establishment & management of smallholder plantation … · reports by Van Rompaey and FORIG, Ghana, to Unilever. ... Ø Objectives or goals of the guidelines at the most practical

Sustainable Wild Harvesting

BEST PRACTICES Document for WILD HARVESTING OF Allanblackia SEEDS from forest and farmlands

with some additional notes for sustainable establishment & management of smallholder

plantation and agroforestry systems that incorporate a significant Allanblackia component

IUCN, Unilever

(Amanor, K., W. Ghansah., W.D. Hawthorne, G. Smith, Nov 2003)

Guidelines FOR DISCUSSION

1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................2

1.1 The Allanblackia tree .....................................................................................................2 1.2 The Novella Project and the context of the guidelines...............................................................2 1.3 Arrangement of the guidelines .............................................................................................3

2 Objectives and Principles of the guidelines.............................................................................5 2.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................5 2.2 Objective A: Sustain Biodiversity in the landscape...................................................................5

2.2.1 Principles for sustaining biodiversity in the environment of Allanblackia exploitation .........7 2.3 Objective B: Sustain Social and local-economic values.............................................................8

2.3.1 Principles relating to Social objectives ..........................................................................9 2.4 Objective C: sustain the physical environment......................................................................11

2.4.1 Specific Principles relating to Physical environment objectives...................11 2.5 Objective D: sustain product supply and value......................................................................11

2.5.1 Specific Principles relating to Allanblackia population and supply ..............12 2.6 Specific Recommendations for Harvesting...........................................................................13

2.6.1 Relative importance of recommendations ......................................................13 The strengths of each recommended action are scored 1-3 as shown in Table 1...................13 Table 1 Strength of recommendations .................................................................................13 2.6.2 Who is responsible for implementing recommendations ? .............................................13 Table 2 Responsibility..........................................................................................................13 2.6.3 The geographic scope of the recommendations ............................................................14 Table 3 Geographical scope.................................................................................................14 2.6.4 Specific Recommendations (wild harvesting) ................................................15

2.7 Specific Recommendations in the context of planting Allanblackia ................................20 3 Appendix A, Gaps in knowledge on the ecology and utilisation of Allanblackia. .....................22 4 Appendix B: Further references and sources of information .................................................24

1 Introduction This document is a draft for discussion which covers guidelines for harvesting and cultivation of Allanblackia spp.. The points about plantation establishment are incomplete, but will ultimately be enriched by including points from Unilever’s Sustainable Agriculture guidelines1. IUCN2 and Unilever are partners in Novella Africa, a pilot project that focuses on the sustainable use of Allanblackia seeds. Unilever wants to secure a sustainable supply of Allanblackia seeds. Both parties want to promote a socially acceptable and environmentally sound market-based financing mechanism to safeguard biodiversity and livelihoods in the tropical forest belt in Africa3. Allanblackia holds out the potential to provide a novel source of household income for rural populations while contributing to forest landscape restoration and community-based fire management. Unilever will offer a sizeable and commercially attractive market to the project, thus providing a financially sound basis for the future. For all partners, it is essential that the new supply chain will be set up in an economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable way. In the short term, Allanblackia seeds will be gathered from the existing tree-population. In the longer term, if practicable, smallholder plantation and agroforestry systems will be developed. 1.1 The Allanblackia tree Allanblackia is a genus of nine species of medium sized forest trees found in moist forest regions in Liberia, C^te d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo (3), Angola (1) and in Tanzania (2 endemic species). Most species seem closely related and have some of the largest fruits of all plants in the African rain forest. The trees become much more abundant in the very wet forest types, reaching densities above 100 trees per hectare. 1 Unilever. anon & undated. Sustainable Palm Oil, Good Agricultural Practice Guidelines . Pamphlet available via www.unilever.com or [email protected] 2 We would like to thank Swiss Watch makers Audemar Piguet for sponsoring the IUCN work on these guidelines. 3 Several other NGO and government organisations are also involved in the project, working not only on biodiversity aspects but also with potential harvesters and farmers to ensure that stakeholders views are taken into account.

It is possible that all species are dioecious (with separate male and female trees) but this, like many aspects of the basic biology of the trees is poorly

researched. Although the flowers are certainly either male or female,

and only about half the adult population are found fruiting at one time in some inventories, it is still possible that trees change gender with age, or with exposure to sun. Some species may produce different sexes of flower on different branches and individuals may only manage to produce fruits in every other year. If these basic aspects of biology are so poorly understood, how much else of the trees’ biology is little known ? The seeds contain edible fat, but have been little used on a commercial scale, e.g. there was some use in Tanzania as a cocoa butter substitute over 50 years ago. In most parts of Africa, the traditional use of Allanblackia for cooking has decreased over the last 50 years in favour of other, mostly liquid oils. Nevertheless, Allanblackia has been identified by FAO as a crop of high potential interest to the development of rural communities.4

1.2 The Novella Project and the context of the guidelines

These guidelines have been developed specifically for the Unilever/IUCN Novella project. In the short term the guidelines will be used in the Novella project with Unilever and IUCN making changes to the guidelines where appropriate. In the longer term, the guidelines should be applied to Allanblackia harvesting with other buyers or supply chain arrangements. The initial work will be in Ghana. Although the objectives and principles are generally applicable, it is inevitable that some of the specific recommendations are framed with Ghana in mind.

4 Van Rompaey & H. Hendrickx, 2003. Distribution and abundance of Allanblackia spp. (Clusiaceae) in African rain forests : presentation at 17th AETFAT Congress, Addis Ababa, 21-26 Sept. 2003; see also unpublished reports by Van Rompaey and FORIG, Ghana, to Unilever.

Draft guidelines for discussion: Saturday 26 December 2003

3

NGOs that work with the Novella project, and Unilever and IUCN themselves will have to communicate these guidelines to all relevant people. Clearly, some of the recommendations will need to be translated into practical examples and put into words or pictures that can be widely understood. We can briefly consider the incentives for adhering to these guidelines: what will be the benefits of following them or the costs of not doing so? It is envisaged that there will be some sort of monitoring (by NGOs, Unilever and others as necessary), but that heavy-handed audits or inspections should not be necessary, as peer pressure on harvesters by focal organisers, and on the latter by their buyers, should encourage conformity. The main message is that, if you stick to these guidelines you will have a market for your Allanblackia seeds. Unilever (and future competing buyers) have a strong interest in being associated with fair and ethical behaviour and will not buy from suppliers that sully their reputation. However, this trade involves many unknowns, so the emphasis in the short term will be on helping suppliers attain the standards through a mutual learning process. At the same time, the standards should evolve in such a way that they remain attainable while still supporting the underlying Principles.

1.3 Arrangement of the guidelines

These guidelines are expressed within the following hierarchical framework. Ø Objectives or goals of the guidelines Ø Principles, explaining how objectives

should be achieved, related to biodiversity, social, environmental and commercial outcomes.

