ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

ESSENCE OF INDIAN

TRADITIONAL

KNOWLEDGE

COURSE CODE: U18MH315

COURSE NAME: ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Basic Structure of Indian Knowledge System

By

K. Goutham RajuAsst. Professor

IT Dept.KITS WARANGAL

2

“Vidya dadati vinayam vinayad yati patratamPatratvad dhanamaapnoti dhanad dharmam

tatah sukham”

Education leads to sensibility, sensibility attains character/qualification,

from that comes wealth and from wealth (one does) good deeds,

from that (comes) joy-Hitopadesha, Text 6

Course Learning Objectives (Los):

This course will develop the student’s knowledge in/on:

LO1: basic structure of Indian knowledge system.

LO2: Indian perspective of modern science.

LO3: basic principles of yoga and holistic health care.

LO4: benefits of yoga practice.

EITK

Unit-II

Modern Science and Indian Knowledge System

• Introduction

• Vedas as Basis for Modern Science

• Architectural Developments

• Medicine and its relevance

• Mathematical Sciences in Vedas

• Space and Military related developments

• Chemical Sciences

EITK

Vedic relevance to Modern Science-

Introduction

Vedic Science and the Pursuit of Truth

• Real science consists of an objective pursuit of truth through

observation and experimentation.

• It is based upon reason and direct perception, in which the

reality is allowed to reveal itself to the unbiased eye.

• Besides any knowledge of the external world is the knowledge

of the internal world, the perennial quest for Self-knowledge

“Who am I” ?• This inner quest or inner science can be very different in

approach than the outer sciences.

• From an Indian perspective, we can call this inner science of

Self-knowledge, ‘yogic science’ has its goal as the objective

pursuit of truth.

• This yogic science aims not just at the knowledge of the world

but an understanding of Knower.

Science and Spirituality in IndiaIn India, science and spirituality have always gone together.

Spirituality through Yoga and Vedanta

has always been conceived of as a science,

----- a way of knowledge to be approached with reason and

experimentation through Yoga and meditation leading to the

direct perception of truth.

• Vedas constitute what could be called a science in the modern

sense of the world.

• Vedic science has a whole range of sciences from astronomy and

chemistry to psychology and surgery, extending to astrology and

to the science of Yoga itself.

• We can call this integral approach to both the spiritual and

material sciences as ‘Vedic science.’

Introduction to Indian Knowledge System

• Advancements in science and technology have been the major reason

for the development of human civilization.

• India has been contributing to the fields of science and technology

since ancient times.

• Even today, what we term as ‘traditional knowledge’ is actually based

on “scientific reasoning”.

• The history of scientific discoveries and development in India

dates back to the Vedic era.

• Aryabhatta, the famous mathematician of the Vedic era,

invented ‘zero’.

• It is believed that ancient Indian scholars had developed

geometric theorems before Pythagoras had made them popular.

• The concept of squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, fractions,

and the ability to express number 10 to the 12th power,

algebraic formulae, and astronomy have all had their origins in

Vedic literature.

• Harappan Civilization: Decimal system, Existence of

the Iron Pillar in Delhi

• Rig Veda: Concepts of Astronomy and Metaphysics.

• Indus Valley Civilization was the world’s first to

build planned towns with underground drainage, civil

sanitation, hydraulic engineering and air-cooling

architecture.

• Water Management - Indians had been developing

water management techniques even before the Harappan

time. Wells, ponds, lakes, dams and canals have been

constructed with advanced technologies throughout the

historic timeline of Indian civilization.

Introduction to Indian Knowledge System

Harappan Architechture

• Iron and Steel: Ancient

India was pioneer in

developing the technology

of producing rust-free iron.

This metal from India was

famous in contemporary

Europe for sword making.

• The famous Iron Pillar of

Delhi is a testimony to that

technology which is almost

rust free even today.

• Farming Techniques and Fertilizers Soil testing

techniques, crop rotation methods, irrigation

plans, application of eco friendly pesticides and

fertilizers, storage methods for crops, etc.

