ESC1000 •Earth Science • Summer 2016esc1000summer.weebly.com/uploads/7/4/4/5/74459525/... · The Role of Water in the Atmosphere The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere Water

ESC1000 • Earth Science • Summer 2016

1

The Atmosphere

(Chapter 14)

Weather Systems

(Chapter 15)

Earth’s Climate System

(Chapter 16)

Global Change

(Chapter 17)

K-O-E System

2

Kissimmee

Okeechobee

Everglades

What did you

learn?

“Bitter Sweets” article

What happens when

- wetlands provide certain functions,

- land use is changed from wetlands to farmland,

- agriculture adds nutrients,

and

- water flow is changed?

3

I will scan and post this article on the course website.

Short parts of it will be on the exam.

4

Animations and videos related to

the atmosphere and hurricanes

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimatio

ns/noqzs/042_GlobalWindsHC_HS_GG_Ins.html

Global Atmospheric Circulation animation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qh011eAYjAA

Global Air Circulation (clouds and water vapor = white; precipitation = orange):

http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ph/streaming/esm/atmospheric_science/wim/

wim_video.htm?wim=2005HurricaneSeason

2005 Hurricane Season:

http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/101-videos/hurricanes-101

Hurricanes 101:

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/

noqzs/044_Hurricanes_HS_GG_Ins.html

Hurricane Wind Patterns:

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/noqzs/042_GlobalWindsHC_HS_GG_Ins.html


http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ph/streaming/esm/atmospheric_science/wim/wim_video.htm?wim=2005HurricaneSeason


https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/noqzs/044_Hurricanes_HS_GG_Ins.html

Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Air Evolves

3. Structure and Processes of the

Atmosphere

4. Solar Radiation and the

Atmosphere

5. The Role of Water in the

Atmosphere

6. Air Pressure, Condensation, and

Precipitation7. Clouds and Frontal Systems

8. Winds

1. Science and Skydiving

5

Air Evolves

• Our atmosphere = the air

(specific mix of gases)

around us

• Protects Earth from harmful

solar radiation, and

incoming projectiles.

• Lower bound – touches

surface of Earth

• Upper bound – gradual

transition into space

• Observed from space the

atmosphere is a thin shell

around EarthThe Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

6

Air Evolves

• What is the

atmosphere made

of?

− Mostly Nitrogen and

Oxygen

− CO2 is a small

component but plays

a large role in the

greenhouse effect

− Water vapor in the

air can range from

0% over deserts to

7% in humid climates

The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere

Where did

the nitrogen

come from?

7

Where did nitrogen come from?

http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/01/where-did-earths-nitrogen-come-from/8

http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/01/where-did-earths-nitrogen-come-from/

Air Evolves

• Having an atmosphere is not unique to Earth, but our

atmosphere’s composition is unique.

− Venus and Earth began with very similar atmospheres rich in

carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen.

− The atmospheres originated from gases expelled from extensive

volcanism and collision with comets/meteorites.

− Venus being closer to sun had abundant water vapor. This vapor

was split into hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen was lost to

space. Remaining oxygen bonded with carbon abundant CO2.

− CO2 blanket around Venus insulates planet867°F on the surface!


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGYJ2b6mVuk

How did Earth’s atmosphere evolve over time?

9

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGYJ2b6mVuk

Biological processes influence

atmospheric composition.

10

Photosynthesis by

plants, microalgae,

and some bacteria:

CO2 is removed

from the

atmosphere

What is one

process that adds

CO2 to the

atmosphere?

Burning

of fossil

fuels

What are your observations about the composition of air in

the atmosphere?

(Think about temperature, oxygen, etc…)

Composition of the Atmosphere & Density

If oxygen is scarce at high elevations,

what does this mean about the

density of this air?

11

Atmospheric Density and Pressure

Due to compressibility, atmospheric mass gradually “thins out” with height.

less overlying weight

more overlying weight

12

density = mass / volume

Layers of the Atmosphere

Most humans stay in the

lowest layer only.