Ø Specific Actions - with suggested indicators that could signal whether the actions are being done properly, and

Ø Research needs The Objectives encapsulate the philosophy behind the guidelines, and are therefore necessarily very general. In section 2 We define the objectives of sustainable harvesting and planting in terms of four main aspects of the Allanblackia supply

chain and its environment that should be sustained. The objectives are not likely to change over time, as they are very general and widely accepted. The objectives will be achieved as long as everyone understands and conforms to certain Principles of behaviour. The principles we have adopted relate to biodiversity, social, environmental and commercial outcomes, marked in the text with small icons as follows;-

Biodiversity ò ANIMAL life { PLANT life and Vegetation ö Allanblackia populations, genes, local

variation patterns, regeneration

Social � Social structures i Information, education awareness £ Fairness, equitability ‚ Culture and historical diversity � Individual Health and safety

Physical environment

q Nutrient cycles and soil quality ¶ Forest structure

☯ Pollutants and synthetic chemicals

Commercial S Oil quality ö Seed/oil quantity and sustained supply

(also under biodiversity) The principles are listed in section 2, subdivided according the four objectives. However, even these principles, being fairly general, may be hard to adhere to or interpret on a moment by moment basis, so at the most practical level, we recommend in 2.6 and 2.7 some typical actions or specific guidelines required in order to conform to the principles. The Specific Actions listed are examples of how the Principles should be converted into Good Practice The specific guidelines we recommend are open to evolution: we do not pretend we have all the required answers and cannot provide specific guidelines for all possible eventualities. The guidelines listed provide insight into how the principles may be applied for the objectives to be achieved. Practitioners are


4

expected to develop appropriate responses to unexpected situations as they arise. The specific guidelines are qualified as essential or merely recommended. There is a need for research to help the specific guidelines evolve, and so some of the recommended actions are in the form of research needed. Meanwhile, we mention precautionary types of action that we cannot justify fully, but that are recommended as a “safest bet” pending research results. These guidelines are additional to legal obligations on the individual harvesters, groups, employers, local communities and buyers. In addition, the Unilever code of Business Principles5 is applicable, as is the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and of course national laws derived from it. It is one of our aims to help you comply fully with the CBD recommendations and laws derived from them. However, organisations wishing to conform to the spirit of these guidelines seriously should also be familiar with the CBD, which is summarised in depth elsewhere 3 & 6 5http://www.hll.com/HLL/knowus/corp_businessprin.html 6 Glowka, L. 1994. A guide to the convention on biological diversity. IUCN. Switzerland.

Text Box 1. Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)

The CBD is an international process started at a UN conference on Environment and Development in 1992, centred on an evolving sets of agreements signed by most countries in the world. These agreements cover many aspects of biodiversity access and exploitation, including some that are highly relevant here. These include relationships and equable benefit sharing between private and public sectors, local and global communities, the need for countries ( with their sovereign rights over their biodiversity) to become increasingly aware of their biodiversity assets and to create fair laws and frameworks for conserving or using it. The convention covers Genetic Resources (i.e. DNA & tissue samples, seeds, cuttings etc.); derived products (basically, any plant or animal products); and indigenous knowledge about those resources. The convention emphasises the needs for laws, agreements, permits and other such ‘mutually agreed terms’ to promote benefit sharing. The mutually agreed terms should ensure that, in the event of someone (perhaps Unilever or a drug research company) profiting as a consequence of access to Allanblackia genetic material, oil or indigenous knowledge, benefits should flow to the country, land-owner and/or more local providers of the resource. Benefits might include up- front payment, royalties, milestone payments (e.g. when patents are obtained); or non-monetary benefits including participation of source-country scientists in research; transfer of tools and skills; support for conservation initiatives; co-authorship of scientific papers; sharing of scientific results; deposition of herbarium specimens in national herbaria and so on. Many countries have completed National Biodiversity Action Plans based on the CBD, so these may form a convenient surrogate for the more general convention.

2 Objectives and Principles of the guidelines

2.1 Overview The intention is that Allanblackia harvested using these guidelines should continue to yield well over the years, without diminishing other values of the forest for present and future generations. Local communities and individuals should benefit from involvement in harvesting, while maintaining independence and not suffering from increased vulnerability (for example if the project fails to achieve commercial success). The main Objectives of these guidelines can therefore be expressed in general terms: § Produce a high quality product,

while maintaining the viability, diversity and yield of existing source trees.

§ § Enable local communities to protect

and improve their well-being and environments.

§ Minimise adverse affects on the

physical environment § Minimise adverse affects on

biodiversity; making a positive contribution where possible

We subdivide our objectives accordingly, so that we can be more precise about principles of behaviour required to achieve these objectives.

{òö

2.2 Objective A: Sustain Biodiversity in the landscape

Biodiversity is simply a modern term for life on earth and is generally considered at many different levels. The biodiversity we are talking about include all those plants, animals, fungi and bacteria in the landscape of the village and region within which Allanblackia harvesting or farming occurs. We say village and region pointedly, even though one is included in the other, because it is important under different circumstances to pay attention to life at different scales, a point we return to below.

Sustainable Allanblackia harvesting or planting involves sustaining all species – and within each species, genetic variation from place to place and from one individual to another. However, it is impossible to monitor all aspects of the biodiversity in any region, and it would be unreasonable to expect that the biodiversity remains absolutely unchanged even if there is no Allanblackia harvesting or planting taking place. It is particularly misguided to think that it is possible to achieve any significant oil extraction from the ecosystem without some measurable changes in the precise pattern of biodiversity. We also have to admit that what is not known about the biodiversity in any region is very much greater than what is known. The approach we adopt therefore is cautious whilst accepting that there will be some minor changes in biodiversity. But, how can the changes be limited to those that are insignificant? What time scale is to be counted? How wide an area are we expected to be concerned about? Reasonable limits will be implied by our specific recommendations (2.6), for example in relation to the geographical scope (2.6.3). There are also simple short cuts and rules that make the objective of sustaining biodiversity more likely. A good start is to recognise that most of the local biodiversity is unlikely to be threatened by the local community collecting a low proportion of the seeds from our one species or introducing a few hundred uninvasive Allanblackia trees into a patch of fallow. We do not expect harvesters themselves to be aware of the potential wider consequences of their activities, but the pattern of harvesting might need to be influenced by organisers with an awareness of how the local population of Allanblackia fits into the global context. How does the local population differ from other populations? Do the forests within which they occur hold any species not known or rare elsewhere, and which may be disrupted by changed patterns of forest use? Do any animals depend on the Allanblackia fruits at certain times of year? Managing these issues requires research and planning organised at a higher level in the supply chain. Precautionary approaches (to biodiversity and other components of sustainability), rules and the amount of research needed become much more significant where


6

harvesting or planting is more intensive and extensive. A basic premise of all biodiversity conservation is that Global extinction of any species is unacceptable, and so it is in the environment of Allanblackia harvesting, under all circumstances. Declines towards extinction are therefore to be avoided and are completely unacceptable where the Allanblackia exploitation is encouraging such a decline. Where exploitation is not apparently causing a decline, yet participants are in a position to prevent it through some policy or activity, we recommend that actions are taken. It is never possible to be totally sure of cause and effect in forest ecosystems, and the spirit of ‘supply chain responsibility’ can only benefit by helping to prevent of rectify such problems. So, Allanblackia harvesting should improve the chances of survival of plants or animals that are known only in the world from the harvested area. Fortunately, cases where small patches of forest include such globally restricted and rare species are in a minority. A second general premise is that erosion of local populations of globally rare species, or of locally unusual populations of otherwise widespread species, is also undesirable. Effects on the “quality of the community of species” and globally uncommon species are often more important than effects on the total number of species present. See Box 2 for how monitoring of this aspect, which might seem impractical and subjective at first, can be made practical and objective. The Allanblackia population itself - including its genetic structure, regenerative powers, variation and dispersability - is of course likely to be the most vulnerable element of the local biodiversity. To the extent that the quality of the product may decline when mismanaged, we consider this under Objectives D (below). To the extent that there may be erosion of the Allanblackia population-diversity that does not have any impact on the seed production or quality, we can consider this issue under the current Objective A heading. As the guidelines are designed to be practical and realistic, all the practices recommended here apply at the same scale

as – within the same locality as - the harvesting or farming itself. Text Box 2: Practical assessment of “Bioquality” in Ghana. Deciding where or if it is appropriate to make a plantation