• Physics The concept of atom can be traced to the

Vedic times. The material world was divided into

five elements, namely, earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air

(Vayu), water (Jal) and ether or space (Akasha).

Paramanu (beyond atom) was considered to be the

smallest particle, which cannot be divided further.

Nuclear energy is produced today splitting the

same.

• Medicine and Surgery Charaka and Susruta havemade invaluable contribution to Ayurveda .

• Post-Independence developments India haswitnessed considerable growth in the field ofscience and technology post Independence.

Indian scientists are making path-breakingresearch in the fields of agriculture, medicine,biotechnology, colder region research,communications, environment, industry, mining,nuclear power, space and transportation. Now,India has the expertise in the fields of astronomyand astrophysics, liquid crystals, condensedmatter physics, molecular biology, virology, andcrystallography, software technology, nuclearpower and defense research and development.

INDIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE

PRE-INDEPENDENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

• Water Management

• Iron and Steel

• Farming Technique and Fertilizers

• Physics

• Medicine and Surgery

• Shipping and Shipbuilding

POST-INDEPENDENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

• Atomic Energy

• Space

• Electronics and Information Technology

• Oceanography

• Biotechnology

• Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

Vedas as basis for Modern Science

Science is a “secular” discipline.

The term secular has to be taken in its broadest sense.

This means that the scientific study of the nature is notdependent upon any particular nation, race, colour of the people,geography, religion, social customs, ways of living, language, andthe era.

Thus the scientific exploration of nature may be expressed indifferent languages, in different terminology, in different systemsof measurements. But internally the laws pertaining to a givenaspect of nature have to be equivalent.

Source: Dr D.N Srivastava ,Control Instrumentation Division ,BARC Mumbai

http://www.barc.gov.in/publications/nl/2000/200002-02.pdf

EITK UNIT-II.pptx

One cannot classify Western science or Indian science,

modern science or ancient science.

A distinction of modern science and Indian ancient

science is appropriate because of long separations of

time and distance between the two groups of humanity

in exploring nature and expressing in different ways.

Modern experimental science and Vedic Science could

be seen as two diverse yet mutually complementary

approaches to knowing the same underlying reality

• one through the empirical method,

• other through the exploration of the least excited

state of consciousness.

Source:Modern Science and Vedic Science: An Introduction by Kenneth Chandler

Maharishi International University Fairfield, Iowa,USA.

Different Routes

of

Modern Science and Indian Ancient Science

• There is one very fundamentaldifference between the routes adoptedby modern science for the explorationof nature, and that adopted in ancientIndia.

• These routes have evolved due todifferent climatic conditions in theWest and India.

Western Science

• Huge differences in environmental temperature

human body temperature.

• Difficult living conditions.

• Need plenty of food, strong house, many layers of

clothing and other warming material.

• Studied Space-Light-Matter.

• Horizontal route.

• Modern science starts from geometry, from the

time of Pythagoras to Euclid.

• Study of light by Newton, Huygens, and others.

• Then studied atomic theory.

Indian Ancient Science

• Environmental temperature close to the human

body temperature.

• Comfortable living conditions.

• given easy survival, how to make life happier for

longer and longer times.

• Indian study of nature took the route of time-

sound-mind called vertical route.

• Evolved the art of achieving harmony in one's life.

• vocal and instrumental music systems developed.

• Conducted research on sound or phonetics, and on

sound patterns

• Study of mind through Yoga.

• These differences has been the basic cause of wide

gap between the two sciences.

• However, in spite of these major differences, one

should not forget that any branch of knowledge is

built upon small number of basic principles.

• And one basic principle of nature is related to

another basic principle in some subtle way, due to

the inner harmony of nature.

• This is an article of scientific faith, about which

Einstein says, "Without the belief in the inner

harmony of our world, there could be no science.

This belief is and always will remain the

fundamental motive for all scientific creation."

• So the path of unification of the two sciences can be

found through the fundamental principles.

• We have to sort out the fundamental principles of the

modern science on one side and comprehend what

order or regularity of nature they describe.

