essentialsof 18 morereligions& beliefs

This book is a really useful guide To 18 religions and

beliefs. alThough we come across These we may noT

be quiTe sure exacTly whaT Their followers believe,

how They live and what is important to them.

how much do you know about these?

the following are included:

agnosTicism, atheism, freeThinkers, secularism,

raTionalism, postmodernism, confucianism, paganism,

The religious socieTy of friends (quakers), Jehovah’s

witnesses, mormons - The church of Jesus chrisT of

laTTer-day sainTs, satanism, scienTology, humanism,

universal uniTarians, shinto, Taoism Zoroastrianism.

ESSENTIALS OF18 MORE RELIGIONS& BELIEFS

agnosticisman agnostic is someone who doubts the existence of any god or gods. it is someone who thinks that it is impossible to prove or disprove the existence of any spirit or god(s). an agnostic has reserved judgement on this matter and believes that there is no sufficient evidence to support or deny such beings. some agnostics believe that it is impossible for humans to ever know.

atheismatheism is the absence of belief in the existence of a god or gods. atheism can also be seen as having two polar distinctions – “weak atheism” and “strong atheism”. weak atheism describes someone who is simply sceptical and holds a disbelief in god. a strong atheist can be qualified as someone who holds an explicit belief that there is no god or gods.

freethinkers a freethinker is one someone who thinks freely and is prepared to consider any possibility. a freethinker believes in determining which ideas are right or wrong through reason according to a consistent set of rules.

secularismThe word secular means “of this world” in latin and it is the opposite of religious. secularism is a philosophy which forms its ethics without reference to religious dogmas and which believes in the promotion of the development of human art and science.

rationalismrationalists believe that the source of knowledge is reason and logic. rationalists

believe in a naturalistic alternative to the appeals of religious accounts of human nature and conduct. rationalists believe that significant knowledge of the world can best be achieved by reason alone.

postmordernism modernism is defined by the idea that humans and society can be perfected through the proper use of science, reason and democratic values. Postmodernism rejects this premise and believes that science and reason are not tools which transcend culture or politics. Postmodernist believe that science and reason are tools which are used by people to exercise political and cultural domination over other groups.

confucianismconfucianism was established over 2,500 years ago. it is still alive today and represents a very diverse mix of interpretation which is deeply linked to centuries of chinese historical development.

confucius (or, k’ung fu-tse, meaning “master k’ung”) the founder of confucianism, was born in 551 b.c.e. he was an official of the state of lu (now known as shangtung). he eventually left his government position to pursue the development of his philosophy further.

his primary interest was in politics and ethics rather than religion. he preached good behaviour and harmonious social interaction which was underpinned by personal moral development and adherence to proper action. he has been called one of the most influential thinkers in human history.

philosophy

confucius purported that if people aim to be courteous; practice correct treatment of others and etiquette; offer others reverence, and practice human benevolence within each of the 5 human relationships (outlined below) harmony will exist on every level of society.

confucius identified five human and ethical interactions which may be seen as part of the foundation of the philosophy. These “relationships” depend heavily on the concept of Jen (the compassion and humanity which arises from genuine love) and on the concept of li (correct ritualistic and etiquette-based behaviour between individuals). The relationships outlined by confucius were:

Parent and child ruler and minister government officials husband and wife older sibling and young sibling friend and friend

when confucius died, his philosophy developed into two branches. one, lead by a man called mencius, held the basic tenet that human intention is inherently good and should act as a guide in making choices and in action. The other school of thought was lead by a man called hsun-tzu who believed that people are born with inherently evil natures and require ritual in order to cultivate true virtue.

confucianism is still strong today and has been reinvigorated by a man called hsiung shih-li (1885-1968). hsiung shih-li was alive during the collapse of the chinese monarchy (the early decades of the 20th

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century c.e.), a time in which confucianism was regarded as decadent and reactionary. hsiung shih-li may be viewed as the inspiration for “new confucianism”. This movement strived to make the confucianist tradition a model for the development of a harmonious and tolerant world civilization.

confucian texts

during his lifetime, confucius identified the five classic (wu Jing) books (which were produced before his time) as important writings. The five classics were:

The book of changes (i ching) The book of history (shuh ching) The book of Poetry (shih ching) The book of rites (lu chi) spring and autumn annals (ch’un chi)

The four books (shi shu) are another group of books which confucians would regard as important. They incorporate the works confucius and his followers. They are looked upon by many as the fundamental teachings of confucianism. The four books are:

analects (lu yu) The great learning (Ta hsueh) The doctrine of the mean (chung yung) The book of mencius (meng-tzu)

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confucianism Quotes:

“all things are within me, and on self-examination, i find no greater joy than to be true to myself. we should do our best to treat others as we wish to be treated. nothing is more important than to seek after goodness.” (meng-tzu)

“be not ashamed of mistakes and thus make them crimes. “ “everything has its beauty but not everyone sees it. “ “forget injuries, never forget kindnesses. “

“he who will not economize will have to agonize. “ “i hear and i forget. i see and i remember. i do and i understand. “ “ignorance is the night of the mind, but a night without moon and star. “ “it does not matter how slowly you go so long as you do not stop. “ “men’s natures are alike, it is their habits that carry them far apart. “ “respect yourself and others will respect you. “ “study the past if you would define the future. “

paganismThe cycles of the sun and moon were integral to most pagan religions. The cycles of the year hold importance for all pagan religions, seasonal and nature observance form a very important part of the neo-pagan/pagan movement. among the celebrations or observances that most members of this community observe are:

The winter solstice (the shortest day of the year in the northern hemisphere). The emphasis is on renewal and rebirth out of darkness. imbolc (a “cross-quarter holiday”). This is also known by some pagans/neo-pagans a brigid. it falls between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. a celebration of the increasing light. The spring equinox. one of the two points of the year where the day and night are in balance. The celebration of the awakening of plants and animals and fertility are integral to this observance. beltane. (a “cross-quarter holiday”). The midpoint between spring and summer. The time of the mother earth flowering. The occasion for the maypole dance. The summer solstice. The longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere. a time to make commitments to loved ones and to cultivate healthy self-love. lammas (a “cross-quarter holiday”). The midpoint between summer and autumn. a time to honour mother earth. The fall equinox. regarded as the most powerful night of the year. samhain (hallowmas). marks the neo-pagan new year.

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actual dates can vary slightly from year to year for some of these observances.some of the most popular pagan movements are:

asatru druidic wiccans

asatru

asatru is also known as odinism and is an ancient norse religion. asatru (from the icelandic language meaning “true to asa”), believes that each person is dependant on others and that it is only through working together that true harmony can be achieved. it is a religion or belief system that believes in contribution by the individual to the greater good.

The gods (or asa) are known as the aesir and the vanir. The aesir are primarily warrior gods and are generally speaking the “higher gods”; while the vanir are largely fertility gods. asatru believe that there are “nine worlds” held together and reached by the yggdrassil (world tree). These worlds are the realms of the gods, humans, light elves, dark elves, dwarves, giants and others.

asatru believe in nine nobel virtues:courage Truth honor fidelity discipline hospitality industriousness self-reliance Perseverance

integral to the religion are a large and

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vast array of myths and legends which incorporate all beings. There are many rituals and forms of magic in asatru. There are six major festivals in asatru:

yule (mother night). This begins on the 20th december at sunset. The charming of the Plow (february 1st) eostre (the spring equinox) valpurgis (the beginning of summer) midsummer (21st June) loaf-feast. a harvest festival on the 1st of august winter nights (around the autumnal equinox)

druids

druids were ancient priest in a nature-based religion indigenous to celtic britain and other european regions. The actual term druid means “oak knowledge”.

documented evidence (mostly from the romans) of the activities of this group go back to the third century b.c.e. Julius ceasar noted that the druids in gaul formed a federation that crossed tribal boundaries (it seems that this same system existed in britain). The druids met annually and had great influence over political and social matters for their areas. The druids were well respected and revered members of their communities.The actual term druid, does not refer to a cleric or religious person. The actual term refers to an elite class of respected celtic officiates who were part of a powerful network which was based on common practice and outlook. it has been discovered that druids performed the same tasks for their communities that a modern day scholar, judge, teacher or clergy member still performs today. The druids also took part in divination