In contrast to the diversity of plants, which can be expressed as species richness, or a simple count of species in a given area, the concentration of species of higher global conservation priority in a patch of vegetation has been defined as its bioquality. Hawthorne and Abu Juam7 devised a simple index (Genetic Heat Index, or GHI) of bioquality. This is like an average global rarity score for the species in the forest and, because it is a proportion, it can be applied to forests of any size, from plots to regions, and compared with other sites. This also makes sampling of vegetation easy, e.g. for Environmental Impact Assessments, because measured plots are not essential, and existing data like check-lists can be compared directly to each other without a special sampling strategy. Any patch of forest in Ghana can be assessed for bioquality by Forest botanists in a day, and compared to a national database or league table of scores. This technique was used to assess objectively the biodiversity implications of plans by Subri Industrial plantations to expand their industrial plantations within the Subri forest reserve in Ghana. It was shown that some of the areas of natural forest where conversion to plantations were planned were in the upper division of Ghana’s natural forest biooquality league table (i.e. rich in species of global concern that would be cleared by the plantation process). It was clearly inappropriate to convert these areas to plantation; other areas in the same reserve were shown by the survey to have a low bioquality, where industrial plantations would have been considerably less destructive of bioquality .

7 Hawthorne, W.D. & M. Abu Juam. 1985. Forest Protection in Ghana, IUCN Gland. See also Hawthorbe 1996 and other refs. at end.


7

This map (from Hawthorne et al. 2002) shows the bioquality hotspots in Ghana as red high ‘hills’. The hotspot areas are in the same (wet forest) areas that Allanblackia prefers

2.2.1 Principles for sustaining

biodiversity in the environment of Allanblackia exploitation

{ A1. Allanblackia exploitation

should contribute to the maintenance or enhancement of the network of protected areas, forest reserves etc. and protective legislation in the area. As a minimum requirement, you obviously need to follow rules and regulations, but strive to find ways to promote forest reserve integrity as well.

{ A2. Strive to become more aware

of the critical biodiversity conservation issues in your area, even if there is no formal management or protected area. Be proactive about preventing damage to the natural environment rather than reacting too late. Learn as much as possible about the biodiversity – especially globally rare species – in your area, by asking experts, keeping your eyes open, and contributing to research and inventories. You may find that the forest or wildlife services have already surveyed and protected some nearby areas, and obviously it is a minimum requirement to respect these (see A1), but try to go beyond these and think more locally as well.

ö A3. Allanblackia utilisation should not erode the local Allanblackia gene pool or population structure to a position where genes are likely to be lost or the population is reduced to an unsustainable structure (e.g. no regeneration because of overharvesting of seed ). Where appropriate, promote Allanblackia regeneration using local genetic stock

{ A4. Harvesting is only desirable if

it can limit change in reserve ecosystems, whilst local communities can gain benefit from the forest, and therefore value its survival.

ò A5. Promote species that are

dependent on Allanblackia fruits or seeds. They may be competitors but should not be exterminated directly or indirectly. Find ways to monitor potentially dependent species and understand the interrelationships.

òA6. Harvesting paths should avoid

extremely high value parts of ecosystems, and should not make it easier to hunt or collect rare species. Larger animals are frequently the first components of biodiversity to suffer when access to forests is increased or populations close to forests increase in size, especially due to hunting. Do not allow this to be a side-effect of any boom in Allanblackia harvesting.

òA7. Promote natural and artificial

(planted) Allanblackia regeneration, to compensate for the inevitable decline resulting from loss of seed input into the ecosystem.

{A8. Be aware of the potential for

introduced plants (and animals) to become serious pests or weeds. Therefore, before introducing Allanblackia into new areas, consider any impact it (or accompanying animals) will have on other species.


8

�i£‚� 2.3 Objective B: Sustain Social

and local-economic values Externally-driven or paternalistic modes of development often lead to long-term problems brought about by short-term maximisation of profits by small or exclusive groups of producers without roots in communities or long-term stakes in the local environment (see Text Box 3). Allanblackia harvesting should be built on existing local cultural practices that encourage sustainable management. Local initiatives to manage natural resources strengthen local stewardship of resources and encourage sustainable development. Community group formation should be promoted to enable Allanblackia harvesters to represent their interests, to work together, and to negotiate with suppliers. Community group formation facilitates the exchange of information and lowers the “transaction costs” of information dissemination and working out codes of conduct. Groups enable people to come together to exchange experience, develop appropriate institutions, a learning process for local initiatives, and a planning process for local-level development and sustainable management of the environment. The programme should encourage community-based efforts that promote: Ø the development of local knowledge and

creativity Ø organisations that build upon the social

bonds that promote security and mutual support within the community, a civic culture, dialogue and consensus, a process of negotiated settlements of conflicts and equitable development

Ø structures that enable the equitable sharing of biodiversity benefits and associated intellectual property rights (For a full treatment of these complex and rapidly evolving issues we refer readers to the book by ten Ka te & Laird (1999)8)

Individual harvesters involved in the programme should not be made more vulnerable by their involvement – even if

8 ten Kate, K. & S. Laird, 1999. The commercial use of biodiversity. Earthscan. London.

the programme fails to achieve commercial success. Transparent property rights for Allanblackia harvesting should be promoted, including rights of individuals and families to Allanblackia trees that they have nurtured and conserved on their farm and fallow lands, and to knowledge of Allanblackia nature or use. In the future, awareness, implementation, modification and transformation of these guidelines will be criteria used for demonstrating the development of social and environmental responsibility within market-oriented processing of forest resources. The various forms of community-based organisations that emerge need to be monitored and evaluated to assess their potentials to implement the guidelines and manage Allanblackia harvesting sustainably; to identify new institutional innovations that can be introduced and adapted elsewhere; and to assess the extent to which the guidelines reflect social conditions on the ground or need to be modified.


9

Text Box 3. Forest resources and communities

2.3.1 Principles relating to Social objectives

�B1 Promote groups and forums

with equitable membership within communities. This will facilitate the dissemination of information on Ø these guidelines, Ø relevant national and international laws

and regulations, Ø knowledge of the community and

individual rights to forest resources, and Ø equitable distribution of biodiversity

benefits and Intellectual Property Rights.

Community groups facilitate the creation of platforms to establish and clarify rules of access to forest reserves, community forests and forest groves, farmers’ fallow and farmland for Allanblackia harvesting, and for the negotiation of conflicts. Group formation enable harvesting to be regulated.

£B2 Access to harvesting and

membership of groups and forums should be inclusive and equitable and encourage more marginalized sections of society to participate, such as the poor and women. There should not be exclusive control over Allanblackia resources by local elites and traditional authorities.