• Similarly the fundamental principles of the Indian

ancient science have to be sorted out, and they have to

be put up into precise axiomatic language, and the

order of nature they point to, has to be found.

• By the correlation of these orders, one can hope to

bridge the gap between the two.

Disciplines of Ancient Indian knowledge

All the Disciplines of Ancient Indianknowledge are divided into two streams asi)Injunctive Sciences

ii)Mundane sciences

adapting the methods of expansion of data,compression of data and encryption of data.

• Injunctive Sciences (The Vedas) regulate thehuman behavioural traits.

• Mundane sciences deal with the nature, scopeand purpose of natural and physical worldfor the comfortable living of mankind.

Disciplines descended to the modern world from

the lineage of Seers of India.

• Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,

Upanishads,

• Srauta/ Gruhya/Sulabha Sutra Texts,

• Shadangas, Anukramanika Texts, Pratisakhyas,

• 500 Smriti Texts.

• Six Orthodox Systems of Philosophy.

• Two Itihasas – The Ramayana and The Mahabharata,

• 18 Puranas (Ashtadasha Puranas)

• Texts on 64 Fine Arts(Chatuh: Shasthi Kalalu)

• Agama Texts dealing with standard architectural

techniques,

• Lexicons (Kosa granthas) and Various Sastra

In these huge volumes of treatises lot of information is availablepertaining to the modern areas of study such as

• Astronomy, Acoustics, Agriculture, Architecture,

• Botany (with rich etymological notes on thousands of herbalplants),

• Mathematics (with its branches of Arithmetic, Algebra,Trigonometry, Spherical Trigonometry, Binomial Theorem,Geometry)

• Metallurgy

• Hydrology

• Medicine

• Physiological Phonetics, Articulatory Phonetics,

• Meteorology, Seismology, Dietetics, Mineralogy, Geology,Environmental Science, Cosmetics, Chemistry, Physics, AnimalHusbandry, Zoology, Cosmology, Psychology, Parapsychology,Mora logy and Management Studies.

All these knowledge sections can assure the modern world tolead a pollution free long life for hundred and plus years.

Source: Rani Sadasiva Murty “An Introduction to Ancient Indian Knowledge Systems”

Veda Darshini, An International Refereed Quarterly Research Journal, Issue - I : January, 2018

Architectural Developments

• UNESCO has listed 830 World Heritage Sites, out of which 26 are in

India.

• A tangible proof of the creative genius and industry of this ancient

land.

• Be it the Bhimbetka’s pre historic rock art at one end or the

innumerable palaces, mosques, temples, gurudwaras, churches or

tombs and sprawling cities and solemn stupas.

• Harappan Civilization– Earliest Indian Architecture

• Post Harappan period-- architectural styles have been

Hindu, Buddhist and Jain.

• Medieval period – Synthesis of Persian and indigenous styles.

• Colonial period --influence of Western architectural forms

• HARAPPAN PERIOD The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other

sites of the Indus Valley Civilization revealed the existence of a

very modern urban civilization with expert town planning and

engineering skills.

The very advanced drainage system along with well planned roads

and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture

existed in India before the coming of the Aryans.

The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated under the

Archaeological Survey of India established by the British.

The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of

buildings- dwelling houses, pillared halls and public baths.


HARAPPAN PERIOD


HARAPPAN PERIOD


Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two of the first Indian civilizations. They wereadvanced for their time, but very different from today's cities and towns.Comparing these past Indian civilizations to today's cities and other cities beforethem will help show the advancement and special features of the city and theirpeople.

HARAPPAN PERIOD


Main features of Harappan remains are:

• Easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also

some protection by way of natural barriers of the river.

• Walled cities which provided security to the people.

• The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut

each other at right angles.

• Used standardized burnt mud-bricks as building material.

• There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were

public buildings, administrative or business centres, pillared halls and

courtyards

• Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains

which give an idea of an organized collection and distribution system

• The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public

bath that was discovered at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called,

is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction

• A well planned drainage system in the residential parts of the city.