This layer, the troposphere,

contains most of the

atmosphere’s mass. (why?)

Density is so low in the

thermosphere that there can

be several kilometers in

between individual gas

molecules!

13

Where does space “begin”?

62 miles above Earth’s surface

Temperature is lower at higher

latitudes:

1) Bigger area

2) More atmosphere

3) Reflection is higher (albedo)

14

What drives Earth’s temperatures?

The Role of Water in the Atmosphere


Water is the only substance that exists in

all three states on Earth’s surface.

This is critical for life on Earth.

Hydrologic cycle:

• The atmosphere contains a small portion of the Earth’s water.

• The volume of water falling as precipitation annually is 30 times greater

than the volume of water stored in atmosphere at any given time.

• Water is constantly cycled through the atmosphere. 15

Important Properties of Water: Class Summary

16

The Role of Water in the Atmosphere


Water molecules are dipolar = opposite charges on each end of the

molecule (net partial negative charge on oxygen atom and net partial

positive charge on one hydrogen atom).

- Water can dissolve almost anything.

- Therefore, it transports nutrients,

oxygen, wastes – in our bodies and in

the environment.

- Solid water (ice) is LESS dense than

liquid water. How does this help

support life on Earth?

17

Water has a high heat capacity.


Evaporation and

condensation are

extremely

important.

They occur over

large areas.

They contribute to

weather

phenomena and

redistribution of

heat in the

atmosphere.

18

Atmospheric Heat Transport

Water moves heat between latitudes.19

Aquarius Satellite View of Global

Salinity, Aug.–Sept. 2011

20

Atmospheric circulation patterns influence

salinity patterns.

The Good Earth/Chapter 16: Earth's Climate System

Global Air Circulation

Warm humid air expands and rises

at the equator, forming a low-

pressure system and nearly

continuous band of clouds.

The Coriolis effect deflects winds

to the right in the Northern

Hemisphere and to the left in the

Southern Hemisphere.

21

Global Air Circulation


Trade winds – prevailing surface

winds deflected north and south at

these areas of descending air.

Hadley Cell – continuous convection

cell formed by columns of rising air

and descending air connecter by north

and south moving winds.

Westerlies – also very strong winds,

important to global air AND ocean

circulation.

22

Chapter 15: Weather Systems


1. The Weather Around Us

2. The Science of Weather: From

Folklore to Forecasting

3. Air Masses

4. Midlatitude Cyclones and Frontal

Systems

5. Severe Weather: Thunderstorms

and Tornadoes

6. Severe Weather: Hurricanes

23

24

Animations and videos shown in class

(check D2L later for links, too):

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimatio

ns/noqzs/042_GlobalWindsHC_HS_GG_Ins.html

Global Atmospheric Circulation animation:


Global Air Circulation (clouds and water vapor = white; precipitation = orange):

http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ph/streaming/esm/atmospheric_science/wim/

wim_video.htm?wim=2005HurricaneSeason

2005 Hurricane Season:


Hurricanes 101:

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/

noqzs/044_Hurricanes_HS_GG_Ins.html

Hurricane Wind Patterns:

https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/noqzs/042_GlobalWindsHC_HS_GG_Ins.html


http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ph/streaming/esm/atmospheric_science/wim/wim_video.htm?wim=2005HurricaneSeason


https://media.pearsoncmg.com/bc/bc_0media_geo/interactiveanimations/noqzs/044_Hurricanes_HS_GG_Ins.html

The Weather Around Us

The Good Earth/Chapter 15: Weather Systems

Would you want to be riding in

one of these vehicles?

On average, 2-3 U.S. weather

disasters per year cause more

than a billion dollars in damage

and threaten numerous lives.

In 2011-2012, the U.S. was

battered by 25 billion-dollar

weather disasters, including

Hurricane Sandy ($50 billion in

damage).

