade name Overdose effect

Diazepam Valium State of intoxication, drowsiness, coma, failure

in respiration.

Chlorodiazepoxide Librium Muscle rigidity, death.



7. Antidepressants: Antidepressants are drugs used for treating depression. Typical symptoms of depressants include continuous sadness, loss of interest and pleasure in activities, crying spells, feeling guilty, worthless and hopeless. Side effects: Overdose of antidepressants causes death, respiratory paralysis, coma and unconsciousness.

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ES · 2019-05-13 · Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019 Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil Page 5 Fibers: including cellulose