HARAPPAN PERIOD

• EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD


The material prosperity of the Mauryans and a new religious

consciousness led to achievements in all fields.

In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture

saw a great advancement.

During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected

on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly polished

pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are unique and

remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as

the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes

and is about 50 ft high.

Dhamma- Ashoka’s 4-way moral code



Ashoka Chakra at Konark Temple

The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath aresymbols of the achievement of Mauryanarchitechture. The gateways of the SanchiStupa with the beautiful sculpture depictingscenes from Jataka stories are specimens ofthe skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.



The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development ofGandhara art which developed later. The other schools of art andarchitecture were the indigenous Mathura school and Amaravati school.The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. Theyhad more of spiritual look in them. Here along with Buddha we findsculptures of Jaina deities also.

The Amaravati school developed under the patronage of theSatavahanas of the Andhra region. A great stupa was built at Amaravatiin the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are adorned withbas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkondais another place that is famous for Buddhist architecture.



Rock-cut templesTemples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavatedin western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. Kailash temple at Ellorabuilt by the Rashtrakutas and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by thePallavas are other examples of rock-cut temples.

Ajanta Ellora Cave Temple Udayagir Orissa Cave Temple

Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh, India, which hold one of the greatestgalleries of prehistoric art anywhere in the world. This cluster of sandstone rockformations were home to nomadic hunter-gatherers from as far back as 100,000years ago right up to the 1700s (Medieval period). That’s 1117 centuries ofcontinuous habitation.

On the walls of the shelters, there are layers upon layers of beautiful paintings,dating back about 10,000 years. Some depict daily life – people herding animals.







• MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE


Delhi SultanateWith the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique ofarchitecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineeringfeatures of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosquesand tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with the features ofthe indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved.

Regional KingdomsWith the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautifulbuildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, theMadarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fortat Golkunda are just a few famous buildings.

BAHAMANIThe Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the templesof Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of thismosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India whichhas a covered courtyard.

• MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE


MughalsThe advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The architecture of Mughalstyle started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb atDelhi. In this magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and thetomb is placed in the midst of a garden.

Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.

The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This buildingwas made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world.

The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and otherbuildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.

Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. The Red Fort and Jama Masjidof Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan

MEDICINE AND ITS RELEVANCE IN VEDAS

• The earliest sources of our knowledge of Indian Philosophy and medicine arethe four Vedas, the sacred books of knowledge belonging to the period of1500 to 800 B.C.

• All the four Vedas replete the references regarding various aspects ofmedicine.

• The Atharva Veda is deemed to be an encyclopaedia for medicine andAyurveda (the science of life) is considered as Upa Veda (supplementarysubject) of the Atharva Veda.

• Ayurveda, the Science of life was one of the sciences, which earned greatfame for India and which influenced considerably the knowledge of medicineof other ancient nations of the world also.

• There is evidence that the earliest textbooks of Ayurveda like CharakaSaṃhitā (General Medicine), Suśruta Saṃhitā (Surgery), and KāśyapaSaṃhitā (Pediatrics) were edited and revised several times over a thousandyears.


In these texts, Ayurveda is already seen in a developed form specialized intoeight branches:

General Medicine, Surgery, Ophthalmology-ENT-Dentistry, Pediatrics, Psychiatry, Toxicology, Rejuvenative Medicine and Reproductive Medicine.

Around the 6th or 7th centuries CE, the renowned physician Vāgbhaṭacompiled the specialized knowledge of the eight branches of Ayurveda intoone compendium

The larger version is known as Aṣṭāṅga Saṃgraha and the shorter version iscalled Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya.


Ayurveda was discussed in all the 4 indigenous books of spiritual knowledgeviz. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and more so in Atharva Veda.

Health has been defined as

“Samadosha Samagnischa

Samadhatumalakriyaha

Prasannathmendhya Manaha

Swasthadhyabhidheeyate”.