�B3 Support a policy process that

legitimises local institutional practices, and promotes sustainable development initiatives and sustainable harvesting of Allanblackia. Promote greater local ‘ownership’ of Forest resources and management. This should include joint activities involving the Forest Service (in Ghana and equivalent authorities elsewhere), community forest management groups recognised and sponsored by the Forestry Service, and Allanblackia harvesting groups (see B1 above). These institutions will be in a position to agree on rights, regulations, permits for harvesting, codes of conducts, the responsibilities of Allanblackia harvesters towards sustainable forest management, the management of Allanblackia resources, and forest conservation. Responsibilities should include

Forest resources can be captured by elites who organise the vertical integration of the industry between rural and urban and export markets. Forest products may be appropriated and monopol ised by the state or traditional authorities and given to a select clientele of concessionaires or permit holders. This is common in the timber sector:- In Ghana farmers have no rights to timber trees that they nurture on their farms, which have been invested in chiefs by the state. Many non timber forest products (NTFPs) are exploited by urban-based gathering networks since low unit profit margins require bulking to achieve economies of scale. The marketing of Garcinia epunctata chewing sticks in Ghana are controlled by networks based in Kumasi and Accra who range as far as Liberia and Guinea to purchase the resource which have become scarce in Ghana. These traders are not able to organise the conservation of these resources in specific localities, even if they have the interest in engaging in conservation activities, since they are not rooted in rural communities. The advantage of community participation in forest resource utilisation is that popular interest in forest resources can create conditions for sustainable harvesting as communities attempt to manage the resource to ensure their future livelihood, and to protect and regulate their local forest and fallow resources against short- term overexploitation by insiders and outsiders. For community participation in resource management to be effective, the rights of rural poor to resource utilisation needs to be manifest and transparent property regimes need to be in place. When forest resources are controlled by local elites and traditional authorities they frequently exploit these resources in collaboration with outsiders, since they can gain more “rents” and payments from these outsiders than from locals who usually have user rights. Elite capture of forest resources alienates a large proportion of the rural population who lose interest in conservation and are unsure of their rights. When the rural poor have rights to forest resources and these resources provide them with important incomes they frequently manage them for posterity, develop an interest in conservation and defend their rights and forest resources against exploitation by others.


10

the communication of biodiversity issues concerned with forest management to Allanblackia harvesters around forest reserves. Prior Informed Consent and agreements should always be obtained when living material or knowledge is to be exchanged (CBD). [Note: this incorporates points under also under A4 ]

iB4 Information exchange and

dissemination should be promoted within the whole supply chain. Information on pricing, markets, market demand, Allanblackia products, new technologies and the distribution of profit margins within the supply chain should be made availa ble to harvesting communities. This should enable local communities to adapt their livelihood strategies to the characteristics of the market. Research should also be conducted on the expenditure on labour in Allanblackia harvesting, its synchronisation with the farm labour calendar, and local perception of the price for seeds and its contribution to livelihoods. Dissemination of reliable technical information on Allanblackia, media campaigns and outreach programmes of NGOs should contribute to building equitable partnerships between communities, industry and research.

£B5 The benefits and profits from

harvesting should ensure that Allanblackia trees are seen as an asset by local harvesters and traditional users of land for diversification or enhancement of their livelihoods. Profits must not be captured by wholesalers, crushers and buyers, nor must sub-contractors employed by farmers or harvesters be exploited. This principle is key to developing sustainable local management, since the long-term value of the resource to the local community will be more clearly understood

iB6 Respect intellectual property

rights. This applies particularly when investigating seeds for large scale ex situ plantations, and local knowledge relating to cultivation and yield of the species in general or trees in particular. The equitable sharing of

biodiversity, CBD, and intellectual property rights are crucial for promoting sustainable and equitable development.

�B7 Harvesting recommendations

must encourage healthy and safe practices.

‚ B8 Harvesting should not harm

national heritage sites, sacred sites or other areas of traditional and cultural land use or special biodiversity protection areas.

iB9 Do not exploit child labour , but

rather encourage education and personal development (see Box 4) . Box 4. Project Novella. Draft rules on child labour

{B10. Work with the forest service

or other national agency to develop mutually acceptable fees and regulations

1. No child shall be employed below the minimum age for employment specified in national law.

2. Children shall not be exposed to hazardous work (work that jeopardises the physical, mental or moral well-being of a child, either because of its nature or because of the conditions in which it is carried out).

3. Practice must comply with ILO Convention 138 Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, which states that the minimum age for employment shall not be less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling.

4. The laws of Ghana, in particular THE CHILDREN’S ACT, 1998, will always be adhered to.

In practice, this can be summarised as: 'No child shall be employed below the minimum age for employment specified in national law. Children may assist within a family group, outside of school hours and under adult supervision, provided that there is no hazardous work involved and for a maximum of four hours in any day.'


11

iB11 Involve village communities

and National university student in research, where necessary linking foreign skills/courses/tools. This is one of the CBD recommendations

q¶☯

2.4 Objective C: sustain the physical environment

Sustaining the physical environment Includes protecting soils and water supplies (both through precipitation and watercourse structure) as well as preventing pollution. In practice, many aspects of sound environmental management to be applied to managed plantations (when these are developed) are common to all agricultural systems. This section will there fore be improved and expanded when more information is available on Allanblackia silviculture and more specific guidelines are appropriate. During wild-harvesting, there are few issues to consider. Paths that are created to provide easy access to formerly remote areas of forest (biodiversity issues) may also be starting-points for erosion or water-logging. Depending on Allanblackia root systems, there is a very small chance that surface feeder roots may be affected by compaction and performance reduced. If this is the case, then this needs to be avoided. Soil organic matter, mineral content and compaction are unlikely to present problems. Within agroforestry systems or plantations, there is a great deal of basic agricultural research needed to determined what inputs are needed or desirable. Fertilisers and pesticides can easily present ecological problems, but should only be considered in the context of plantations and farms. Studies are needed on pest (including mammalian pests) and disease potential in native habitat and during any trials to domesticate production. If pests or diseases are problematic, it will be important to develop a detailed Integrated Pest Management approach and ensure that pesticide food crop residue limits are not

exceeded. In any case Pesticides must NEVER be applied unless operators have high quality training, application equipment and protective clothing. Pesticide use and storage must be to high standards. 2.4.1 Specific Principles relating

to Physical environment objectives

¶C1 Avoid physical disruption to

harvested areas as much as possible. Encourage many light loads especially from forest collection areas, rather than using heavy mechanised transport which might cause soil compaction and pollution.

qC2 Remove as little accessory

material as possible from the areas of the trees when harvesting

☯C3 In plantations, minimize use of

herbicides, and pesticides by good plantation design and a well-researched IPM strategy. Do not use pesticides and other chemicals in natural forests.

Sö@›FÎ

2.5 Objective D: sustain product supply and value

By separating out this “Product Value and Supply Objective “, we emphasise the need to create a sustainable supply of high quality raw material, produced without unnecessary wastage (e.g. through poor seed storage). Sustaining the quality and quantity of Allanblackia supply clearly depends on the maintenance of the Allanblackia gene pool and population structure, as well as supportive social structures and environmental management. The Principles and Guidelines related to this Objective focus on the need for a parsimonious and efficiency-based approach to harvesting.


12

2.5.1 Specific Principles relating to Allanblackia population and supply

ö D1 Avoid eroding the gene pool

by selective harvesting OR overharvesting.

ö D2 Encourage regeneration of

Allanblackia at sustainable levels

ö D3 Create ex situ gene banks.

S D4 Produce a good quality

product free from contamination and damage. Buyers are not prepared to pay a good price for seeds that they cannot themselves convert into a high value product.

ö D5 In general a progression

towards (mixed) agroforestry stands on agricultural land stands most chance of being seen as sustainable from the environmental and economic points of view. Such systems stands more chance of representing an improvement in biodiversity values and economic efficiency than simplification of forest ecosystems. However, there are potential conflicts between this principle and socially-desirable principles (e.g. not to exclude the poor without access to farm land from the programme).

ö D6 Maintain the diversity of the

local Allanblackia trees by ensuring a wide genetic basis in plantations. This should also reduce the risk of the whole population succumbing to a pest or disease or exhibiting the same dramatic ‘peaks and troughs’ in yield. However, the prime conservation efforts must be directed towards in situ conservation and ex situ gene banks.