More people are increasingly

migrating to Florida, Georgia, North

Carolina, and Texas, states that are

among the most disaster-prone in

the nation.

25

The Weather Around Us• Can extreme heat, tornadoes, hurricanes, and other weather phenomena

be stopped?

− No, but meteorologists work to provide timely warnings.

− Hurricane Katrina – most expensive disaster in U.S. history.

− Over $100 billion in damage.


Hurricane

Katrina

approaches the

Louisiana coast,

August 28, 2005.

26

Severe Weather: Hurricanes


Who should address the issue?

Scientists – best equipped to determine the probability and destruction

of a hurricane, but no funds or resources to do much about it.

Government – have power and funds for levees or evacuation plans, but

don’t always understand the seriousness of the threat.

“We learn from history that we learn nothing from history.”

George Bernard Shaw

New Orleans before and after Katrina.

Blue

areas =

flooded

areas

27

Hurricanes/Typhoons/Cycloneshurakan: creator god who blew breath across the chaotic water

and destroyed people with a great storm and flood (Mayans)

hurucan: god of evil (Taino language, Central America)

hurican: god of evil (Carib Indians)

taifung: big wind (Chinese)

kyklon: moving in a circle, like the coil of a snake (Greek)

Hurricanes

28

Hurricanes around the Globe

The western North Pacific has the highest frequency of

tropical cyclones with an average of 16.5 per year.

“Cyclones”

“Typhoons”

“Hurricanes”

In Southern hemisphere,

winds spin opposite.

In the Northern

Hemisphere,

hurricanes

(tropical cyclones)

turn

counterclockwise,

as winds become

deflected to the

right.

30

The Coriolis

Effect is important

for the

development of

hurricanes.

Anatomy of a hurricane

31

Saffir-Simpson Scale of

Hurricane Intensity

32



How would you use these data if you worked for an insurance

company? How about a construction company?

33

Historical Storm Tracks

34


The Good Earth/Chapter 15: Weather Systems2005 Hurricane Season

35



Hurricanes begin to grow when warm, humid air is forced

aloft.

The rising air cools and condenses to form cumulus clouds

that will develop into cumulonimbus cells.

Earth’s rotation imparts a counterclockwise rotation to the

storm in the Northern Hemisphere. This rotation is zero at the

equator, therefore the majority of hurricanes originate between

10° and 20° N or S of the equator.

36



1-2 weeks prior to landfall – Tropical depression develops (winds 23-

39 mph). After about 5 days this develops into a tropical storm

(winds 39-74 mph). Finally, a hurricane develops (winds at least 119

mph).

Air pressure is lowest in the eye, where warm air is

rising.

The lower the pressure inside the hurricane, the faster the

winds.

Hurricanes will continue to grow in size and intensity

as long as underlying water temperature remains

above 80°F.

Precipitation concentrates within 124 miles on either side

of eye, releasing up to 20 billion tons of water per day.37



38



3-7 days before landfall – Atlantic hurricanes are

driven west by prevailing winds at 6-16 mph.

Florida and Texas experience more landfalls than

any other state.

Hurricane may turn parallel to the east coast or pass

south of Florida to strike the Gulf Coast or Caribbean

islands.

2-3 days before landfall – The likely landfall site is

identified.

Evacuations should be in full gear by now.

1-2 days before landfall – Size and slow motion of

hurricanes means their impact is drawn out over

several days.

Effects can reach coast before worst affects from the

eye.

Measurements are made off coast by buoys to gather

info about eye

Waves over 100 feet high during Katrina

Predicted landfall

site of Katrina.

It hit within 19

miles of the

predicted site.

39



Winds in the NE

quadrant blow

onshore, piling up

water in a storm

surge.

Surges cause ~90%

of the damage in

coastal areas.

Can potentially

reach inland areas

up to 6-12 miles

from shore.