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and nature focused worship. There is not definitive druidic text. The druidic culture was suppressed by ruling nations and lead to a necessity to keep the practices alive through myths, historical heroic stories and songs. The druid practices of today still use mythology and heroic stories in their practice.

some of the basic beliefs of the modern-day druid are:

a belief in a multiplicity of gods and goddesses. The requirement of respect and love for nature a love for humanity and a belief that it is important to help fellow human beings. an importance is placed on celebrating the solar, lunar and other life cycles present in nature.

historical druid worship practices seem to have included a wide variety of nature gods. services took place near lakes and rivers and in tree groves. oaks and mistletoe are regarded as sacred plants.in modern times, druids can be varied and diverse in their beliefs and practices. There are 8 major druidic festivals and observances, 4 correspond to the solar cycle and 4 correspond to the lunar cycle. The festivals mark the seasonal equinoxes and traditional harvest/planting times. The most well know druidic celebration takes place at stonehenge during the summer solstice.

wicca

wicca, or witchcraft, is another earth religion. it is a religion which honours many gods and goddesses and which is mindful of the natural cycles in the world.

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There is not particular series or precepts to which a wicca practitioner must adhere. in addition to the holidays outlined in the pagan/neo-pagan section, wiccans also observe the full moon (there are 13 in the current calendar year).

There is no sacred text for the wiccan follower, however, they do all tend to follow what is known as the “wiccan rede”, which states “an ye harm none, do what thou wilt”. harm is defined as anything which works against an individuals free will, takes away from another, or harms an individual mentally, physically or spriturally.

in addition to the “wiccan rede”, wiccans ethical duties are defined in the law of Three. simply put, the law of Three states that the actions and even the thoughts of an individual are visited back to the individual at least three fold the intensity of the original. wicca’s teach self-discipline, personal responsibility, kinship with the planted and all living beings, open-mindedness and the virtues of diversity.

There is no specified place of worship for wicca followers because of the belief that all of the earth is sacred. worship or witchcraft may be practiced in whatever location the individual desires. most rituals are performed in a ritual space marked out by a circle. many wicca’s liken their rituals more to meditation than to any sort of spell-casting. The teachings of wicca encourage working in harmony with the natural elements of earth, water, air, and fire. The purpose of most ceremonies is to promote the inner spirit of the individual. actual ceremonial practices and witchcraft rituals vary widely.

the religious society of friends (Quakers)quakers are another christian denomination and are best known for their pacifist principles and their silent and spontaneous worship. founded by george fox in the 17th century ce. friends believe that there is a divine light present in every person and in their worship they wait for the holy spirit to prompt them to speak or read or say a prayer. The movement has no leadership locally or centrally but staff are employed to carry out social service or peacemaking work. quakers do not practice either baptism or holy communion. quakers are also pacifists.

Jehovah’s witnessesJehovah’s witnesses are christians who accept the bible as factually true in every detail and they believe that the coming of god’s kingdom will be after the battle of armageddon. armageddon is believed to be imminent once the battle has been finished Jehovah’s witnesses believe that there will be a thousand year reign of christ on earth. unlike most other christian denominations, they do not celebrate christmas, easter, birthdays or any other holidays (except for one celebration at Passover which is the memorial of christ’s death). They also believe that they own no allegiance to any person, flag, or nation. They believe that they only owe allegiance to Jehovah (god). People of this faith will not serve in the military.

mormonsthe church of Jesus christ of latter-day saintsmormons are christians who accept the divine revelation of the christian bible but they differ remarkably from the doctrines accepted by most other christian groups. The tradition of this church is that an angel dictated a new and contemporary revelation the book of mormon to the american founder of mormonism, Joseph smith. mormons believe that god Jesus christ and the holy ghosts are separate beings. They also believe that times in which we are living is just before the second coming of christ and that the spreading of their gospel through missionary work is very important.