ö D7 Work out an appropriate

institutional structure in which records can be kept to identify the ‘mother’ trees when seeds are collected to be planted on farmland, in plantations or gene banks. Records of the characteristics and location

(e.g. by GPS location or reliable local knowledge) of the ‘mother’ trees and ‘ownership’ of the genetic material and associated Intellectual Property. This information must be maintained in order to reward the owners of such rights when/if individual trees or provenances make an important contribution to planting material in the future.

2.6 Specific Recommendations for Harvesting In this document we are seeking to provide guidelines and recommendations. We anticipate that those involved in the trade will be able to conform to the guidelines in a verifiable way. 2.6.1 Relative importance of recommendations The strengths of each recommended action are scored 1-3 as shown in Table 1

Table 1 Strength of recommendations

Code Strength Implication

!!! Mandatory This action is compulsory if you want to say you are following the guidelines

!! Recommended Although you may be able to say you are following the guidelines without adhering to some of these, you should be fully aware of these recommended actions and be able to justify why you are not acting in this way where this is the case.

!? Precautionary / Research dependent

These actions relate to issues about which we know too little to state absolutely whether the action is required. These are usually where research needs to be focused. A precautionary approach is therefore being recommended, based on generally acceptable scientific principles. Although your obligations to act may be seen as the same strength as “recommended”, you may be able to provide a case for non compliance based on locally applicable research or traditional knowledge.

2.6.2 Who is responsible for implementing recommendations ?

Table 2 Responsibility

Who has Responsibility

Code Note

Buyers B m In the short term this means Unilever.

Focal people / local organizers

F ¤ These are the people linking the Buyers to the Harvesters, with particular responsibilities for influencing overall patterns and methods of harvesting or other trends at the grass roots level.

Harvesters H æ Those involved in collecting Allanblackia seeds from the ‘wild’ (whether natural forest or from casual trees in fallow, but excluding planted trees on farms or in plantations)

Large-Scale Growers L õ

Plantation companies – particular issues that relate to more industrial sized plantations, where a separate employed workforce would be harvesting a well-planned and specifically managed plantation area

Millers M F Later versions of the guidelines may include actions for this group

Others/ Outsiders O {

People relevant to the guidelines on Allanblackia harvesting or growing who are not mentioned elsewhere in this table. In spite of not being directly in the supply chain, they may have responsibilities. Examples are the Forest Services and Environmental NGOs in a position to help or advise etc.

Researchers / research funders/ more thought needed

Q s This is a flag for research action that is needed OR Questions that need to be answered before the guidelines can be considered firm. Most of these have been summarised only in Table 4c , but some of those that may be conducted alongside actual harvesting etc. are mentioned as recommended actions

Small scale growers S ”

Small-scale farmers who encourage or plant Allanblackia trees on their land. These same people may well be Harvesters as well A rough guide, we expect enterprises with < 100 trees = S

2.6.3 The geographic scope of the recommendations It is important to know how much of the forest or farmland around the area of harvesting or planting those using these guidelines are expected to consider. A few metres around each tree? The whole forest in which the harvesting occurs ? The whole landscape, catchment area and drainage basin of a plantation? General guidance for determining where the different participants have power and responsibility.is provided in Table 3.

Table 3 Geographical scope

Code Suggested geographical area over which guidelines are applicable

H æ S ” Forest or other vegetation they walk through on the way to their trees.

F ¤ L õ

Forests and other vegetation around the villages and farms of the catchment area of their harvest

B m O { Qs (including national managers of natural resources and NGOs) -the sum of such areas across the country, and the national genetic Allanblackia stock, in the context of global patterns and priorities.

L õ Q s

If large scale growers (L) develop to such a size that they have a sizable impact on a region’s economy and ecosystem, they should be in a strong position to employ or support research (Q) and address or contribute to relevant issues at a national and global scale.

Clearly, different participants have different responsibilities. Their actions affect the environment and social structures on different geographical scales. Individual harvesters cannot be expected to be aware of all possible secondary effects of their actions, and should concentrate on minimising direct impacts. However, Unilever and partner organisations should concern themselves with the broader, often indirect, impacts that have the potential to take place on a larger scale. It is important to consider broad, even apparently unlikely ecological problems (e.g. the decline in hornbill populations in local forests) because ecological linkages can rarely be ruled out altogether, and one should be proactive in seeking them. It might be relatively easy for the Allanblackia harvesting chain to ameliorate the environment in a way which is good for their status in the community, as some sort of insurance against hopefully minor, unavoidable bad impacts that might occur from time to time.


15

2.6.4 Specific Recommendations (wild harvesting) Table 4a Specific recommended actions for wild-harvesting

No

Who?

Ta

ble

2

Har

vest

Sou

rce

9

Prin

ciple

10

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1

Indicators / monitoring

1. H æ

Rfo A1 B10 {

Obtain permission before harvesting from forest reserves and abide by the rules within reserves (e.g. do not light fires; do not collect other NTFPs for which you have no permit)

!!! Written permit

2. BF

m¤

Rfo A1 {

Be aware of the principles of protection for different types of forest and develop guidelines appropriate for each type.

!!! Buyers and co-ordinators’ written policy / management plan

3. BF

m¤

Rfo A1 { B8 ‚

Do not set up collection points next to IUCN categories I – IV (i.e. National parks and GSBAs in Ghana) unless part of a very closely monitored plan,and close local involvement; also avoid sacred areas

!! Any exploitation in closely protected areas in a well-monitored and carefully thought out management plan

4. H

æ

Rfo A1

Do not collect from IUCN categories I-IV (this should in any case have been made a bad choice for you by the previous guideline) unless part of a monitored management plan

!!! Actual collection conforms to management plan above

5. H

æ

* A3,A5,A7, {

Do not cut down trees to harvest !!! No felled trees

6. F ¤ Fo A1,

A2 B4 {

Ensure that baseline social and biodiversity information is available and monitoring systems in place. Where impact is negative, situation must be highlighted quickly and interested parties discuss corrective action.

!!! Availability of baseline information and monitoring programme

7. BF

m ¤

Fo, Fa

A3 A7 D2 ö

ò

Wherever possible encourage regeneration of Allanblackia stands as part of forest restoration, agroforestry schemes or within farmland. If possible, work with nature by promoting natural regeneration and encouraging dispersers.

!! Restored land containing Allanblackia regen.

8. O

{

Rfo A2 ö

ò

Consider enrichment planting of Allanblackia in Convalescent Aeas where the forest is very degraded– especially if the area is to be planted anyway and natural regeneration is inadequate

!!

9. Qs * A3 A7 B4 i ö

Develop and promote a good understanding of propagation techniques

!!! Successful propagation techniques widely known

9 Harvest source is RFo for reserved forest, Fo for any forest patch, Fa for wild trees on farms or in fallow, Pl for trees from plantations, * for all circumstances 10 A= Biodiversity, B=Social, C=Physical environment, D=Product supply


16

No

Who?

Ta

ble

2

Har

vest

Sou

rce

9

Prin

ciple

10

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1


10. Qs * A2 A4 ò

Research proportion of seeds that are dispersed by which animals

!? Results of research

11. Qs * A5 ò

Research animal dependency on Allanblackia seeds. If any links are uncovered, an action plan needs to be prepared for these species - critical if they are rare or endangered.