It deals with diagnosis, management and treatment based on balancing theequilibrium among all the components of health namely:

(1) Dosha {bodily humour, morbific diathesis},(2) Agni {digestive fire},(3) Dhatu {tissue},(4) Mala {waste products},(5) Prasanna Atma {soul},(6) Indriya {sense organs} and(7) Manha {mind}.


Other important concepts of Ayurveda are:(i) Panchabhutas,(ii) Ama (unwanted, unripe byproducts of digestion & metabolism

accumulating in the body at different levels acting asautotoxins & antigenic materials),

(iii) Ojas (factor of immunity in terms of “Vyadhiksamatva” the naturalor acquired biological powers of an individual protectingthem from disease),

(iv) Rasas {6 types of taste viz. madhura (sweet), amla (sour), lavana(salty), katu (pungent), tikta (bitter), kasaya (astringent)} onwhich the choice of drugs depends.

The diagnosis, prevention and treatment of various diseases is by DashavidhaPariksha (ten-fold examination), advocacy of lifestyle changes; use ofmedicines of plant, animal and mineral origin; the Panchkarma & Rasayanatherapeutic procedures, etc.


The number of these processes in Ayurveda have been broadly classified intothree called Dosh: Kaph, Pitta, and Vata.

Every food and eatable can be classified into many categories depending uponwhich Dosh or combination of Doshas, it decreases or increases or maintains inbalance.

The symptoms of disease indicate which of the Doshas have increased ordecreased.

The administration of the compensating remedy gives the cure.

Ayurveda claims to have discovered the basic principles of many other systemsof treatment like allopathy, homeopathy, acupuncture, etc.

But these systems were not developed to higher levels in ancient India.


THE TRADITION OF SURGERYResearchers at the University of Missouri-Columbia discovered that physicians inancient India had developed technology to drill teeth and remove decay 8,000 to 9,000years ago.

Study of fossils from Mehrgarh, now in Pakistan, revealed tiny holes drilled into teethon the biting surface of male molars. Evidence has also been unearthed from Harappaand Lothal revealing an ancient surgical practice on a Bronze Age skull dating back tonearly 4,300 years ago. Trepanation, a common means of surgery practised inprehistoric societies starting with the Stone Age, involved drilling or cutting throughthe skull vault, often to treat head injury or to remove bone splinters or blood clotscaused by a blow to the head.

A mesolithic (15,000 – 6,000 BCE) rockpainting from Bhimbetka, MadhyaPradesh seems to depict surgerybeing performed on a subject’s heador eye.


THE TRADITION OF SURGERY

The saga of Indian surgery continued to flourish and reached its acme in the time ofSuśruta, who is believed to have lived in the 2nd century BCE.

Suśruta is now revered as the father of surgery and advocated a thorough study ofanatomy by dissecting the dead body.

He introduced the method of sterilizing surgical instruments to prevent sepsis aftersurgical procedures.

The compendium of Suśruta describes hundreds of sharp and blunt surgicalinstruments and many of them resemble instruments used by surgeons today.

Suśruta is recognized for having developed innovative surgical procedures likereconstruction of the nose or rhinoplasty through plastic surgery, use of a specificspecies of ants as dissolvable sutures to close the intestines, surgical removal ofcataract, and surgical management of urinary calculi.



Medical and surgical implements of 19th century origin from India.

(Courtesy: Science Museum, London)

This painting shows Suśruta’s disciples learning surgery by working on

vegetables

The surgery described by Dhanvantari and Sushrut has become obsolete

with the advent of sophisticated tools and equipment in modern

surgery. But the basic principles of Ayurveda hold. They are like

phenomenological theory of matter.

For example, the mechanical and thermal properties like elasticity,

density, specific heat, etc of gold are determined by the atomic

structure of gold atoms. But a goldsmith need not go into all these

details. For him the bulk properties are sufficient to make a beautiful

ornament.

In the same way, simplifying all the chemical process of the body in terms

of increase, decrease, or balance of three Doshas suffices to restore

health in a large number of cases. That is why the medical

formulations of Charak Samhita still have relevance. But, in the light of

changed environment, many of the ancient formulations need

verification and standardization. However, Ayurvedic thumb rules for

longevity and good health have withstood the test of time.



