Essentials of Food Sanitation.pdf

8/11/2019 Essentials of Food Sanitation.pdf

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Gel Cleaning

This equipm ent is similar to high-pressure units, except that the cleaning com pouis applied as a gel rather than as a h igh-pressure spray. Gel is good for cleaning pack-

aging equipment because it clings to soiled surfaces. The equipment costs about thesame as portable high-pressure units.

Combination Centralized High-PressureLow-Volume and Foam Cleaning

This system is the same as a centralized high-pressure system, except that the systemcan also apply foam. This method is flexible because foam can clean large surfacesand high pressure can clean belts, conveyors, and hard-to-reach areas. This systemcosts from $15,000 to over 150,000, depending on the size of the system.

Cleaning in Place C I P )

Nozzles inside the equipment apply a recirculating cleaning solution to automati-cally clean, rinse, and sanitize the equipment. The benefits of ClP systems are dis-cussed in C hapter 7. C IP cannot be used much in the meat and poultry industry Tequipment is expensive and does not w ork well in heavily soiled areas. ClP cleanis som etimes used to clean vacuum thawing chambers, pumping and brine circula-tion lines, silos, and fat-ren dering systems. Figure 12.3 illustrates a CIP system for

F I G U R E 12.3. Shackle washer for cleaning shackles, rollers, and the chain in poultry-processingplants. (Courtesy of C hemidyne Corp.)


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washing shackles, rollers, and the chain in poultry plants. The motor and drive coponen ts are moun ted on a base plate. The shackles are cleaned as they pass betwetwo rotating brushes. The brushes can be lifted above the rail when not in use.

C L E N I N G C O M P O U N D S F O R M E T N D P O U L T R Y P L A N T S

Acid Cleaners

Information abou t strongly and mildly acid cleaners is provided in C hapter 5.

Strongly Alkaline Cleaners

Examples of strongly alkaline compounds are sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) asilicates with high ratios of nitrous oxide to silicon dioxide. Silicates make sodiumhydroxide less corrosive and better at penetrating and rising. These cleaners remoheavy soils, such as those found in smokehouses.

Heavy-Duty Alkaline Cleaners

These cleaners are frequently used w ith ClP, high-pressure, and other mechanizedsystems in meat and po ultry plants.

Mild Alkaline Cleaners

Mild cleaners are often liquid solutions and are used for hand cleaning lightly soiledareas in meat and poultry plants.

Neutral Cleaners

Information about these and other cleaning compounds is given in Chapter 5.

S N I T I Z E R S F O R M E T N D P O U L T R Y P L A N T S

Sanitizers work only on clean surfaces, i.e., after all dirt is removed. Soil that can pre-vent the sanitizer from working properly includes fats, meat juices, blood, grease, oil,and mineral buildup. Microbes can grow under and inside soil and can hold foodand water that allow microbes to grow. Chemical sanitizers cannot destroy microor-ganisms in or under soil deposits.

Steam

Steam is not a good sanitizer. M any operators think that water vapor is steam and donot expose the equipment to enough steam to sanitize it . Workers should not usesteam to sanitize refrigerated areas because it causes condensation and wastes energy.Steam also does not sanitize conveyors properly.


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Chemical Sanitizers

Chlorine is the most important compound for disinfecting, sterilizing, and sanitizequipment, utensils, and water. Meat and poultry operations most often use these

chlorine compounds:Sodium and calcium hypo chlorite: These cost more than plain chlorine, but are eas-

ier to apply.

Liquid chlorine: This chlorinates processing and cooling waters and prevents bac-terial slimes.

Chlorine dioxide: This works well to destroy bacteria when organic matter (such asfood waste) is present because it does not react with protein.

Active iodine solutions can also sanitize, lodophors are very stable, have a muchlonger shelf life than hypochlorites, and work at low concentrations. These sanitizingcompounds are easy to measure and dispense, and penetrate dirt well. They preventfilms and spotting because of their acidity The tempe rature of the sanitizing solutionshould be below 48 0C (118 0F).

Quaternary ammonium compounds work well on floors, walls, equipment, andfurnishings in meat and pou ltry plants. The "quats" work well on porous surfaces be-

cause they penetrate well. Quats form a film on surfaces which inhibits bacterialgrowth. Sanitizers and compounds that contain an acid and a quat sanitizer workbest for controlling Listeria monocytogenes and mold. Sanitarians may use quats tem-porarily when they find mold buildup.

Acid sanitizers combine rinsing and sanitizing steps. Acid neutralizes the excessalkali from the cleaning residues, prevents alkaline deposits from forming, and sani-tizes. C hapter 6 has m ore inform ation about sanitizers.

P E R S O N L H Y G I E N E N D W O R K H B I T S O F E M P L O Y E E S

General Instructions

All personnel should have good personal hygiene (see Chap. 4). They should wearclean clothes and stay away from work if they are ill. Only supervisors, managers,and superintendents should have access to cleaning and sanitizing compounds ashould be responsible for giving them to cleaning staff. Wrong use of these com-

pounds is expensive, does not result in good cleaning, and could damage employor equ ipmen t. Supervisors should lock the w ater tem perature at 55 0C (131 0F).

Instructions for portable or centralized high-pressure or foam cleaning systemsshould be followed. The vendor's recommendations for using cleaning compoundsshould be followed. (See Chap. 4 for information on safety precautions for cleaningcompounds.)

The sanitation supervisor should inspect the entire plant each night after clean-i ng . A ll soiled areas should be cleaned again before the regulatory agency inspects

the plant in the morning.Chlorine test papers should be used to check the concentration of sanitizing


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solutions if automatic mixing equipment is not available. The test papers com e invials of 100 strips each and are available through most cleaning-com pound suppliers

Recommended Sanitary Work Habits

Workers should:

1. Store personal equipm ent (lunch, clothing, etc.) in a sanitary place, and alwayskeep storage lockers clean.

2. Wash and sanitize utensils freque ntly throughout the production shift, andstore them in a sanitary container that will not be in contact with floors,clothing, lockers, or pockets.

3. Not allow food to touch surfaces that have not been sanitized. If any foodtouches the floor or other unclean surface, it should be rinsed thoroughly withdrinkable water.

4. Use disposable towels for hands or utensils.5. W ear clean clothing in production areas.6. Cover their hair so that it does not contaminate food.7. R emove their aprons, gloves, or other clothing that m ay touch the product

before using toilets.8. A lways wash and sanitize their hands when leaving the toilet area .9. Stay away from production areas when they have an infectious disease, infected

wound, cold, sore throat, or skin disease.10. Not use tobacco in any production area.

H A C C P

In the future, the U.S. Departmen t of Agriculture, which regulates the hygienic pro-duction of meat and poultry products, may require use of a HAC CP program.(Chapter 10 gives more detail about HACC P.)

HACCP does not have to be expensive. The control points are chosen becausethey are important for keeping the food safe. Design, maintenance, and process con-trol are important control points and are quite inexpensive. Microbial tests are ex-pensive and do not control the process well.

Sanitation staff can develop a simple HACCP flowchart for the meat or poultryproduction line. The flowchart includes a long sequence of events with steps tha t aredifficult or impossible to control. San itation employees can identify the factors thataffect the hazards of each step and decide on critical control po ints.

Components of M eat and Poultry Production for H A C C P Analysis

Livestock and poultry produc tion. It is possible to raise animals in a specific pathogen-

free (SPF) environment to reduce contamination. Farmers can also give animals cul-tures of good bacteria to com pete with pathogens and keep their numbers down.


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Farm environment. The farm (pastures, streams, manure, etc.) helps recycle excretedpathogens in a cycle of infection , excretion, and reinfection . Sanitation practices canimprove hygiene in this area.