!? Results of research

12. H F

æ¤

Rfo A6 B11 { D7 ö

The source of all seed should be explicitly stated as one of Forest reserve (compt. No.) or other such formal management unit. Harvesters loads should not contain mixed lots; this will be essential in any auditing, and will also be useful for quality control, ownership dispute resolution, plantation records, and royalties due to e.g. Forest Service or chiefs.

!!! paperwork should state the provenance of any seed, certainly by the time it reaches the first aggregation/collection point

13. BO m {

Rfo A1 { B11 �

When extracting from Forest reserve, work out how the forest service, chiefs etc, are paid for permits/extraction !!! Formal agreements between Govt,

chiefs

14. Qs * B1 �

Monitor the different types of group formation and institutions that arise at the community level, the different tenure arrangements establishing rights to harvest in different areas and different types of environments (farm, fallow, forest, etc) to identify appropriate forms of organisation for future development and problems. Associated with this is a need to analyse any conflicts that emerge in the context of harvesting and the modes through which they are resolved, particularly in relation to rights in trees.

!? Report on group formation and conflict resolution

15. QF

s¤

* B1 �

Monitor the extent to which focal agents are able to form groups that meet regularly to discuss Allanblackia harvesting and harvesting guidelines, rules and regulations, monitor individual harvesters and implement guidelines.

!? Minutes/records of group meetings, extent to which members of the community are aware of the significance of Allanblackia and become interested in harvesting Allanblackia, conserving Allanblackia resources and willing to participate in groups and observe guidelines

16. FB

¤m

* B1 � B7

Rules of access to forest reserves, community forests and groves, common land, and farmers’ fallow are clarified, and negotiated within community structures.

!! Existence of appropriate fora; linkages with Forest Service, forest management associations and other appropriate organisations; better knowledge of forest laws by community members

17. ¤ * B2 £

Ensure that access to Allanblackia harvesting is equitable

!!! Membership of groups include women and the poor, a significant section of the community interested in Allanblackia; periodic analysis of beneficiaries

18. B m

* B1 �

Ensure that any grievance procedures are fair and that people are confident to use them should the need arise

!! Stakeholder NGOs and GOs confirm OK. Grievance procedures maybe documented

19.F¤ Fo,

Fa B1 B3

Investigate and resolve conflicts related to access or activities to particular sites or to land or resources where ownership is complex

!!! Paperwork detailing meetings held and agreements made


17

No

Who?

Ta

ble

2

Har

vest

Sou

rce

9

Prin

ciple

10

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1


(Pl) � 20.

F¤ Rfo B1 � B4 i

Liaise between statutory authorities and harvesters, ensuring there is no excuse for ignorance of regulations !! Specially protected areas in the

vicinity identified on maps and local people must understand location

21. * * B2 £

Take steps to ensure benefits of harvesting are shared by men and women.

!!! Group membership; periodic analyses of beneficiaries

22. HF æ¤

* B9 i

Do not purchase seeds from children. Only allow children to collect seeds as part of a family group and for <4 hours per day outside school hours. Buy seed only from those adults who respect these guidelines.

!!! Spot checks and interviews show no children working See Draft rules on Child labour below (anon 2003)

23.F¤ * B2

£

Village agreement that everyone understands local situation regarding harvesting from which trees

!? Visible agreements. Harvesters can answer questions on the subject without ambiguity

24. FO¤ {

* B3 �

Make sure village agreements are compatible with the rules of other collecting groups and villages in the area. (agreements also needed for longer term IPR issues)

!? Stakeholder NGOs and GOs confirm OK – visible agreements

25. FOH¤ {

æ

Fa B3 �

Tenure laws need to be clarified for who owns trees. Seeds bought from disputed area should not be purchased.

!!! Maps available (see also 4). Provenance of all Allanblackia seeds known

26. HF æ¤

* B3 �

Potential conflicts between adjacent harvesting groups must be avoided

!! Awareness of territory and priorities of other local groups

27. B m

* B4 i

Provide communities and harvesters with information on Allanblackia, markets, products and uses, technology, environmental information, group formation

!! Information freely available to harvesters

28. Qs * B4 i

Research the most suitable media for providing information to harvesters on Allanblackia, including these guidelines.

!? Communities aware of issues including guidelines; Medium for dissemination popular within communities; information easily digested by community members

29. B m

* B4 i

Develop a system relating price to quality that ensures a market for the product as well as sharing the benefits.

!!! Published system, and freely available knowledge on prices at different levels

30. FB ¤m

* B4 i A7

{

Propagate these guidelines, national laws and other CBD guidelines using local groups and linkages, ensuring awareness of IPR etc. issues

!!! Local awareness of general principles

31. HF

æ¤

* B4 i

Harvesting group must demonstrate awareness of any issues that potentially or actually conflicts with guidelines.

!!! Records of discussions with harvesters, focal agents and community leaders

32. B m

* B4 i

Pay enough to make sure that skilled people with local knowledge, involved in local communities, stay working on the programme and that harvesters are willing to form groups.

!! Stakeholder NGOs and GOs confirm OK. Focal persons willing to expend time in organising groups, monitoring individual harvesters and implement best practice guidelines;

33. B * B4 i

Timely announcement of prices for the season to ensure confidence of harvesters in Allanblackia markets

!!! Harvesters aware of price before harvesting season


18

No

Who?

Ta

ble

2

Har

vest

Sou

rce

9

Prin

ciple

10

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1


m 34. Qs * B5

£

Conduct research on the labour process of harvesting Allanblackia, the time expended in harvesting seeds, the value placed on this time by local communities, and if there are bottlenecks that arise in relation to the agricultural calendar (particularly since the harvesting season occurs during the land preparation season for agriculture). What are the factors that influence how far harvesters are willing to travel to harvest Allanblackia and can trees close to settlements and farms provide sufficient seeds for the market.

!? Reports outlining research results

35. Qs * Conduct research on the role of Allanblackia in farmers’ livelihood, farmers perception of the price in relation to other farm crops and NTFPs, the impact of price on group formation, access to resources and the willingness of groups to absorb t ransaction costs of organisation.

!? Reports outlining research results

36. HF

æ¤

* B5 £

Develop a system that rewards fairly those who do the work, involves all (including disadvantaged groups) within the community group in the project and enables the benefits to be felt by individuals and the community.

!!! System in place and widely seen as being fair by community members.

37.

* B5 £

Be a good customer, citizen and supplier – pay and supply on time and at the agreed price.

!! Stakeholder NGOs and GOs confirm OK. No grievances about late pay registered

38. B m

* B5 £

Make criteria for pricing transparent. Because properties similar to palm oil link to palm oil price (farmers know world market price of palm oil).

!! Stakeholder NGOs and GOs confirm OK. Transparent criteria available from buyer

39. Qs * B6 i D7 ö

Examine institutional forms and procedures for keeping records on origins of planted seeds and establishing intellectual (common?/ community?) property rights for communities.

!? Research reports highlighting appropriate procedure, probably soon with a pilot scheme in place

40.F¤ * B7

�

Ensure that training is given in appropriate health and safety measures (e.g. risk of falling fruit, tree climbing where it is essential to collect flowers from the canopy to deduce gender)

!! Training records. Presence of Risk assessment and Safe Operating Procedure in AB collection

41. H

æ

* B7 �

Do not climb trees to harvest. Collect from the ground !!! No one seen climbing trees on random inspections

42. HF

æ¤

B6 i

Research, develop and then use methods for appropriate recording of sources of information in the project. Local knowledge of Allanblackia should be validated and sources of seeds need to be recorded and linked to the original collector and locality, so that individuals and communities can gain recognition and material benefit for their selection of superior genotypes.

!! Cited Information sources wherever benefit may be gained from it.