Mathematical Sciences in Vedas

• Mathematics, in its early stages, developed mainly along two broad overlappingtraditions:

(i) the geometric and

(ii) the arithmetical and algebraic.

• It is in India that we see a strong emphasis on both these great streams ofmathematics.

• A Seidenberg, an eminent algebraist and historian of mathematics, traced theorigin of sophisticated mathematics to the originators of the Rig Vedic rituals.

• The oldest known mathematics texts in existence are the Sulba-sutras ofBaudhayana, Apastamba and Katyayana which form part of the literature of theSutra period of the later Vedic age.

• The Sulbasutras had been estimated to have been composed around 800 BC(some recent researchers are suggesting earlier dates).

• But the mathematical knowledge recorded in these sutras (aphorisms) are muchmore ancient; for the Sulba authors emphasise that they were merely statingfacts already known to the composers of the Brahmanas and Samhitas of theearly Vedic age.


Śulbasūtras

• The earliest texts of geometry offering a general statement, in geometric form, of the so-called Pythagoras theorem (which was in fact formulated by Euclid around 300 BCE). They spelt out elaborate geometric methods to construct a square resulting from the addition or subtraction of two other squares,

The geometrical expression of the Pythagoras theorem found in the Śulbasūtras

• All these procedures were purely geometrical, but led to interesting corollaries;

for instance, √2 was given a rational approximation which is correct to the fifth decimal.


Śulbasūtras

• The Śulbasūtras also introduced a system of linear units, most of them based on dimensions of the human body; they were later slightly modified and became the traditional units used across India. The chief units were:

14 aṇus (grain of common millet) = 1 aṅgula (a digit)

12 aṅgulas = 1 prādeśa (the span of a hand, later vitasti)

15 aṅgulas = 1 pada (or big foot)

24 aṅgulas = 1 aratni (or cubit, later also hasta)

30 aṅgulas = 1 prakrama (or step)

120 aṅgulas = 1 puruṣa (or the height of a man with his arm extended over his head)


Number System:

Numerals as they appeared in early inscriptions, from the 3rd century BCE to the 1stcentury CE. Note that they do not yet follow a decimal positional system; for instance,in the first column, 40 is written as ‘20, 20’, 60 as ‘20, 20, 20’. (Adapted from INSA)


Number System:

Evolution of Indian numerals,as evidenced by inscriptions.

The first script, Brāhmī, wasused by Aśoka in his Edicts;

the last is an antecedent of theDevanagari script. (Adaptedfrom J.J. O’Connor & E.F.Robertson)

Source: https://satyavijayi.com/bharatiya-sankhyalaksanani-characteristics-hindu-numbers/

https://satyavijayi.com/bharatiya-sankhyalaksani-characteristics-hindu-numbers/


Aryabhata-I:

About 499 CE, living near what is today Patna, Āryabhaṭa-I (born 476 CE) authored theĀryabhaṭīya, the first extant siddhānta (or treatise) attempting a systematic review ofthe knowledge of mathematics and astronomy prevailing in his days.

The mathematical content of Āryabhaṭīya ranges from:

a very precise table of sines

precise value for π (3.1416, stated to be ‘approximate’)

the area of a triangle,

the sums of finite arithmetic progressions,

algorithms for the extraction of square and cube roots, and

an elaborate algorithm called kuṭṭaka (‘pulverizing’) to solve indeterminateequations of the first degree with two unknowns: ax + c = by.