Katrina – water

reached heights of

30 feet above sea

level in NE quadrant

of storm.

Winds in NW quadrant blow offshore. In the

case of Katrina, winds in NW quadrant pushed

water from Lake Pontchartrain (located NW of

the city) over levees into the city.

40

Hurricanes: How do you prepare?

41http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/National Hurricane Center:

http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/

Chapter 16: Earth’s Climate System


1. Want Ice with That?

2. Global Air Circulation

3. Global Climate Regions

5. Records of Climate Change

4. Extreme Climate Environments

6. Natural Causes of Climate Change

42

Want Ice with That?


Climate = A description of the weather conditions for a region

averaged over several decades.

The climate of every region on Earth has changed often.

Shrinking glaciers are just

one line of evidence of

increasing global

temperatures.

a. Riggs glacier, Glacier

Bay National Park, Alaska

in 1941.

b. Riggs glacier in 2004.

43

Decrease in sea ice, increase in ocean volume.

• Widespread and steady decline in

Arctic sea ice over last few

decades.

• Puts cold water into Arctic ocean –

could disrupt the oceanic conveyor

belt.

• Worst case scenario:

- Higher temps reduce annual volume

of sea ice exposing more open

water in Arctic ocean

- Water has lower albedo which

absorbs more heat from sun

- Sea ice forms later in the fall and is

thinner and not as widespread;

melts earlier in spring The Good Earth/Chapter 16: Earth's Climate System

44

Global Climate Regions


45



Ecosystems = communities of organisms that inhabit

specific physical environments.

Biome = a regional community of plants and animals named

after the dominant type of vegetation.

46



Biogeochemical CyclesPlants are

producers

Animals are

consumers

Food chain –

transfers

energy

between

organisms

within an

ecosystem

N, C, O, H, P,

S make up

95% of the

materials in

plants and

animals

Biomass = amount of organic material in

an ecosystem. Plants account for 99% of

all biomass on Earth.

47

Records of Climate Change: Often based on precipitation


Annual climate records can be found in tree rings, lake sediments, and ice

layers.

Each year includes

earlywood (light) and

latewood (dark) growth.

Wide rings occur during wet,

warm years and narrow

rings during cold, dry years.

Usually it is necessary to

match partial records from

multiple trees to get a climate

record.

Short-term climate change is

recorded in tree rings

(hundreds of years).48


The thickness of ice layers is related to temperature and directly tied

to precipitation.

Yearly layers can be observed, counted, and studied for climate

information.

Oxygen isotopes serve as a proxy for long-term climate change.

18O is heavier

than 16O. 16O is

much more

abundant in the

ocean than 18O.

Changes in the

ratio of these

isotopes

indicate

changes in

climate.


49


Lighter 16O isotopes evaporate with seawater and are returned to the ocean

through precipitation and runoff. When it is colder 16O is incorporated into

continental ice sheets which causes the oceans to become enriched with

heavier 18O that has not evaporated and precipitated onto ice sheets.


50

Records of Changing Climate


The oxygen isotope record

acts as a

paleothermometer for

ancient climates.

Oxygen isotope ratios of

ocean water are recorded

in the calcium carbonate

shells of microscopic

foraminifera.

The ratios in the shells can

tell us about temperature

and ice volume in the

oceans in the past.

Large drops in biodiversity

usually correspond with

sudden climate changes. 51

Natural Causes of Climate Change

The Good Earth/Chapter 16: Earth’s Climate System

Causes of long-term global climate

change must operate on a global scale

over very long time intervals.