satanismreligious satanism is comprised of many different groups and dogmas. The majority of these satanists belong to groups like the church of satan, this group does not believe in the existence of satan as a deity. one characteristic of satanism is the belief in individual self-determinism and the idea of satan serves more as a symbol of individual liberty and freedom. in addition, most satanists believe that christianity is flawed, that there is no absolute morality, and that individuals are solely responsible for their actions. a very small number of satanists worship satan as a god, this form of satanism is called “luciferian” satanism. These believers worship lucifer and look upon him as a liberator who frees his worshipers from oppression. he is not particularly seen as an enemy of god. some members of this group believe that lucifer was banished by the christian god because he saw flaws in creation and traced the responsibility of these flaws back to the creator.

scientologyscientology was founded by an american called l. ron hubbard in 1950. The religion rejects the idea that man is simply a higher animal and does not believe that modern materialism is a positive force. in fact, scientology sees materialism as a destructive force.Thetan is the term used to describe a persons inner spirit, this spirit is not a separate part of the person. scientologist believe that a person is made up of three elements – Theta, mind and body – and that any person can be helped to take control of themselves though using this “applied religious philosophy”. scientology teaches that the human mind has two parts, an analytical part and a reactive part. The reactive part of the mind records everything the individual experiences, one of the goals of scientologists is to neutralise the activity of the reactive mind so that the individual may gain better personal control.

humanismhumanism is an outlook of goodwill and reason toward fellow man. humanist do not accept a belief in god or any divine plan for humanity. freedom and tolerance to all are basic humanist beliefs, a person of this philosophy believes in respect for all people regardless of race, class or creed. humanist believe in having faith in man’s intellect and sprit and view the highest good as any action that serves the best for mankind. humanism’s main focus is a sense of morality and they believe very strongly in every individual’s freedom of choice.

universal unitariansuniversal unitarians believe that individuals should be allowed to pursue religious truth according to their own conscience. The membership of this movement can be widely varied – from atheist to catholics, Pagans and Jews. universal unitarians believe that there are certain fundamental beliefs concerning religion and how life should be lived. a few of their beliefs are: that everyone is of equal value; that justice equality and compassion should also be paramount in human relations; that the goal of the world community is for peace liberty and justice for all; and finally; that they hold respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which humanity is a part.

shintoshinto is a nature focused religion of Japan, the origins of this belief system are unknown, it dates back to prehistory. . shinto stresses the harmony of natural beauty and the appreciation of perceived reality. Today’s shinto practitioners place a great emphasis on tradition and ceremonial custom, rather than on religious or metaphysical doctrines. shinto has many rituals which are performed to celebrate purity, clarity and contact with the diverse forces of nature. Traditionally, the rituals were closely linked with the seasons.

beliefs

kami is a term that is central to shinto beliefs. kami the word used to describe something that possesses a power that the individual believer does not. This kami can be present in anything. People,

animals, spirits and inanimate objects may possess kami.

fundamental beliefs in shinto are called affirmations. There are four affirmations for the shinto follower, they are:

There is a large importance placed on the central family unit. major life events are revered as well (for example birth and marriage). a closeness to nature. Physical cleanliness. matsuri – festivals to honour individual or group kami.

a few additional, notable aspects of shinto beliefs are:

There is no written scripture for the shinto believer There is no “founder” of the movement. it is permissible to practice another religion/philosophy along side shinto. There are no rigid dogmas (moral codes) There is no strict formal doctrine or body of religious law.

shinto beliefs do not hold that there is one supreme being, however, there is an emphasis placed on the sun goddess amaterasu. The shinto belief is that the Japanese emperor is a direct descendant of amaterasu.historically, shinto has been practiced by some Japanese people in conjunction with buddhism.

worship

shinto shrines are made of wood and usually near a sacred tree and flowing water. when a visitor enters the shrine, he/she is regarded as having left the world of finite things and entered the world of

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the infinite and immeasurable. The shrine is the place where the powerful kami may be called upon for the purpose of the ceremony to be performed. each shrine would be dedicated to a particular kami.

most shinto homes would have a kami-dana, a shelf in the home with a small depiction of the holy central section of a real-life shrine. There will also be a small mirror in its centre to allow kami a way to enter and exit.

matsuri (festivals) are another way in which shinto followers practice their beliefs. There are several types of shinto matsuri in Japan: matsuri of supplication to the gods(for a successful harvest), there are some for thanksgiving., and others festivals to drive away pestilence and natural disasters.

There are somber matsuri and lively occasions featuring games and entertainment. some matsuri are performed in a very traditional way and some have been considerably adapted to modern times

There are two major purposes of matsuri. The first is communion between gods and people. This comprises purificatory rites, offerings and communal banquets between gods and humans. The second aspect of matsuri is communion among people. There are many matsuri during the year, often they coincide with important seasonal changes and agricultural tasks.

taoismTao’s literal translation is “path” or “way”. some have attempted to describe the Tao as “the way the universe works” – the changing from night to day, growth and decline – are all effortless aspects of the cycles of life. a few of the beliefs held by Taoist are:

submission, flexibility and profound awareness of the natural order are essential. a rejection of calculated restless, goal oriented efforts. a belief that the Tao manifests itself everywhere. a trust in the benefits of effortless, spontaneous action in accordance with the requirements of the time. an understanding that the Tao is eternally new, creative and beyond any literal expression.

in Taoist philosophy there is an emphasis on the importance of balance in all things The fundamental precept of Taoism could be said to reflect the principle of action based on the natural world. a Taoist believes that the individual should seek the truth by adapting a patient, accepting view on natural patterns and influences worthy of emulation. Taoism elevates the principles of non-control and non-interference. The goal of a Taoist is to attain complete simplicity through prolonged observation and mediation. This simplicity should also be combined with a profound faith in the natural process and transcend any restless struggling or desire. To pursue the Tao, one must seek to live in complete harmony with the patterns of nature. The goal is to live openly and in touch with nature.

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texts

This ancient chinese religious and philosophical system originated from the Tao Te ching, written by the chinese philosopher, lae-Tzu (d. approximately 520 b.c.e.) this text still remains central to the Taoist philosophy. however, some scholars believe that the Tao Te ching is, in fact, a compilation of many ancient sources and not solely the work of one man.

The Tao Te ching is one of the shortest primary religious texts in the world (there are just under 5,000 words). The Tao Te ching is also recognised by confucianism as an important text.

another chinese philosopher responsible for some of the Taoist foundations is chuang-Tzu (c. 369 – 286 b.c.e.), he wrote collections of satirical parables and allegories which are meant to illustrate the relative nature of all “rational” processes and assumptions.

ZoroastrianismZoroastrianism is the first recorded monotheistic religion of the world. The date of it’s founding is not certain, but scholars generally agree that it began between 2000 and 1800 bce.

The founder of Zoroastrianism was a man called Zarathustra (or Zoroaster as called by the greeks). it is said that Zarathustra saw the god (ahura mazda (the wise lord)). it is believed that during this encounter Zarathustra feld conscious of his presence and heard his words, words which are recorded in the five songs or poems he subsequently composed. These songs or poems are called “gathas”, which forms part of the Zoroastrian sacred text called the avesta.

beliefs

The beliefs of Zoroastrians include:

a belief in a single supreme god, ahura mazda. a belief in asha, a form of righteous natural law. a belief that a saoshyant (saviour) will be born of a virgin, the saviour will be from the lineage of Zarathustra. This saviour will raise the dead and pass final judgment on everyone.

one school of thought in the religion believes that there is a cosmic dualism between: ahura mazda (the supreme being) and an evil spirit of violence and death called angra mainyu. This cosmic conflict involves the entire universe and humanity is required to choose which to follow. it is believed that evil and angra mainyu will be destroyed at the end of time and goodness will be universal.another school of thought within Zoroastrianism believes that the battle between good and evil as an ethical dualism within human consciousness. The symbol for Zoroastrianism is the faravahar which represents the spirit of human beings.

Zoroastrian practices

ceremonies are performed in front of a sacred fire (fire is the symbol of ahura mazda. worship is comprised of prayers and symbolic ceremonies.

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there are 7 maJor Zoroastrian holy days:

maidhyoiZaremaya

(aPril/may)

maidhyoishema

(June/July)

paitshahya

(sePTember)

ayathrima

(ocTober)

maidhyairya

(January)

hamaspathmaedaya,

muktad

(march)

noroZ

(march)

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