43. H

æ

Fo C3 ☯ A9 {

Do not apply chemicals, pesticides, fertiliser etc in natural forest (it may be appropriate in farms or plantations, see below)

!!! No pesticides or application equipment present in Harvesters’ houses. No residues in product

44.S”

Fa B7 �

Pesticides must never be used without personnel being trained and supplied with appropriate safety equipment.

!!! Training manuals or plans available. Safety equipment available

45. * * B7 �

Roadworthy certificates for vehicles that collect fruit. !! Certificates

46. * * B9 Follow the child labour regulations and guidelines (see above)

!!! Children attending school


19

No

Who?

Ta

ble

2

Har

vest

Sou

rce

9

Prin

ciple

10

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1


i 47. Qs * B10

i

Always involve as wide a range of collaborators in research as possible and keep them informed and interested in the results and implications

!! Participants in research workshops and awareness of research resilts

48. HS

æ”

* C1 ¶

Protect trees (even if not Allanblackia ) within riparian strips, on steep slopes and in the land between farms; in particular, don’t make wide paths by felling trees

!!! No stumps etc or other signs of felled trees

49. H

æ

Rfo Fo

C1 ¶

Keep paths to footpaths, do not clear areas to facilitate access; do not use mechanised transport in the forest

!! Random checks in collection areas

50. H

æ

Rfo,Fo, Fa

C2 q

Split open the fruits under the trees and leave all except the seed behind

!! Random checks in collection areas

51. Qs * D1 D6 ö

Organise research on population genetics of Allanblackia (see below)

!! Published results

52. H

æ

* D1ö

Do not preferentially harvest e.g. big seeds and only allow small ones to regenerate

!!!

53. Qs * D2 ö

Organise research on growth, yield and fat content of Allanblackia in different circumstances

!! Published data allowing farmers / other planters make a rational decision on whether and how to plant Allanblackia

54. HS

æ”

Fa D3 ö

If you have a farm, plant material from local, wild trees (private gene pool), ideally from all the trees you harvest; try to keep a record of where the seeds come from; if possible even record which seed or cutting is from which tree.

!! Local nureseries and plantations associated with records of provenance

55. HF

æ¤

* D4 S

Do not store fruit in sacks or containers that have been used for pesticide, fuel or anything that smells strongly.

!!! Records of contamination or poor quality

56. HS

æ”

* D4 S

Do not harvest under ripe or over ripe seeds since the resulting oil will be of poor quality; Do not harvest half-eaten or mouldy seeds. Bring intact seeds


57. HS

æ”

* D4 S

Make sure you carry the seeds in clean containers or sacks. !!! Records of contamination or poor quality

58. HSF

æ”¤

* D4

S

Store seeds well separated from any non-food goods and especially rat bait, drugs (including herbs or bark), poisons or pesticides.


59. FB

¤m

* D4 S

Never transport seeds near pesticide, fuel or anything that smells strongly.



20

2.7 Specific Recommendations in the context of planting Allanblackia Note that many technical questions need to be answered before there can be clear guidance on developing plantations/agroforestry systems involving Allanblackia. However, general principles apply If Allanblackia markets are successfully developed, plantation/agroforestry development will be needed to satisfy the demand. Plantations may be able to satisfy the need, and provide good stable incomes and reduce the pressure on natural forests. Once trees are mature, it should be faster and more efficient to harvest from an agroforestry system than from the forest and therefore easier to make a good income. Moreover, the work needed to develop Allanblackia as a crop will inevitably generate knowledge that will aid in better managing the ‘wild’ populations of trees. We are recommending a conservative progression towards mixed agroforestry systems with Allanblackia, but not recommending transformation to Allanblackia monoculture. This is because the market might change, there may be unforeseen problems with pests, diseases or highly variable yield that make a regular income impossible from Allanblackia only. Allanblackia should be seen as a tree that is PART of a farming system that can enhance the overall potential of the land to support the farmers. Table 4b Specific recommended actions for establishing and harvesting from plantations and agroforestry developments No

Prin

ciple

11

(Sec

tion

2)

Recommended Action

Str

ength

Ta

ble

1


60. D Conduct standard, extensive research and trials on Allanblackia arboriculture (some listed below), ranging from the basic germination trials to provenance trials of seed production etc.

!!! (See tables below)

61. D If selecting or breeding trees for high yield or high quality oils, maintain information on pedigree and use this to inform the improvement process

!! Provenance records within selection programmes

62. A If you are considering removing vegetation for a plantation, especially if it is more than 20 years since it was last cleared, be aware of the biodiversity values (bioquality) that are being lost; minimise losses by choosing low value sites. Target farmland or forest areas (convalescence areas) that have been certified of low bioquality by an independent assessment.

!!!

63. B Promote Allanblackia cultivation, but cautiously as the market may collapse.

!! Targets and actual numbers planted

64. AD

Do not make an Allanblackia monoculture: Mixed plantations of this shade tolerant, small-crowned tree will provide more ecological and economic security

!! Presence of Allanblackia in mixed plantations /agroforestry

65. D Plant a proportion of seeds or cuttings from wild trees on your farm if you have one (private gene pool)

!! Presence of seedlings on farms

66. BD

Keep records of provenances; This will help with managing breeding/selection programmes and will also enable the original or group who provided the seed to be rewarded (in accordance with ‘sharing benefits of biodiversity)

!! Presence of records in propagation, breeding and selection programmes

11 A= Biodiversity, B=Social, C=Physical environment, D=Product supply


21

67. D Link a reward for ‘good’ genotypes to owners of intellectual property

!! Rewards made once superior genotypes identified (may be 10 years)

68. A Promote knowledge of how to identify Allanblackia seedlings and don’t unnecessarily kill seedlings when clearing land

!!! Pictures available and understood by farmers

69. C Don’t chop down other trees on riverbanks to make space for Allanblackia.

!!! No felled Allanblackia trees

70. AD

Make sure you plant a good mixture of seed from different provenances (areas) and individual trees.

!! Records of provenances within plantations

71. D Maintain a gene bank, with trees from a wide range of provenances. Take advice on how to optimise the biodiversity within the gene bank.

!! Genetic studies

72. D Do not destroy trees just because they are unproductive: they may be males, required for pollination

!! No felled Allanblackia trees


22

3 Appendix A, Gaps in knowledge on the ecology and utilisation of Allanblackia.

Research on many issues is needed to ensure a sustainable harvest, particularly as some of the most basis statistics and facts are not known, such as growth rates, light requirements sex ratios etc. Some of these research results are needed just to plan sustainable harvesting from wild trees. However, we are suggesting that increasing levels of output from trees on farms would be more compatible with long term sustainability. Since this is the area where our ignorance is greatest, research directed towards these aims need to start now, so that a useful body of knowledge will be available in 10 years. Table 4c Summary of research needed for sustainable Allanblackia exploitation

How essential (1-low; 5-high)

Research Question/Activity

(any of the more specific studies ultimately need to compare the different species)

*How much research would an answer take. *What research is underway or recently completed, *other comments.

planning sustainable harvesting schedule

planning plantings of

new species,

breeding & selection

73.How fast do Allanblackia trees grow; what is mortality, by broad ecological zones.

Could Use old PSP data; relate increment to crown exposure etc. this could be a few months study by an MSC student.

4 4

74.Refined version of previous, e.g. under different circumstances, fallow vs. forest; swampy vs. dry; acid vs. less acid soils etc

But special PSPs would ideally be set up for more accurate results, and this would take several months to set up, but many years waiting for the results to come in

4 4

75.Reasons for mortality? This would be important if mortality was found to be a limiting issue

3 3

76.Herbivores, pests, parasites etc.; what problems likely to have in plantation; spread to receive from other crops?

Need to speak to an agricultural/ forest entomologist etc

1 5

Po

pu

lati

on

&

eco

log

y

77.Soil animal relations? Mycorrhizae? Positive interactions

Student e.g. at Legon could do this as a project, with inputs from abroad

0 5

78.Gender ratio e.g. for Allanblackia parvfiora. May not be dioecious (simple enough to check), but if monoecious why are there not 100% fruiting in mature sizes? Any variation ? Sex changes with age, maturity or stress? Local monoecious populations; with age; with site; across species

Quick survey thoroughly checking flowering and subsequent fruiting pattern; 1 person month to get a good idea; 3 person months over 1 year to get a better idea. This carried on over at least 5 years to get a really good idea, including changes with age

5 5

79.Seed productivity vs., crown exposure: are exposed trees more or less productive than shaded?

(This would give a good idea about how to set up plantations/mixed systems; try Ghana PSPs first

0 4

80.Fruiting productivity by age and size. Do vegetatively-propagated trees yield earlier?

Long term monitoring of numbered trees

0 4

81.Scope for improvement of % fruiting trees, Volume of fruits/ tree; Extent to which minor silvicultural treatment (thinning of some shade?) might help

100 trees experiment monitored over 3-5 years at least in two different zones

1 4

Sex

, re

pro

du

ctio

n,

fru

itin

g

82.Extent to which any ameliora tion e.g. thinning could be allowed in Forest reserves

Management decisions with forest managers and ecologists

2 2


23

83.Genetic structure within a species – e.g. A .parviflora- to help plan provenance collections efficiently

Post-Doc level research for a year or two, c. £40-150K, depending on location

1 5

84.Genetic (phylogenetic) relationship between species; A.parviflora / floribunda in particular seem closely related, maybe only subspecifically distinct.

If included with the above then perhaps £50 £200K, depending on location

0 5

85.Potential for / dangers of hybridisation if mixed plantations are to be devised.

Genetic studies following attempts at artifical hybridisation

1 3

86.Limits to natural regeneration; potential effects of seed harvesting on population structure

Multi-year ecological studies 4 1

87.Biodiversity impacts of harvesting; any fruit eaters totally dependent at any times of year etc?

Initial research to highlight candidtae species, then long term ecological studies of priority animal species

4 0

88.How is Allanblackia harvested now; could any tools etc. increase safety or productivity

Presumably v. fast and cheap 3 3

89.Treatments to gain germination / establishment increases

Trial Plots 1 5

90.Any soil improvement etc; basic agricultural trials

On farm trials 0 4

91.Enrichment or similar planting trials of Allanblackia in mixed plantations in degraded forests.

trials 0 4

92.Work out the requirement for % of males/females

Modelling study (based on data from pollinator movements etc.); or long term trials in sites where different % males are retained

3 4

93.Determine whether (hand) fertilisation is beneficial.

Study linked to previous 0 3

94.How much NPK (S and micronotrients) are removed with the crop and will this be replaced by normal processes or on-farm nutrient cycling? Are the soils around the trees high enough in these nutrients to maintain yield? If fertiliser application is proposed, where and when should it be applied (related to seasonal rainfall and location of feeder roots as well as times when trees are visited. If fertiliser is appropriate, how will the application ra te be determined, and how will we make sure that the fertiliser is applied correctly (or to the AB itself rather than local vegetables production)? How will fertiliser be paid for (credit scheme ? free ?)

Theoretical studies based on seed etc. continent and harvesting data. Field soil studies in selected farm or plantation sites.

0 4

Pra

cti

ca

l a

nd

sil

vic

ult

ura

l

95.If pests are likely to be problematic, develop an Integrated Pest Management strategy for use in plantations

0 3

Qua-lity

96.Define a good quality product (Moisture content, Density of nuts etc )

4 4


24

4 Appendix B: Further references and sources of information Abbiw. D.K., "Useful Plants of Ghana", Intermediate Technology Publication & Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew. 1990.1. Amanor, Kojo S. (1994) The Ro le of Trees in the Farming System. Report to Collaborative Forest

Management Unit, Forestry Department, Kumasi. Arhin, Kwame (1994) The Institutional Framework of Participatory Forest Management. Report to

Collaborative Forest Management Unit, Forestry Department, Kumasi. Bass, S., C.Hughes, W.D. Hawthorne. 2001. Forests, Biodiversity and livelihoods: linking policy

and practice. Chapter 2 (pp. 23-74) in Koziell, I and J. Saunders (eds.) Living off biodiversity: exploring livelihoods and biodiversity issues in natural resources management. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

FORIG (2003) Novella Project: Monthly Project Progress Report for January 2003 and March 2003. Submitted by Forest Research Institute of Ghana to Novella Pro ject, Unilever Ghana Ltd.

Friends of the Nation (2003) Socio -Economic Survey on the purchase of Allanblackia Nuts, Assessment Report, project Novella, Takoradi.

Hall, J.B., Swaine, M.D. (1981) Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rain forest: Forest vegetation in Ghana. Geobotany 1, The Hague, Boston, London: W. Junk Publishers.

Hawthorne, W.D. (1995) Ecological Profiles of Ghanaian Forest Trees, Oxford: Oxford Forestry Institute.

Hawthorne, W.D., 1995. "Froggie (Forest Reserves of Ghana: Graphical Information Exhibitor". Programme/database with manual for programme. Published by IUCN to accompany Hawthorne & Abu Juam, 1995. vi + 137 pp.

Hawthorne, W.D., 1996. "Holes and the sums of parts in Ghanaian forest: Regeneration, scale and sustainable use". Chapter in "Studies in Guinea-Congo rain forest" Eds. M.D. Swaine, I.J. Alexander and R.Watling. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Edinburgh 104b: 75-176.

Hawthorne, W.D. J.Adomako, P.Ekpe, N. Gyakari. 2002. Final report of the biodiversity component of NRMP. Forestry Commission Biodiversity Conservation Component, Accra, Ghana.

Hawthorne, W.D. V. K. Agyeman, M. Abu Juam, E. G. Foli 2000. Taking stock. An annotated bibliography of logging damage and recovery in tropical forests, and the results of new research in Ghana. Still awaiting funds for publication! .

This report includes the fact that the Allanblackia crown is very narrow compared to many trees, but like several other shade-bearers, with the 95%tile largest trees being 52cm bole diameter DBH; crown width= 2.2+.08 x DBH.

Institute Of Cultural Affairs – Ghana. 2003. Socio Economic Study on Allanblackia Nuts Collection Project In The Western Region. Unpublished Report.

Lovett, J.C. (1983) Allanblackia stuhlmannii and its potential as a basis of soap production in Tanzania. Umpublished (?) paper 25 pp.

Limbe Botanic Garden, GTZ, Unilever (Anon). Survey of Allanblackia in the Sanaga Maritime Division (Cameroon). Unpublished report.

Nkyi, K. A. (1989) A Survey of Trees in Farming Systems of the Semi-Humid Forest Zone of Ghana (Ashanti Region), Oxford University Master of Science thesis.

Van Rompaey, R. 2003. Distribution and ecology of Allanblackia spp. (Clusiaceae) in African rain forests with special attention to the development of a wild picking system of the fruits, Report to Unilever Research Laboratories, Vlaardingen

Documents

establishment & management of smallholder plantation … · reports by Van Rompaey and FORIG, Ghana, to Unilever. ... Ø Objectives or goals of the guidelines at the most practical