BRAHMAGUPTA’s CLASSICAL PERIOD :

• Born in 598 CE, Brahmagupta was an imposing figure, with considerableachievements in mathematics. In his Brahmasphuta Siddhānta, he studied cyclicquadrilaterals (i.e., inscribed in a circle) and supplied the formula for their area (aformula rediscovered in 17th-century Europe):

if ABCD has sides of lengths a, b, c, and d, and the semi-perimeter is

s = (a + b +c + d)/2, then the area is given by:

Area ABCD = √[(s – a) (s –b) (s – c) (s – a)]

• Brahmagupta introduced the notion of negative numbers and ventured to definethe mathematical infinite as khacheda or ‘that which is divided by kha’, kha beingone of the many names for zero. He discovered the bhāvanā algorithm forintegral solutions to second-order indeterminate equations (called vargaprakriti)of the type Nx2 +1 = y2. He was in many ways one of the founders ofmodern algebra, and his works were translated into Persian and later Latin.


BRAHMAGUPTA’s CLASSICAL PERIOD :

• BHĀSKARA-I, a contemporary of Brahmagupta, who did pioneering work intrigonometry (proposing a remarkably accurate rational approximation for thesine function).

Graph showing the highaccuracy of Bhāskara-I’srational approximation forthe sine function from 0°to 180° (in blue). The sinefunction (in red) had to beshifted upward by 0.05 tomake the two curvesdistinguishable.

• The first part of Bhāskarācārya’s(Bhaskara-II) Siddhāntaśiromani is a collection ofmathematical problems called Līlāvatī, named after an unknown lady to whomBhāskara puts problems in an often poetical language. Līlāvatī became sopopular with students of mathematics across India that four centuries later,Akbar had it translated into Persian by a court poet.


• Mādhava (c. 1340–1425), laid some of the foundations of calculus by working outpower series expansions for the sine and cosine functions (the so-called Newtonseries), and by spelling out this fundamental expansion of π:

• This is now known as the Gregory–Leibniz series. He went on to propose a more rapidly convergent series for π:

which enabled him to calculate π to 11 correct decimals.

Space and Military related developments

• Ancient India bequethed to us a good number of works (sastras) on statecraftas well as war craft.

• The war craft or military science called Dhanurveda, provides enoughinformation in this discipline.

• Ancient Indian authorities held that a state had seven prakrtis (constituentselements), viz., the king, the minister, the treasury, the territory, the fortifiedcity, the army and the ally.

• The army (bala or danda) occupies a very significant position in the state-organism.

• Thus army (bala or danda), is placed sixth in the order, after kosa (the treasury)

Svamy-amatya-janapada-durga-kosa-danda-mitrani- prakrtayah

• Kautilya, in his Arthasastra, holds a discussion on this, and preferred kosa to balaor danda when he says, “The army indeed is rooted in the treasury. In theabsence of a treasury, the army goes over to the enemy or kills the king. And thetreasury, ensuring the success of all endeavours, is the means of observingvirtuous acts and of enjoying desires.”

• There was a saying among the Arabs,

"The Persians are famed for their archers, the Turks for their horsemen, and

India for its armies.“

• Four-fold Army (caturangabala) The expression caturangabala implies that thearmy consisted of four types of fighting units, viz., infantry, cavalry, chariot andelephant divisions.

Space and Military related developments

Earth and Space Sciences

In the text Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira we have a bulk of informationwith regard to the process of finding out underwater currents.

• Nearly two hundred methods are presented which can even today be put inpractice.

• Seismology is another interesting subject available in the Brhat Samhita ofVarahamihira.

• Brahma Siddhanta, Vasistha Siddnata, Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta andRomaka Siddhanta are the five famous Astronomical Works with wonderfulcontent pertaining to the Planets, their positions, moments and their influenceover the earth.

• French astronomer Jean-Claude Bailly corroborated the antiquity and accuracy ofthe Vedic astronomical measurements as “more ancient than those of the Greeksor Egyptians.” And that, “the movements of the stars calculated 4,500 years ago,does not differ by a minute from the tables of today.”

• Cosmology and other scientific accomplishments of ancient India spread to othercountries along with mercantile and cultural exchanges. There are almost onehundred references in the Rig Veda alone to the ocean and maritime activity.This is confirmed by Indian historian R. C. Majumdar, who stated that the peopleof the Indus-Sarasvata Civilization engaged in trade with Sooma and centers ofculture in western Asia and Crete.