Most likely causes:

• Changing locations of continents and oceans due to

plate tectonics

• Changes in the Earth’s orbit around the sun

• Variations in the composition of the atmosphere such

as concentrations of greenhouse gases

http://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-whats-warming-the-world/

52

http://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-whats-warming-the-world/

Chapter 17: Global Change


1. Alternative Climates, Alternative

Choices

2. Ozone and the Stratosphere

4. Greenhouse Gases and Global

Change

3. CFCs and Ozone Depletion

5. Modeling Global Climate Change

6. A Warmer World

7. What Can Be Done?

53

“Hockey Stick” Trend in Global Temperatures

The Good Earth/Chapter 17: Global Change

54

Alternative Climates, Alternative Choices


The big question – how likely is

it that global changes to

climate will happen?

Which generations will be

affected?

Exactly how much will global

temperatures rise?

Which areas will be most

affected?

Which areas least affected?

55

Greenhouse Gases and Global Change


Infrared radiation emitted from Earth’s surface is absorbed by water

vapor, CO2, and other trace gases in the troposphere, creating a

situation known as the greenhouse effect.

We like it because it keeps the average surface temperature of Earth

~59°F as opposed to 0°F.

Can have too much of a good thing – Venus has runaway

greenhouse effect with average surface temperature of 885°F.

Facts:

The 20th century was the warmest in the last millennium

1990s were the warmest decade

2010 was the warmest year in the last 1,000 years; the top 10

warmest years in the last 1,000 years have occurred since 1998!

There may be a debate about the severity of global warming, but one

trend is undeniable – The concentration of greenhouse gases in the

Earth’s atmosphere has steadily and measurably increased over the

past two centuries.

56



Nine of the ten hottest summers ever recorded occurred in the

past decade or so. 57



Variations in carbon dioxide concentrations.

What two trends do you notice?

How do you explain each one?58



Saw tooth pattern = annual (seasonal) fluctuations in CO2 due to plant

activity

Overall increasing trend = Build up of CO2 in atmosphere mainly due to

human activities 59



Overall, CO2 in the atmosphere remained constant at 280 ppm on a

global scale for several centuries prior to the industrial revolution.

Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 rapidly

increased in recent decades.

Most anthropogenic

emissions come from

consumption of fossil

fuels and

deforestation.

About half of what

we produce is taken

back into carbon

sinks in biosphere

and oceans – the

rest is left in

atmosphere.60



What is happening here?

61



Key points:

1.Greenhouse gases help warm the planet.

2.Global concentrations of greenhouse gases have

increased.

3.Average global temperatures have increased by

0.7°C (1.3°F) over the last 100 years.

4.Population growth will contribute to increased

concentrations of greenhouse gases in the future.

62

Global Carbon Cycle


63



Carbon is in constant flux between all of Earth’s components

Atmosphere – both a sink and a source of carbon

compounds and carbon based gases

Carbon enters atmosphere via:

respiration (animals exhaling CO2)

the burning of forests

the decay of dead organisms

burning of fossil fuels

natural volcanic activity

release of dissolved gases from the ocean

64



Atmosphere – both a sink and a source of carbon

compounds and carbon based gases

Carbon leaves atmosphere via:

photosynthesis (used by plants)

rock formation (limestone)

absorption by the ocean

other biological processes

Overall, more carbon enters than exits the

atmosphere by about 3.4 billion tons per

year!65



Hydrosphere – Oceans act as a carbon sink by absorbing more

gas than they release

Oceans retain an additional 2 billion tons of carbon per year

The amount of CO2 oceans can absorb increases with

decreasing temperature and increasing wind speed

Wave action helps by creating bubbles that transfer gas from

air to water

CO2 falls in streams as acid rain and enters the oceans via

runoff

Carbon is carried to deep ocean in cold sinking currents and

remain for more than 1,000 years (long term reservoir)

CO2 is released back to atmosphere as warm water rises,

like bubbles out of a warm can of soda 66



Biosphere – Interacts with all other parts of the earth system

through the carbon cycle

Plants extract CO2 from atmosphere by photosynthesis

Animals eat plants thereby consuming carbon

Carbon is returned to atmosphere when organisms die

Carbon can be held for millions of years if organic remains

are buried and converted to fossil fuel deposits (coal,

oil, natural gas)

Carbon is retained in some marine animals as part of their

shells, skeletons

Dead marine organisms sink, getting buried, locked in

sedimentary rocks, locking away their carbon

67



Geosphere – The largest sinks for carbon on the planet are

rocks and minerals of the solid earth

Most is present as an element of calcium carbonate

(limestone)

When limestone undergoes chemical weathering it releases

CO2 to the atmosphere

Chemical weathering is caused by acid rain, which takes CO2

out of the atmosphere

Some carbon is stored in fossil fuel deposits formed from

decayed organic material

68



Principle U.S. greenhouse

gases by source type.

Water vapor accounts for

most of the natural

greenhouse effect, but human

produced water vapor is not a

factor in global warming so it

is not represented here.

Principle U.S. greenhouse gases

by sector.

While energy is the largest

sector, multiple stakeholders

share nearly equal

responsibility for emissions,

and they all use energy.

69



Where are most greenhouse gases concentrated?

• Initially, they are concentrated where there is more human

activity. Four countries produce more than one-half of global

emissions: China, the US, India, and Russia.

• Atmospheric circulation patterns thoroughly mix the gases and

distribute them throughout the troposphere.

• Greenhouse gas concentrations are remarkably uniform

worldwide

70

Modeling Global Climate Change


Sunlight is scattered, absorbed, and/or reflected by Earth

More reflected = cooling More absorbed = warming

71



Scientists hypothesize that ~40% of global

temperature changes are due to forcings, and

feedbacks explain the rest.

Predicting climate change is hard due to

multiple, and sometimes competing, forcings and

feedbacks that occur simultaneously.

72



Scientists use sophisticated computer models that use

millions of calculations to try to simulate climate factors over

the entire earth system. Modern models seek to represent all

key factors:

•Incoming solar radiation

•Outgoing radiation

•Wind speed and direction

•Cloud types

•Precipitation types and amounts

•Changes in dimensions ice sheets

•Vegetation types

•Atmospheric gas concentrations

•Temperature stratification of the ocean

•Continental topography73

Resource use associated with rapid economic growth is predicted to have a

large impact on global warming.


74

A Warmer World


75

A Warmer World


Consequences

Drought

Extinction

Famine

Flooding

Disease

76

What Can Be Done?


We can attempt to adapt

77

What Can Be Done?


Some technological options that have been proposed:

- Alter Earth's energy balance by reflecting incoming solar

radiation using fleets of silver balloons or giant mirrors in the

atmosphere.

- Carbon sequestration, the trapping of carbon in natural or

artificial storage reservoirs.

- Adding tiny particles of iron to the oceans to spur growth of

plankton, who extract CO2 from the oceans.

- Problems?

- How do we get the mirrors up there? How do they stay up there?

- Assumes we can trap carbon produced by human activity.

- What if there is a catastrophic release of this trapped gas?

- Altering one part of the earth system to remedy human-induced

changes on another could prove tricky or not useful at all.78

The state of Florida is already impacted by climate change.

79

Steps are being taken to plan for future

impacts of climate change.

80

Unified Sea Level Rise Projection

81

For Monroe, Broward, and Palm Beach counties:

What will sea level rise mean for SE Florida?

Seven major

categories of

recommendations...

82

1 1. Sustainable Communities and Transportation Planning

Sustainable Communities:

Transportation Planning:

83

2. Water Supply, Management, and Infrastructure

84

3. Natural Systems

85

4. Agriculture

86

5. Energy and Fuel

87

6. Risk Reduction and Emergency Management

88

7. Outreach and Public Policy

Public Outreach:

Public Policy:

89

Documents

ESC1000 •Earth Science • Summer 2016esc1000summer.weebly.com/uploads/7/4/4/5/74459525/... · The Role of Water in the Atmosphere The Good Earth/Chapter 14: The Atmosphere Water