Transportation. Transporting live animals is stressful and may cause animals carry-ing pathogens to spread these microorganisms. It is challenging to keep transporta-tion sanitary to reduce contamination in the processing plant.

Animal-holding pens. Stress in animal-holding pens can cause changes in the balancof microbes in the intestines so that the animals shed more Salmonella spp. in their fe-ces. Showering the animals can reduce the amoun t of stress and contamination.

Hide pelt hair or feather remova l. Meat animals have protective coats that oftencontain harmful microorganisms. The industry needs better procedures and equip-ment to remove the outer layers without contaminating the meat.

Removal of internal organs. Intestines can spill and internal organs can burst, releas-ing microbes onto the m eat. A series of water or sanitizer sprays can reduce containation of poultry or red-meat carcasses. Spraying does not completely remove mcroorganisms and can spread them over the carcass.

Inspection. A meat inspector can contaminate dressed carcasses with his or herhands or a knife. The inspector should sanitize the knife and his or her hands.

Chilling. A ir tem perature, air movement, relative humidity, and filtering air all affectthe speed of chilling. Keeping the carcass surface dry helps stop microorganismsfrom growing. Trimming the neck flap area of poultry carcasses after chilling can re-duce the number of m icrobes.

Further processing. Processors should not allow chilled carcasses and cuts of meatto get wa rm. Processing equipment should have a hygienic design, and should besanitized before use. Any ingredients added to processed meats should be safe andwholesome.

Packaging. Proper packaging protects the food product from contamination. Properstorage temperatures are also important.

Distribution. Distribution must be fast, clean, and cold. Vehicles should be inspectedfor cleanliness and temperature control.

Critical Control Points for Beef Production

The following critical control points (CCPs) have been suggested by the Meat andPoultry Group of the National Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods for

reducing the risk of pathogens on fresh beef:


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CCPl-Skinning: The hide is very contaminated, and there is no good way to remove soil from the live animal before slaughter. Therefore, it is important to skin theanimal to cut down on cross-contamination from the hide to the carcass.

CCP2~Prewash: This step should remove most of the contamination from contactwith the hide and minimize attachment of microbes to the carcass.

CCP3-Bacterial wash: Bactericidal compounds (e.g., acetic acid) reduce contami-nation w ith microbes, including pathogens from the animals intestines.

CCP4-Evisceration: Animals hold large numbers of pathogens in their intestines.The best way to make sure these pathogens do not contaminate the carcass is teach operators how to remove the intestines and internal organs without burstithem.

CCP5-Final wash: This bactericidal rinse reduces the number of microbes on thecarcass and minimizes the number of pathogens that are carried into the rest of processing and packaging process.

CCP6-CMI: Rapid chilling controls the growth of pathogens.CCPT -Storage: Strict temperature control and daily cleaning and sanitizing of

equipment prevent pathogens from growing. The population of pathogens at thispoint shows how well the previous CCPs have controlled contamination.Maintaining the product temperature below 70C (450F) is a CC P to prevent growthof pathogens during packaging and distribution.

S N I T T I O N P R O C E D U R E S

It is a good idea to have written cleaning instructions for each operation. Writtenprocedures are especially useful when there is a change in supervisor and for trainingnew employees. More mechanized processes have more detailed and complicatedcleaning methods. Written details of cleaning operations should be posted in the

plant.Before deciding on a cleaning procedure, sanitarians must understand how allproduction and cleaning equipment operates. Here are some examples of cleaningprocedures for various areas of a plant. These examples are only guidelines.Sanitarians need to adapt cleaning procedures to the particular area and process.

Livestock and Poultry Trucks

Frequency. After hauling each load.Procedure1. Immediately after removing livestock or pou ltry from trucks, scrape and remove

all m anure.2. Clean the truck beds, wheels, and frame by washing down the racks, floors, and

frames with water to completely remove all manure, mud, and other debris.Completely disinfect w ith a quaternary ammonium sanitizer spray, or clean and

sanitize in one step by spray cleaning with an alkaline detergent sanitizer.


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Livestock Pens

Frequency. As soon as possible after removing each lot.

Procedure1. After taking the livestock from each pen, clean the manure from the floors and

walls, and remove it from the plant.2. Every 4 months, scrape all dried m anure and loose whitewash off the gates and

partitions. Sweep cobwebs from the ceilings, and whitewash the inside of thepens. M ix an acid-type sanitizer with the whitewash.

3. If any animals have an infectious disease, quarantine the diseased animals anddestroy them separately from the healthy livestock. Remove the manure from the

pen area (use a hose if necessary), and disinfect the pens by spraying with a qua-ternary ammonium sanitizer.

A general cleaning procedure for slaughter and processing areas includes:

1. R emoving general debris2. Prerinsing and wetting3. A pplying the cleaning compound

4. Rinsing5. Inspecting6. Sanitizing7. Preventing recontamina tion

The first step saves time and water and cuts down the load that enters the sewage sys-tem. R emoving debris also means less splashing of large particles during the second step.

Slaughter Area

Frequency. Every day. Debris should be removed several times during the production shift.

Procedure1. Pick up all large pieces of debris and put into trash containers.2. Cover all electrical connections with plastic sheeting.3. Quickly prerinse all soiled areas with water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). Start

with the ceiling, walls, and the top of the equipment, and keep debris movingdown to the floor. Do not spray water directly onto motors, outlets, and electri-cal cables.

4. Apply an alkaline cleaner using a centralized or portable foam system and waterat 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). The system should reach all framework, undersides,and other difficult-to-reach areas. M ake sure the foam is in contact with the sur-faces for 5 to 20 minutes before rinsing. Foam requires less labor, but high-pressureequipment is better for hard-to-reach areas and for removing Listeria m onocytogenes.


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4. A pply the cleaning com pound for 20 minutes, then rinse using high-pressurewater at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F).

5. R emove, clean, and replace drain covers.

6. Put all hoses away.

Processed-Products Area

Frequency. Daily.

Procedure1. Take all equipment apart and place the parts on a table or rack.

2. Pick up large pieces of meat and other debris and put into trash containers3. Cover all electrical connections with plastic sheeting.4. Prerinse all surfaces with water at 50 to 55 0C (122-131 0F). Start at the top of

processing equipment, and wash debris down to the floor. Do not spraymotors, ou tlets, and electrical cables.

5. A pply an alkaline cleaner using a centralized or portable high-pressure, low-volume system using water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). M ake sure the systemreaches all framework, tables, the undersides of equipment, and other difficult-to-reach areas. Soak the equipm ent in the cleaning solution for 5 to 20minutes. Foam can also be used, although it does not penetrate well.

6. R inse using water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). R inse one side of each piece ofequipment at a time.

7. Inspect all equipmen t surfaces and reclean if necessary.8. Apply an organic sanitizer to all clean equipment using a centralized or

portable sanitizing unit.

9. Remove, clean, and replace drain covers.10. Use a white edible oil on surfaces that may rust or corrode.11. Be careful not to contaminate equipment during m aintenance.

Fresh-Product Processing Areas

Frequency. Daily

Procedure1. Take all equipment apart and place the parts on a table or rack.2. R emove large pieces of debris from equipment and the floor and put into trash

containers.3. Cover mixer, packaging equipment, motors, outlets, scales, controls, and fat

analysis equipment with plastic sheeting.4. Quickly prerinse all soiled surfaces w ith water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F) to wash

o ff large pieces of debris and to wet the surfaces. Hose debris towards a floor drain.5. A pply an alkaline cleaner using centralized or portable high-pressure, low-vo

ume cleaning equipment and water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). Or apply the


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cleaning com pound as a foam, gel, or slurry. M ake sure the cleaning compoundcovers the w hole area, including equipm ent, floors, walls, and doors.

6. R inse the area and equipm ent w ithin 2 0 to 25 minutes after applying the

detergent.7. Inspect the area and equipment and reclean if necessary.8. R emove, clean, and replace drain covers.9. Sanitize a ll clean equipment with an organic sanitizer using a centralized or

portable sanitizing unit.10. Use a white edible oil on surfaces that may rust or corrode.11. Be careful not to contaminate equipment during maintenance.

Processed-Products Packaging Area

Frequency. Daily.

Procedure

1. Take all equipment apart and place the parts on a table or a rack.2. R emove large pieces of debris from equipment and floors and put in trash

containers.3. Cover packaging equipm ent, m otors, outlets, scales, controls, and otherequipment with plastic sheeting.

4. Prerinse all soiled surfaces with water at 50 to 55 0C (122-131 0F) to removeheavy soil and to wet the surfaces. Hose debris towards a floor drain.

5. Apply an alkaline cleaner using centralized or portable high-pressure, low-vol-ume cleaning equipment and w ater at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F). Or use a foam,gel, or slurry to apply the cleaning com pound. M ake sure the cleaning com-pound covers the entire area, including equipment, floors, walls, and doors.

6. Rinse the area and equipment within 20 to 25 m inutes after applying thecleaning compound.

7. Inspect the area and equipment and reclean if necessary8. R emove, clean, and replace drain covers.9. Sanitize the clean equipment with an organic sanitizer using a centralized or

portable sanitizing unit.

10. Use a white edible oil on surfaces that may rust or corrode.11. Be careful not to contaminate equipment during m aintenance.

Brine-Curing and Packaging Area

Frequency. Daily.

Procedure

1. Pick up all large pieces of debris and put in a trash container.2. Cover all electrical connections, scales, and food products with plastic sheeting.


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3. Prerinse the area and equipment with water at 50 to 55 0C (122-131 0F).4. Put an acid cleaner in the shrink tunnel (if used), and circulate for about 30

minutes while prerinsing.

5. Rinse the shrink tunnel before applying the detergent.6. Put all debris from prerinsing in a trash container.7. Apply an alkaline cleaner using a foam or slurry cleaning system and water at

50 to 55 0C (122-131 0F).8. Rinse with water at 50 to 55 0C (122-131 0F) no more than 20 minutes after

applying the detergent.

9. Inspect the area and equipment and reclean i f necessary.10. Remove, clean, and replace the drain covers.

11. Sanitize all clean equipment using an organic sanitizer and a central or portablesystem.

12. Use white edible oil on parts that may rust or corrode.

13. Be careful not to contaminate equipment during maintenance.

Smokehouses

Frequency. After each smoke period.

Procedure1. Pick up large pieces of debris and put in trash containers.2. Apply an alkaline cleaning compound recommended for cleaning smokehouses

using a centralized or portable foam system. Use a high-pressure unit wherefoam cannot penetrate. Figure 12.4 shows a unit for cleaning a smokehouse.

3. Rinse the area no more than 20 to 30 minutes after applying the cleaning com-pound. Start by rinsing the ceiling and walls, and work all debris down to thefloor drain.

4. Inspect all areas and reclean if necessary.5. Apply an iodophor or quaternary ammonium sanitizer using a centralized or

portable sanitizing unit around the entry area to cut down on air contamination.

Smoke GeneratorFrequency. Depends on amount of use.

Procedurea. F ilter

1. Soak the filter in an alkaline cleaning solution2. If the filter has mineral deposits, cut the frame apart and clean each leaf.

Reweld the frame after cleaning and avoid warping it .


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F I G U R E 12.4. A portable atomizer that covers all stainless-steel surf aces in a smoke-house and reduces cleaning time by 60 to 75%. (Courtesy of Birko Chemical Corporation.)

b. W ash Chamber

1. Take apart the duct connecting the smoke generator to the house.2. Clean the soot and ash out of the chamber below the filter.3. Clean the duct and chamber surface until the metal shows.

Wire Pallets and M etal Containers

Frequency. Before use.

Procedure1. Use high-pressure water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F) or cooler as a prerinse.2. Apply an alkaline cleaner using a foam unit. If foam is not available, use a high-

pressure, low-volume unit. Do not spray too many containers at one time. Becareful to rinse the containers before the cleaning compound dries.

3. R inse with a high-pressure spray of water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F).4. Inspect all containers and reclean if needed.


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Offices, Locker Rooms and Rest Rooms

Frequency. Daily for offices, at least every other day for lockerrooms and rest rooms.

Procedure1. Cover electrical connections with plastic sheeting.2. C lean areas with a foam or high-pressure unit (or scrub and mop).3. No more than 20 minutes after applying the cleaning compound, rinse with

water at 50 to 550C (122-131 0F).4. If these steps do not clean dirty areas or if drains are not present, hand-scrub

with scouring pads.

T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G T I P S

Discolored floors: Lighten darkened concrete floors using a bleach solution (soakfor at least 30 minutes). Finish cleaning the floor using a mechan ical scrubber.

White film buildup on equipment: Too much cleaning compound, poor rinsing, orhard water cause this film. Do not use too much cleaning compound, rinse thor-oughly, and use soft water.

Conveyor wheels freezing: The cleaning water is probably too hot. Wheels lose lu-bricant when the temp erature reaches 9O0C (194 0F). The cleaning solutions shouldnot be hotter than 550C (131 0F). R elubricate the conveyor wheels (follow the manu-facturer's directions).

Sewer lines plugged: Clean sediment bowls daily, and do not flush floor sweepingsinto sewer pipes.

Ye l l o w protein buildup on equipment: The w ater may be too h ot. Brush away the or-ganic m aterial that builds up every day. If soil has been cooked onto equipment for along time, rub with steel wool to remove the soil.

Do not spray: liver slicers, cube steak machines, electronic scales, patty machineelectrical outlets, motors, or equipment with open connections, wrapping film orcontainers, and wrapping units. Cover all outlets with polyethylene bags, and covelectrical equipm ent with w aterproof drop cloths. Follow the m anufacturer's recommen dations when cleaning this equipmen t.

SU RY

A good cleaning system can cut labor costs in meat and pou ltry plants by asmuch as 50%.

L monocytogenes is a comm on pathogen in m eat- and poultry-processing plants. The optimal cleaning system depends on the type of soil and the type of equip

ment. High-pressure, low-volume cleaning equipment works best for removingheavy organic soil, especially in areas that are difficult to reach. But foams, slur-ries, and gels are quicker and easier to apply. CIP systems are expensive and do

not w ork well in meat and pou ltry plants, except in large storage containers. HACCP is a good way to make sure that meat and poultry products are safe to eat.


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Operators of meat and poultry plants use acid cleaning com poun ds to removemineral deposits and alkaline cleaning compoun ds to remove organic soils.Chlorine compounds are the best and cheapest sanitizers. But iodine com-pounds are less corrosive and irritating, and quaternary ammonium sanitizershave a longer-lasting effect.

Ope rators should have written cleaning procedures for each area of the plant.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Daun, H., Solberg, M ., Franke, W, and Gilbert, S. 1971. Effect of oxygen-enrichedatmospheres on storage quality o f packaged fresh meat. J. Food Sd . 36:1001.

Douglas, G . S. 1987. Listeria and food processing. Technics/Topics 11:2.Doyle, M . P 1987. Low-temperature bacterial pathogens. Proc. Meat Ind. Res . Con/.,p. 51. A merican M eat Institute, W ashington, D.C.

Ledward, D. A. 1970. Metmyoglobin formation in beef stored in carbon dioxide en-riched and oxygen depleted atmospheres. J. Food Sd . 35:33.

M arriott, N. G . 1994. Principles o f Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New York.Marriott, N. G. 1990. Meat Sanitation Guide II. A merican A ssociation of M eat P rocessors

and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, B lacksburg.

Price, J. F, and Schweigert, B. S. 1987. The Science of Meat and Meat Products, 3d ed.Food & N utrition Press, W estport, C onn.R oback, D. L., and Costilow, R . M. 1961. Role of bacteria in the oxidation of myoglo-

bin. Appl Microbiol 9:529.Shapton, D. A ., and Shapton, N. E, eds. 1991. Buildings. In Principles and Practices

for the a fe Processing of Foods, p. 37. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.Smulders, E J. M. 1987. M icrobial con tamination and decontamination. Proc. Meat

Ind. Res . Con/., p. 29. American M eat Institute, W ashington, D.C.

Solberg, M . 1968. Factors affecting fresh meat color. Proc. Meat Ind. Res . Con/., p. 32.American M eat Institute Foundation, Chicago.

S T U D Y QUESTIONS

1. W hy doesn't refrigeration control L . monocytogenes?

2. List six steps to control L monocytogenes.3 . Give five reasons why good sanitation is im portan t in m eat- and poultry-

processing facilities.4. What are the basic steps of a cleaning procedure?5. Give three examples of CCPs.6. W hy are written sanitation procedures im portan t?

To FIND OUT MORE ABOUT M E AT AND P O U LT R Y S A N I TAT I O N

1. Call the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Meat & Poultry Hotline, (1 -800) 535-4555 for answers to questions abo ut handling m eat and poultry, how to tell iit's safe to eat, and how to read meat and poultry labels. The hotline is staffed from 8 a.m.


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C H O O S I N G T H E R IG H T C R I T IC A L C O N T R O L POINTA N D T H E R IG H T C R IT IC A L L I M I T

For HACCP to work, it is important to find out what the critical control points (CCPs)a r e i.e., where th e meat becomes most contaminated during processing. Each C C Pthen needs a critical limit, i.e., whatever is needed to keep the contamination lowenough to be acceptable at that point.

This study found that inspecting lamb carcasses is not a good way to tell whethe r a car-cass is heavily contaminated with microbes. Carcasses that had visible pieces of wool,skin, feces, or othe r intestinal m atter were not always carrying more microbes tha n car-casses that looked clean. B ut carcasses from animals that had long wool or that hadbeen washed before slaughter carried more microbes than animals with short wool orthat had not been washed. Therefore, checking the length of the wool on the lambswhen they arrive at the slaughterhouse and not prewashing the lambs are more impor-tant than checking carcasses on the line for obvious contamination.

This study shows that sanitarians need to do a careful hazard analysis and use microbi-ological testing when they set up the HACCP system, to m ake sure that the things theydecide to monitor are really the most important points in the process where the foodproduct could be contaminated.

Source: Biss, M.E., and Hathaway, S.C. 1995. Microbiological and visible contamination of lambcarcasses according to preslaughter presentation status: implications for HACCP. J. FoodProtection. 58:776.

to 5 p .m. (EST), Monday to Friday. Y ou can also write to: The Meat and Poultry Hotline,USDA-FSIS, Room 1163-S 1 W ashington, DC 20250.

2. Call the toll-free number on a package of processed meats, and ask if the manufacturer

has information on food safety of their products.3. C ontact the National Cattlemen's Beef Association, (312) 467-5520, 444 North Michigan

Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, and ask for information on food safety and sanitation for red-meat products.


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Seafood Sanitation

A B O U T T H I S C H A P T E R

In this chap ter you will learn:1. How seafood can be contaminated2. How the design and construction of seafood-processing plants

can cut down on seafood contamination3. How to clean and sanitize seafood-processing plants4. How seafood processors can recover or recycle by-products5. Ab out inspection programs and H AC CP in the seafood industry

I N T R O D U C T I O N

To keep the facility safe and hygienic, seafood processors need to know about:

M icroorganisms tha t cause spoilage and foodborne illness Types of soil they will need to remove Good cleaning compound s and sanitizers

Types of cleaning equipment they can use Good cleaning proced ures

Processors need to know about federal, state, and local public-health regulations.B y law, seafood does not have to be continually inspected during processing. But re-cently, the possible risks associated with eating fish and shellfish have received a lotof publicity. Several bills have been introduced in both the U.S. Senate and House ofRepresentatives calling for some type of mandatory seafood inspection to protectconsumers from health hazards, economic fraud, and unacceptable or unsanitarymanufacturing practices.

C H A P T E R 3


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Regulations are not the only reason w hy seafood processors should use strict san-itary m ethods. Another important reason is that consumers are more and m ore awarethat food, including fish and seafood, should be nutritious, wholesome, andprocessed under sanitary conditions.

Therefore, sanitation programs are essential so that seafood processors can pro-vide consumers with high-quality, wholesome food. These guidelines cover thestructure and w ork practices in new, old, expande d, a nd renovated plants. Every stepfrom harvesting to eating must be controlled to make sure that only wholesomeseafood prod ucts reach the consumer.

S O U R C E S O F S E F O O D C O N T M I N T I O N

T he environment around a seafood plant can contaminate the plant and its products.The processing equipment, containers, and work surfaces can also contaminateseafood. A good sanitation program reduces the amount of contamination andchecks that th e program is working.

Seafood involves many d ifferent types of sea animals, and some types are more likelyto be contaminated than others. M ollusks (e.g., mussels) are more likely to be contami-nated than crustaceans (e.g., shrim p) or fin fish (e.g., trout, salmon, snapper). T his is

because mollusks feed by filtering seawater, so they can easily filter out contaminants aswell as food. T he raw product can be contaminated, especially if it is not harvested prop-erly and the boat or truck that carries it is not sanitary. Delaying refrigeration after harvest-ing and o ther handling errors between harvesting and processing can cause the seafoodto decompose (develop-off-conditions) and allow microbes to grow rapidly in the food.

The day after harvesting, the quality and safety of seafood are usually good if:

1. Chilling begins imm ediately after harvesting.2. Chilling reduces the temperature of the product to 1O0C (5O0F) w ithin 4 hours.3. Chilling continues to approxim ately I 0 C 34 0F).

If a processor stores seafood at 270C 81 0F) or higher for 4 hours and then chillsit to I 0 C 34 0F), the fish will be safe to eat for only 12 hours.

Workers can contaminate seafood, especially through poor hygiene. Also, process-ing equ ipm ent, boxes, belts, tools, walls, floors, utensils, supplies, and pests can con-taminate seafood. The most serious problem is when microbes contaminate ready-to-eat foods. Therefore, w orkers must carefully clean and sanitize all equipment.

S A N I T AT I O N M A N A G E M E N T

A seafood sanitation program must include proper sanitation practices and adequatestaffing.

Staff

Seafood facilities need a well-qualified sanitarian. T he seafood plant manager is re-sponsible for making sure that there is a good sanitation program. Products must be


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wholesome, sanitation employees must be trained to keep th e plant clean, and em-ployees should know about seafood products and proper sanitation. Employees withinfectious illnesses should not work in processing areas, even during cleaning. SeeChap . 4 for more inf orm ation abou t employee health.)

Seafood-processing plants should have at least one employee responsible for in-specting all equipment and processing areas for hygienic conditions every day.Workers should reclean and sanitize anything that is not sanitary before they beginproduction.

The Cleaning Schedule

T he plant must have a step-by-step cleaning sched ule. Each area of the plant shouldhave its own schedule, and supervisors should follow it rigidly. W orkers should cleanequipment that runs continuously (such as conveyors, filleting machines, batter andbread ing machines, cookers, and tunnel freezers) at the end of each p roduction shift.If the area is not refrigerated, workers should clean batter machines and other equip-ment that holds milk or egg products every 4 hours. T he worker should drain th ebatter, flush the b atter reservoir with clean w ater, and apply a sanitizer. At the end ofthe production shift, workers should take the equipment apart and clean and sani-

tize each part. Workers should store machine parts and portable equipment off thefloor in a clean area away from splash w ater, du st, and other types of contam ination.Workers should take the following steps when cleaning seafood plants:

1. Cover electrical equipm ent with polyethylene sheeting.2. Rem ove large deb ris and put it in trash containers.3. Manually or mechanically remove soil from the walls and floors by scraping or

brushing, or by hosing with mechanized cleaning equipment. Start at the top ofequipm ent and walls, and w ork dow n towa rd the floor drains or exit.

4. Take the equipment apart .5. Prerinse w ith w ater a t 4O0C (1040F) or lower to wet the surfaces, and remove

large and water-soluble debris. T he temperature is im portant . A higher tem pera-ture can bake soil onto surfaces.

6. Apply a cleaning comp ound that works on organic soil (usually an alkalinecleaner) using portable or centralized high-pressure, low-volume or foam equip-ment. T he cleaning solution should not be hotter than 550C (1310F). Cleaning

com pound s such as a general-purpose cleaner or a chlorinated alkaline deter-gent usually w ork w ell. U se m ore than one cleaner to remove the different typesof soil See Chap. 5 for more inform ation about cleaning com pounds and Chap.7 for more info rm ation about cleaning systems.)

7. Leave the cleaning compound for about 15 m inutes to work on the soil, andrinse the equipm ent and area w ith water at 55 to 6O0C 131-14O 0F). Hotter wa-te r removes fats, oils, and inorganic m aterials well but also increases energy costsand leaves m ore cond ensation on the eq uipme nt, walls, and ceilings. T he clean-

ing compound emulsifies fats and oils at cooler tem pera tures.8. Inspect the equipment and the facility, and reclean if necessary.


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9. Make sure th at the p lant is microbially clean by using a sanitizer. Chlorinecompounds are the most economical and most widely used, but are not theonly method (see Chap. 6). T able 13.1 shows the recommended concentrationsfor various sanitizers. Sanitizers w ork best w hen staff use them in a portablesprayer in small operations or a centralized spraying or fogging system in large-volume operations. Chapter 7 also discusses equipment for applying sanitizers.

10. Avoid contaminating th e equipment and the area during m aintenance andsetup. Require maintenance workers to carry a san itizer and to use it wherethey have worked.

Further information about cleaning compounds, sanitizers, and cleaning equip-m ent is provided in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

T A B L E 1 3 1 Recommended Sanitizer Concentrations for Various Areas

Concentration, ppm

QuaternaryAvailable Available Ammonium

Application Chlorine Iodine Compounds

Washwater 2-10 Not recommended Not recommended

Hand-dip Not recommended 8-12 150

Clean, smooth surfaces 50-100 10-35 Not recommended(rest rooms and glassware)

Equipment and utensils 300 12-20 200

Rough surfaces (worn 1,000-5,000 125-200 500-800tables, concrete floors,and walls)

P L A N T C O N S T R U C T I O N

A well-designed plant can help make the sanitation program work better and moreefficiently. B ut even a well-designed plant cannot stop microbial infestation or othercontamination unless the facility also has a good maintenance and sanitation pro-gram. In a hygienic operation, the employer or management team insist on goodhousekeeping and are constantly watching out for sanitation problems in all build-ings, areas, equipment, employees, and ingred ients.

Site Requirements

Many seafood-processing sites are conveniently close to water. Engineering manage-m ent should m ake sure that storm surges will not dam age the facility or contaminate


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food products. Designers should look closely at receiving areas where raw materialsarrive by boat or truck .

T he site should be clean and attrac tive. Cleanliness and neatness help the firm'spublic image, and good first impressions are important to inspectors and the public.T he cond ition of the outside of the plant often suggests the plant's hygiene standardsinside. T he Food and Drug Administration reports that areas not properly drainedmay contaminate food products through seepage and by providing a place for mi-croorganisms and insects to grow. Very dusty roads, yards, or park ing lots can conta-m inate areas where food is exposed. A lso untid y refuse, litter, equip m ent, and uncutweeds or grass around the plant buildings may be a good place for rodents, insects,and other pests to breed.

T he site should have a way to dispose of seafood wastes. Solids, liquids, vapors,and odors that come from the plant are not good signs and can lead to legal action byregulators or concerned citizens. Waste-disposal facilities must meet federal, state,and local requireme nts. It is best to get clearance or approval before building the fa-cility or system to avoid expensive and time-consuming changes later on.

T he site must also have enough drinkable w ater for the plant's needs. If the watercomes from wells, sanitarians should analyze the water for m inerals and microbes tomake sure it meets regulations. T he plant also needs a plan for its w astewater.

Construction

Builders mus t use m aterials that are easy to clean, resist corrosion, do not de teriora tein other ways, and do not absorb water. Air or mesh screens should cover all open-ings to keep insects, rodents, birds, and other pests out. T he facility should be largeenough to be w ell-organized, tidy, and sanitary. T he sanitary features of various partsof the building are discussed here.

Floors Floors should be made of hard, nonporous m aterial, such as waterproof con-crete or tile. T he m aterial should be durable and have an even surface so that it doesnot hold debris. But the surface should not be so smooth that it is slippery and dan-gerous. A rough finish or use of abrasive particles in the surface can cut down on acci-den ts. Water-based acrylic epoxy resin is a pop ular, dura ble, nonab sorben t, and easyto-clean surface. Acid brick floors are also good and durable but are very expensive.

Floor drains T he processing area needs a floor drain for each 37 m2

(44 yds2

) offloor space. Floors in the processing areas should slope down to a drainage outlet(slope of 2 ). T he slope m ust be un ifor m , w ithout dead spots that trap w ater anddebris. All drains should have traps. Drainage lines should be at least 10 cm (4 in)wide inside and should be made of cast iron, steel, or polyvinyl chloride tubing.Designers need to check state and local codes to m ake sure that they allow these ma-terials. Drainage lines should have vents to the outside air to cut down on odors andcontam ination. All vents should have screens so pests ca nnot use them to get into

the plant. Drainage lines from toilets should connect right into the sewage system,not into other drainage lines, so that production areas cannot be contaminated bybackup from the toilet areas.


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leave through storage tanks so that it can be constantly fed into the drainage systemw ithout flowing over the floor.

R E C O V E R I N G B Y P R O D U C T S

Waste management, including recycling seafood waste products, is becoming moreand more im portant. A good recovery system can m ake the operation m ore hygienicas well as save money M any food processors now recycle or reduce their liquid waste.

New ways to conserve water include:

U se of uncontam inated wastewater from one area of a food-processing operation(e.g., water from the final rinse in a cleaning cycle) in other areas that do not,need drinkable water

U se of closed w ater systems in food-processing operations in which all w aterused in processing is continuously filtered to remove solids

U se of dry conveyors to transport solids, instead of water

V O L U N T A R Y I N S P E C T I O N P R O G R A M S

T he seafood industry has a voluntary seafood inspection program conducted by theU S Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. This systematicsanitation inspection program helps th e industry begin and m aintain sanitary opera-tions. The program has helped to increase the amount of wholesome seafood that isproduced and eaten.

Hazard nalysis Critical Control Point

In 1968,

the seafood industry began testing

a HACCP program

for breaded

andcooked shrimp at nine plants in different areas of the U nited States. U se of HACCP isincreasing throughout the seafood industry. Boxed text at the end of this chaptergives more inform ation about how seafood processors can use HACCP programs.

Seafood inspection is not required by law If an inspection law is passed, it is notyet known which federal organization will oversee the program. Scientists and in-dustry representatives disagree as to whether seafood inspection should be manda-tory and if it should be under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, U.S.Department of Agriculture, National Marine Fisheries Service, or a combination ofthese organizations. A seafood inspection bill will probably be passed soon and willbe based on HACCP principles.

SU RY

Hygienic plan t design helps seafood processors produce wholesome seafoodproducts.

The location of the seafood plant affects sanitation inside the facility.


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The design of the plant and the materials used to construct the plant and equip-ment are also important to the sanitation program.

A hygienic operation depends on having enough staff for cleaning and an orga-

nized, step-by-step cleaning schedule. The sanitation program should use the best cleaning compounds, cleaning

equipment, and sanitizers.

Recovering by-products, using recommendations from regulatory agencies, andparticipating in voluntary inspection programs improves the sanitation program.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

A F D O U S Association of Food and Drug Officials of the United States). 1962. J.Assoc. Food Drug O f f 26:39.

Jowitt , R. 1980. Hygienic Design and Operation o f Food lant AVl Publishing Co.,Westport, Conn.

Lane, J. P. 1979. Sanitation recommendations for fresh and frozen fish plants. InSanitation Notebook for the Seafood Industry p. 11-9, G. J. Flick, Jr., et al, eds.Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState University, Blacksburg.

Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, N ew York.M arriott, N. G. 1980. Meat Sanitation Guide Il American Association of Meat Processors

and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.Nardi , G. C. 1992. Seafood safety and consumer confidence. Food Protection Inside

Report 8:2A.Neal , C . L. 1979. Sanitary standards under th e Department of Commerce Voluntary

Seafood Inspection Program. In Sanitation Notebook for the Seafood Industryp. 1V-12, G. J. Flick, Jr., et al., eds. Department of Food Science and Technology,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.

Nickelson, R. 11. 1979. Food contact surfacesindices of sanitation. In SanitationNotebook for the Seafood Industry p. I I50, G. J. Flick, Jr. et al., eds. Departmentof Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and StateUniversity, Blacksburg.

Perkins, B . E . , and Bough, W A . 1979. Seafood industry sanitation through waterconservation and by-product recovery In Sanitation Notebook for the SeafoodIndustry p. 111-17, G. J. Flick, Jr., et al., eds. Department of Food Science andTechnology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. How should seafood be chilled to make sure that it is safe to eat the day after it is harvested?2. What are the basic cleaning steps in a seafood-processing facility?3. Why should the outside of seafood-processing plants be clean and tidy?4. Describe two ways that seafood-processing plants can reduce the amount of water they use.5. Why is a HACCP program better than testing end products?


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(D ) Hea t-processed (sterilized, packed in sealed containers). Often eaten with no ad-ditional cooking.

(E ) Semipreserved fish, including salted or m arinated fish and caviar. Ea ten witho utcooking.

(F) Dried, dry-salted, and smoked dried fish. U sually eaten after cooking.

(G ) Fresh and frozen fish and crustaceans. Usually eaten after cooking.

T he hazard analysis of these prod ucts is fairly simple. T he live seafood are caught in thesea or in freshwater, handled, andin most casesprocessed without additives orchemical preservatives. Most are chilled or frozen to preserve them during shipping.

Most fish and shellfish are cooked before eating, although some are eaten raw (e.g.,Japanese food). Most food-poisoning outbreaks after fish were eatenfish that wascooked right before it was eatenhave been caused by such heat-stable toxins asbiotoxins and histamine. Pathogenic microbes in fish need temperatures above 5 0C(4O0F) to grow. So when seafood is refrigerated, food spoilage bacteria are likely tocause the fish to go off long before the pathogens produce toxins or multiply to largenumbers of pathogens. But if fish are kept at temperatures above 5 0C (4O0F), hista-mine- or biotoxin-producing bacteria have a chance to produce enough toxin or hista-

mine to cause poisoning.Fish caught in some areas may be infected with parasites that can also infect humans.The disease the parasites cause (e.g., anisakisis) is not fatal, and the parasites are de-stroyed if the fish is cooked, but parasites could be a problem if the fish is eaten raw.Freezing also kills the parasites if the temperature is below -2O 0C -4 0F) for 24 hours.

CCPs can be found for most of these hazard s. T he fishing industry cannot and does notneed to control the bacteria in the seafood's natural environment. But regulators canlimit animal and human bacteria that contaminate live fish by controlling fishing in

polluted areas. T hey can also monitor fishing areas for the presence of parasites andbiotoxins. Processors can control growth of bacteria by strict temperature control. Atemperature below 3 0C 37 0F) is a CCP for controlling pathogens and histamine-pro-duction. Monitoring temperatures during handling and processing is a vital part ofHACCP in the seafood industry

When the H AC CP system b egins, it is imp ortant to check q uite often that the system iswo rking properly. T his is done using m icrobiological, chem ical, and sensory tests of theend product and at various stages of production. Once the system is established,processors only need to test occasionally.

Source: Huss, H. H. 1992. Development and use of the HACCP concept in fish process-ing. Int. J. Food Microbiol 15:33-44.


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Fruit and Vegetable Processingand Product Sanitation

BOUT THIS CH PTER

In this chapter you will learn:

1. How to reduce contamination of fruit and vegetable pro ducts from rawpro duc ts, soil, air, water, and pests

2. How good housekeeping and waste-disposal practices can help keep fruitand vegetable products wholesome

3. How the design of fruit- and vegetable-processing plants can affect hygiene

4. Methods for cleaning and sanitizing in fruit- and vegetable-processing plants5. How sanitarians eva luate hygiene in fruit- and vegetable-processing plants

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Like other food operations, facilities that process fruits and vegetables should have asanitation program that uses correct cleaning compounds, sanitizers, and cleaningprocedures. M anagement must oversee and evaluate the sanitation program. The ul-timate goal is to produce food products that are sanitary and wholesome.

R E D U C I N G C O N T M I N T I O N

Effective sanitation prevents microorganisms that cause spoilage and food poisoningfrom getting into fruits and vegetables during production, processing, storage, anddistribution. It is imp ortant to remember that raw fruits and vegetables can have mi-

croorganisms on the surface or inside when they arrive at the plant. These microor-ganisms can contaminate the processing plant.

C H A P T E R 4


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Federal laws require that processed foods be free of pathogenic microorganisms ifthey are shipped between states. For commercially canned foods, the normal steril-ization process destroys all pathogenic bacteria in the container. Washing and peel-ing of fruits and vegetables also help remove microorganisms. Therefore, properlycanned and frozen fruits and vegetables should be wholesome.

Contamination from Soil

The soil in which vegetables grow contains heat-resistant bacteria. If processors do notwash vegetables thoroughly before they are canned, these bacteria can cause a sourtaste and aroma and other types of spoilage. The number and types of microbes are

affected by wind, humidity, sunlight, temperature, domestic and wild animals, irrigationwater, bird droppings, harvesting equipment, and workers. Many pathogens reach fruitsand vegetables during irrigation shortly before harvesting and before the sun dehydratesand destroys the pathogens. Others reach them during harvesting and shipping.

Contamination from Air

Contaminated air transports microorganisms (including pathogens) and pollutants.Air filters can prevent unclean air from entering the food-processing facility

Contamination by Pests

Some pests invade fruits and vegetables while they are forming on the tree or vine.Pests spread viruses, spoilage bacteria, and pathogens, and also cause physical damageto the fruit or vegetable. The pests are often inactive while the fruit or vegetable is form-ing because their skins keep the pests from getting inside, and there is very little mois-ture low Aw) on the surface. As the fruit or vegetable matures, the structure changesand the pests can grow When the protective skins of fruits and vegetables are broken bya bruise, mechanical injury, or attack by insects, microorganisms can get inside.

The pollinating fig wasp is a pest tha t carries microbes that live and grow in thefig while it ripens. Some microbes do not cause spoilage themselves, but they attrac tother organisms, such as fruit flies, which carry spoilage yeasts and bacteria.

Pests also enter fruits and vegetables during transport. Produce is especially vul-nerable at this time if it has cuts or bruises from harvesting.

Processors should not use recirculated water for washing fruits and vegetablesbecause microorganisms build up in the washwater. Chlorinating the washwaterdoes not help because bac terial spores are resistant to chlorine.

Contamination During Processing

Traditional fruit and vegetable canning involved pouring food into containers (metal,

glass, or plastic), sealing, and heat treatment. The heat treatment is called terminalsterilization. The time and temperature are carefully planned to kill Clostridium botu-


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linum spores and most heat-resistant spores of other spoilage organisms. Cannedfoods have what is called "commercial sterility" (i.e., not quite sterile but enoughbacteria and spores are destroyed for the food to be safe). In aseptic packaging oraseptic canning, the food and containers are commercially sterilized separately. Thefood is cooled, and the containers are filled and sealed in aseptic conditions.

In terminal sterilization, the sealed containers are heated (kill step). Because thecontainers are well made and durable, conventional canning is a very safe way toprocess food. This technology can also use HACCP to ensure safety.

Aseptic packaging is a relatively new technology. Therefore, it is important to find thebest test methods to make sure that the package stays intact and sterile during distribution.

S N I T T I O N M N G E M E N T

As in other food plants, managers are legally and morally responsible for providingconsumers with wholesome products. A n effective sanitation program keeps the pro-cessing environm ent clean.

Housekeeping

Housekeeping means being organized and tidy. Supervisors should carefully arrangesupplies, materials, and clothing to keep the operation tidy, thus less likely to be con-taminated and easier to clean.

The sanitarian should be responsible fo r housekeeping, but all production, mainte-nance, and sanitation workers need to work together. Em ployees must keep trash con-tainers, tools, supplies, and personal belongings in their proper places. Trash is morelikely to be thrown away immediately if trash containers are in convenient places.

Insects, rodents, and birds can contaminate foods. When sanitation is goo d, pests

cannot find food and shelter in the plant. U se of air and mesh screens; filling in holes,cracks, and crevices; and other hygienic designs help keep pests out of the plant.Regular pest inspections are also important. (Pest control is discussed in Chap. 9.)

Waste Disposal

Waste is easier to handle and by-products are easier to salvage when solid and liquidwastes are separated. Waste disposal is discussed in Chapter 7. Some food-process-ing plants use waste by-products. The citrus juice industry is very efficient at sal-vaging waste and keeping w aste-disposal costs down. More than 99% of the raw fruitis made into juices, concentrates, or dried cattle feed.

Water Supply

A plentiful supply of clean water is needed for a wholesome product and a clean

plant. Water is not just a cleaning medium; it is also used to heat and cool products,and as an ingredient.


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Staff should check levels of bacteria and organic or inorganic impurities in thewater every day. The number of bacteria determines whether the water is safe to useas a food ingredient or to clean any surface tha t could touch or contaminate the food.Organic and inorganic impurities affect how well the w ater will wash the food, sur-faces, and equipment.

P U N T C O N S T R U C T I O N

Even a well-designed processing plant does not stop microbes from reaching thefood unless each area and each piece of equipment are easy to clean. Proper instruc-tions should be posted fo r each cleaning operation. If a processing plant is being

newly built, expanded , or renovated, all professional staff (mechanical engineers, in-dustrial engineers, food chemists, microbiologists, sanitarians, and operations per-sonnel) should study the functional layouts, mechanical layouts, plumbing layo uts,and equipment and construction specifications. Input from each of these peoplehelps make sure that nothing, including sanitation, is overlooked.

Today, new and expanded fruit- and vegetable-processing plants must use hy-gienic designs because they process such a high volume. High-volume plants aremore mechanized. Mechanized startup, shutdown, cleaning, and sanitizing mean

less chance fo r human error but more chance of missing cleaning errors. Highlymechanized plants use more cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems, and less manual clean-ing, and fewer visual inspections. However, CIP equipment is still rare in fruit- andvegetable-processing plants, except those that manufacture juices.

High-volume processing plants have longer production periods than lower-vol-ume plants. More microbes build up in the plant because they have a longer time toaccumulate and more food goes through the system. S atura tion devices can (1) sensewhen microbes reach an unsafe level, (2 ) stop production, and (3) trigger an auto-

matic cleaning procedure. These devices should probably be set so that they workonly if microbe levels are very high, fo r example, 150% of normal levels.Sanitary design features keep downtime for cleaning and sterilizing to a mini-

mum. To be cost effective, equipment and facilities need to operate as much as possi-ble and produce as little sewage as possible.

Processors can now use mechanized and automatic systems to clean equipmentthat used to have to be cleaned by hand. Before CIP was developed, machines andstorage equipment were taken apart at the end of every production day and hand

cleaned. CIP used to be controlled using a control panel with push buttons. Nowpanels have computer-controlled timers that automatically start and stop cleaning,rinsing, and sanitizing steps. (C IP is discussed in Chap . 7.)

Hygienic plant designs have no crevices (narrow and deep cracks or openings) o rpockets (large cracks and openings) in the buildings and equipment. Crevices areharder to clean than pockets because they are harder to reach.

Principles of Hygienic Design

Newly constructed or remodeled fruit- or vegetable-processing plants should meet atleast the following hygienic design standards:


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Equipment should be designed so that workers can take apar t all surfaces thattouch the food for manual cleaning or CIP.

Outside surfaces should not allow soil, pests, and microorganisms to collect

on the equipment or in the production area (walls, floors, ceilings, hangingsupports, etc.). The equipment should protect food from contamination. All surfaces that touch food should be inert, so that they do not react with the

food and are not absorbed by the food. All surfaces that touch the food should be smooth and nonporous, so that food

particles, insect eggs, and microorganisms cannot collect in tiny cracks orscratches on the surface.

The inside of the equipm ent should have as few crevices and pockets as possible.

The inside and outside of the plant should be sanitary. The following should beavoided so that debris cannot co llect:

Ledges and dirt traps Bolts, screws, and rivets that stick out Recessed corners, uneven surfaces, and hollows

Sharp edges Unfilled edges

The plant should have double-door construction, heavy-duty weather strips, andself-closing door mechanisms to prevent pests from entering the plant.

It is important to make sure that the facility is designed and built properly, other-wise it may need expensive renovations. Also, the plant must be built carefully tomake sure that areas and equipment are not contaminated during construction. The

layout must be flexible, because the processing system may change and use newtechnology. The following po ints can help reduce contamination:

The plant should have adequate storage space for raw materials and supplies.The area should be big enough to inspect raw m aterials before they are stored tomake sure they are not carrying pests or dirt. Contaminated supplies should beseparated from the rest and cleaned so that contamination does not spread.Cleaning and maintenance materials can taint raw m aterials if they share thesame storage area.

Finished food products should be stored separately from raw materials. If thereis not enough space, the production area may be used to store the finishedprod uct. However, this can cause cross-contamination of raw m aterials whilethey are being processed.

Open food production areas should not be blocked or cluttered, so that staff canclean and maintain equipment easily. Staff injuries and equipment damage aremore common in messy work areas.

W aste-removal routes should be short and direct, so that staff do not carry wastethrough open production areas. This is important because waste collectionequipment is often unsanitary.


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R eturned goods are often infested o r partially decompo sed. They must be storedaway from raw m aterial and production areas.

The area around the building should be designed to keep pests o ut. W aste

should be collected, treated, and incinerated away from the plant and away fromair intake vents. The outside area should be easy to clean, well drained, and freeof weeds, discarded equipm ent, and surplus supplies.

E mployees must have excellent personal hygiene (see Chap. 4).

C L E N I N G P R O C E S S I N G P L N T S

Cleaning equipment needs an efficient layout to save cleaning time. If possible, thecleaning layout should be designed when the facility is built, expanded, or reno-vated. It is much easier to install cleaning equipment at the same time as the process-ing equipment than to add it later. The soil found in fruit- and vegetable-processingplants is easy to remove using po rtable cleaning systems in small plants and a combi-nation of CIP and centralized foam cleaning in large plants.

Hot-Water Wash

Water carries cleaning com pounds and suspended soil. It removes sugars, other car-bohydrates, and other compounds that dissolve in water. A hot-water 60-8O 0C,140-176 0F) wash requires very little cleaning equipment. But it uses a lot of laborand energy and causes condensation on equipment and surfaces. This cleaning tech-nique does not remove heavy soil deposits very well.

High-Pressure, Low-Volume Cleaning

High-pressure spray cleaning works well for removing heavy soils in the fruit- andvegetable-processing industry. This method can clean difficult-to-reach areas withless labor, and the cleaning compounds work better at temperatures below 6O0C(14O0F). Water that is hotter than this can bake the soil onto the surface and speedup growth of microbes.

A high-pressure, low-volume system uses portable hydraulic units that can beeasily moved throughout the plant. Portable equipment works well for conveyors

and processing equipment where soaking is impractical and manual cleaning is diffi-cult and time consuming. Centralized high-pressure, low-volume equipment usesthe same principle as the portable unit but provides a higher output per man-hour oflabor. Most suppliers of these systems can give customers technical assistance tomake sure the equipment and cleaning compounds work properly

Foam Cleaning

Portable foam cleaning is used a lot in fruit- and vegetable-processing plants becausethe foam is quick and easy to apply to ceilings, walls, piping, belts, and storage con-


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tainers. The equipment is about the same size and costs about the same as portablehigh-pressure units.

Centralized foam cleaning uses the same technique as portable foam equipmentand the equipment is installed at convenient places in the plant. The cleaning com-pound mixes with water and air automatically to form a foam.

Gel Cleaning

With this method, the cleaning compound is used as a gel rather than as a spray orfoam. Gel works well for cleaning, canning, and packaging equipment because itclings to the surface.

Slurry Cleaning

This method is the same as foam cleaning, except that less air is mixed with thecleaning compound. A slurry is more liquid than foam and penetrates uneven sur-faces in a canning plant better, but it does not cling as well as foam.

Combination Centralized High-Pressure and Foam CleaningThis system is the same as centralized high pressure, except that the equipment canalso apply foam. This method is more flexible because foam can be used for largesurface areas, and high pressure can be used for belts, stainless-steel conveyors, andhard-to-reach areas in a canning plant.

Cleaning in Place CIP)

With this closed system, a recirculating cleaning solution is sprayed into the equip-ment through nozzles and automatically cleans, rinses, and sanitizes equipment. CIPequipment is expensive and does not work well on heavy soil. But CIP cleaning isused in vacuum chambers, pumping and circulation lines, and large storage tanks.High-volume operations use CIP cleaning because it saves so much labor, whichpays for the equipment more quickly. See Chapter 7 for more information aboutcleaning equipment.

C L E N E R S N D S N I T IZ E R S

Soil that is not removed during cleaning is contaminated with microorganisms. Soilcan protect microorganisms so that they do not come in contact with chemical sani-tizers. A lso, soil dilutes chemical sanitizing solutions.

If the soil is light and the temperature of the cleaning solution is below 6O0C(14O0F), a one-step combined chemical sanitizer and cleaning compound may be

used. Co mbination cleaners (detergent-sanitizers) are often used for manual cleaningin smaller operations with a solution temp erature below 6O0C (14O0F). If the clean-


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ing solution is hotter than 8O0C (1760F), the solution will destroy most pathogenicand spoilage microorganisms without using a chemical sanitizer. The best chemicalsanitizers for fruit- and vegetable-processing plants are halogen compo unds, quater-nary ammo nium compounds, and phenolic compounds.

Halogen Compounds

Chlorine and chlorine compounds are the best halogen sanitizers fo r food-processingequipm ent and containers and for water supplies. C alcium hypochlorite and so diumhypochlo rite are often used in fruit- and vegetable-processing plants. Plain chlorineis cheaper, but calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite are easier to use in di-

lute solution. Hypochlorite solutions are sensitive to temperature changes, residualorganic soil, and pH (acidity). These co mpounds wo rk quickly and are cheaper thanother halogens, but they tend to be more corrosive and irritating to the skin. Chapter6 has m ore info rmation about chlorine and iodine sanitizers.

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

Quaternary ammonium compounds ("quats") work well against most bacteria andmolds. Quats are stable as a dry powder, a concentrated paste, or in solution at roomtemperature. They are not affected by heat, dissolve in water, have no color o r smell,do not corrode metals, and do not irritate skin. These compounds work better thanother sanitizers when there are soil residues. They work best against microbes whenthe pH is slightly acid or is alkaline (pH >6.0). The quats do not work well againstbacteria when they are combined with cleaning compounds or in hard water.

Phenolic CompoundsThese compounds are often used in antifungal paints and antifungal protective coat-ings, rather than as sanitizers applied after cleaning. Phenolic compounds have littleuse in fruit and vegetable plants because they do not dissolve well in water.

C L E N I N G P R O C E D U R E S

As with other types of food plant, one set of procedures will not work for every fruit-and vegetable-processing plan t. Procedures will vary with the design, size, age, and con-dition o f the plant. The guidelines that follow should be adapted for each operation.

Making Cleaning Easier

Cleaning is easier if employees take steps to reduce the amount of soil and clean orrinse equipment quickly after use.

1. Co ntrol heating of equipment so that soil does not burn on.2. R inse and wash equipm ent imm ediately after use so that soil does not dry on.


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3. Replace faulty gaskets and seals so that they do not leak and splatter.4. Handle food products and ingredients carefully so that they do not spill.5. Keep all areas tidy.

6. If equipment breaks down, rinse equipment and cool to 350C (95

0F) to slow

down growth of microbes.7. During brief shutdowns, keep washers, dewatering screens, blanchers, and

similar equipment running and cooled to 35 0C (9 50F) or below.

Preparing to Clean

1. Remove large debris from the area.2. Take equipment apart as much as possible.3. Cover electrical connections with plastic film.4. Disconnect lines or open c utouts so that debris is not washed o nto o ther

equipm ent that has been cleaned.5. Remove large chunks of waste from equipment using an air hose, broom, shovel,

or other app ropriate tool.

Processing Areas

requency Daily.

Procedure1. Prerinse all soiled surfaces w ith water at 55 0C 131 0F) to move dirt down from

the ceilings and walls to the floor drains. Do not hose motors, outlets, and elec-trical cables directly.

2. Use portable or centralized foam cleaning equipment and a strongly acidcle

Documents

Essentials of Food Sanitation.pdf