India in Space: A Remarkable Odyssey

• The beginning of an organized approaches of researches in India goes back to1940’s.

• Homibhabha and Vikram Sarabhai stimulated and intiated.

• Though India today is considered as one of the prominent countries conductingmany space activities, the Indian space programme began in a modest way withthe formation of the Indian National Committee on Space Research by theGovernment of India in1962.

• Indian Space Research Organization, which is widely known as ISRO, is the agencywhich implements the country’s space programme on behalf of India’sDepartment of Space. ISRO came into existence in 1969, the same year whenhumans set foot on the moon for the first time.

Chemistry in Early Literature

• We find plentiful evidence of knowledge of chemical practices in some ofIndia’s early literature.

• Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra is a well-known text of governance andadministration authored probably in the 3rd or 4th century BCE, duringthe Mauryan era.

• It has much data on prevailing chemical practices, in particular a longsection on mines and minerals (including metal ores of gold, silver,copper, lead, tin and iron).

• It also discusses the various characteristics of precious stones (pearl,ruby, beryl, etc.), details of fermented juices (from sugarcane, jaggery,honey, jambu, jackfruit, mango, etc.), and oil extraction.

• The fundamental two texts of Ayurveda are the Charaka Saṃhitā and theSuśhruta Saṃhitā, both dated a few centuries CE.

• Not only do they turn to a wide range of chemicals for medical use —metals, minerals, salts, juices — but they also discuss the preparation ofvarious alkalis (kṣāra), which is regarded as one of the ‘ten arts’ (kalā).

• Alkalis are described as mild, caustic or average and are prepared fromspecific plants: after the plants have been burnt together with somelimestone, their ashes are then stirred in water, filtered, and theresulting solution is concentrated by boiling, to which burnt limestoneand conch shells are added.

• Such alkalis were used to treat surgical instruments as well as thin sheetsof metals like iron, gold or silver intended for the preparation of drugs.

Branches of Sciences found in Vedas (Sanskrit)

An observation helps to understand that the following branches of

science are traceable in ancient Sanskrit literature.

Physical and Chemical Sciences:

• Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems give the earliest reference to the atoms

of air, water, fire, sky, and earth.

• Nyaya Darsana gives some information about preparing lenses.

• Rasatantra texts give an abundant information of various metals,

chemicals and chemical processing.

• An interesting information of constructing a chemistry laboratory is

available in all the famous Rasatantra Granthas

Natural Sciences

• Texts like Susruta Samhita, Amara kosa and Nirukta recorded the

Indian system of Botanical Taxonomy.

• Susruta Samhita, Rigveda and Atharva Veda and various Pauranic

Texts give a good amount of information with regard to the Medical

Botany.

• In the texts on Vastu, some texts on Vrkshayurveda and some epic

sources present a detailed account of Agriculture and Gardening

methods.

• The Ramayana, Smritis and some Vedic texts give vivid picture of the

classification of the animals and make a deep study of their structure

and the methods of curing diseases of different animals.

• The earth has gravitational force was first said by Bhaskaracharya.• Worlds first surgery was done by Sushrutha.• Electricity was first found by Agastya.• The concept of aircrafts was first said by Bharadwaja Maharishi.• Concept of pre identification of earthquakes was first found by

Varahamihirudu.• Chemical sciences was first proposed by Nagarjunudu.• Cosmology was first proposed by Kapila Maharshi.• DNA was first said by Bhodidharma.• Concept of Molecules was first said by Kanadhudu.• Extracting of thread from cotton and making of clothes was found by

Uthsamadhudu.• Sangeetham was first given to the world by Swathi muni.• Encyclopedia of Mathematics , Physical sciences, Mineralogy was written

as Aksharalamala by Valmiki.

All these was found by Indians.

If the process of learning all these branches of

knowledge and arts is revived and introduced in a

novel way suitable to the modern times and to meet

needs of our contemporary times it will be of high

advantage and the pride of our nation also can be

well protected.

Documents

ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE