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PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL FISHES
Proximate composition is quantitative analysis of a mixture (as food) to
determine the percentage of components. The chief components of fish tissue
include water, protein, ash and crude fat. The amount or percentage of each
within a fish's body is termed as proximate composition. The biochemical
composition of the fish muscle generally indicates the nutritional quality of the
fish. In recent years, research into increase production of fish as a cheap and
available source of animal protein has been on with the assistant of government
and non-government organizations in many disciplines. The measurement of
some proximate profiles such as protein content, ash content, carbohydrate and
crude fibre is often necessary to ensure that they meet the dietary requirements
and commercial specifications (Watchman, 2000; Anon, 2000). Research
findings have also rated fish nutrients quality very high thus making it an ideal
source of vital nutrients both for nourishment and medicinal purposes (Effiong
and Mohammed, 2008; Kromhout et al., 1995; Zenebe et al., 1998a; Arts et al.,
2001; Fawole et al., 2007). There are considerable evidences in the use of fish
and fish products for solving health problems (Mumba and Jose, 2005;
Onasanya, 2002; Hetzel, 1994), the need therefore arise for investigation into
the nutritional composition of freshwater fishes in respect to seasonal
variations. It does appear that seasonal changes with its resultant effect on the
activities of fishes may cause variations in their nutrient quality. The chemical
composition of fish varies greatly from one species and one individual to
another depending on age, sex, environment and season. Proximate
composition is often determined in studies of fish physiology, growth, and
nutrition. The variation in the chemical composition of fish is closely related to
feed intake, migratory swimming and sexual maturity in connection with
spawning. Therefore, biochemical composition of a species helps to assess its
nutritional and edible value. It is known that it is the cheapest source of animal
protein and other essential nutrients required in human diet (Sadiku and
Oladimeji, 1991). Fish may be the sole accessible and/or affordable source of
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animal protein for poor households in urban or semi-urban areas (Bene and
Heck, 2005). The nature and quality of nutrients in most animals depend
largely on their food type. More so, the feeding habit of an individual fish
species greatly affects its body nutrient composition (Lagler et al., 1977). There
are many reports on biochemical and nutritional aspects of fishes (Lilabati et
al., 1993; Effiong and Mohammed 2008; Ghosh et al., 2004; Luczynska et al.,
2009; Pirestani et al., 2009). Fish received increased attention as a potential
source of animal protein and essential nutrients for human diets (Kromhout et
al., 1995; Zenebe et al., 1998a; Arts et al., 2001; Fawole et al., 2007). Fish
meat contains significantly low lipids and higher water than beef or chicken
and is favoured over other white or red meats (Neil, 1996; Nestel, 2000). The
nutritional value of fish meat comprises the contents of moisture, protein, fat
value of the fish (Evangelos et al., 1989; Chandrashekar and Deosthale, 1993;
Steffens, 2006). Besides being used as food, fish is also increasingly demanded
for use as feed. The nutritional component of the freshwater fish was found to
differ between species, sexes, sizes, seasons, and geographical localities
(Zenebe et al., 1998b). The nutritional characteristics of fish and fishery
products are of vital interest to consumers. Fisheries reduce vulnerability to
hunger by providing a complementary food source as part of diversified
livelihood strategies. Fisheries especially provide food when other food sources
such as agriculture are at a seasonal low. Foran et al., (2005) submitted that,
fish is a highly proteinous food consumed by a larger percentage of populace
because of its availability and palatability. Dietary responses to short term diets
of fish and the positive effects on protein calorie malnutrition, asthma, arthritis,
auto-immunity, coronary heart diseases and arteriosclerosis have been
independently and unanimously reported (Gerhard et al., 1991; Cobiac et al.,
1991).
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OBSERVATIONS
4.1 SEASONAL VARIATION OF PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
ANALYSIS
4.1.1 Proximate composition of Tor putitora from Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh
The analysis of the sample regarding seasonal variation of proximate
composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, crude fiber and
carbohydrate) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh was
evaluated and found statistically significant (P
104
September, October-January). However, no significant variation was observed
in ash content. In case of crude protein significant difference (P
105
Carbohydrate results showed that there was variation between June-September
and October-January.
4.1.3 Proximate composition of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from
Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh
Proximate composition of chocolate mahseer collected from Kameng
river, Arunachal Pradesh was illustrated in Table 4.3. Moisture, crude Protein,
crude fat, ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate contents ranged from 74.585-
77.255 gm/100 gm; 16.579-19.418 gm/100 gm; 1.434 -4.409 gm/100 gm;
1.209 -1.547 gm/100 gm; 0.7-1.236 gm/100 gm; 1.311 -2.878 gm/100 gm
respectively. However, moisture content (77.255gm/100 gm) was significantly
highest (P
106
4.1.4 Proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout
farm, Arunachal Pradesh
The analysis of proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from
Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh was presented in Table 4.4. The
above values ranged from 72.048 -77.420 gm/100 gm; 16.879- 19.581 gm/100
gm; 1.367-4.513 gm/100 gm; 1.496-2.576 gm/100 gm; 0.744-2.124 gm/100 gm
and 1.756 - 3.634 gm/100 gm in case of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash,
crude fiber and carbohydrate respectively. Significantly higher (P
107
4.1.5 Proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Champawat
experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand
The value of proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from
Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand was found statistically
significant (P
108
4.1.6 Proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga
river, Arunachal Pradesh
The variation of proximate composition among different seasons for
snow trout collected from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh was recorded in
Table 4.6 and also found to be significant. The results of the present study
indicated that the values are ranging from moisture, 74.574 - 76.051 gm/100
gm; crude protein, 15.746 - 16.126 gm/100 gm; crude fat, 1.637 - 3.596
gm/100 gm; ash, 1.483 - 2.544 gm/100 gm; crude fiber, 2.158 - 2.513 gm/100
gm and carbohydrate 3.607 - 4.701 gm/100 gm. From the results it was
observed that moisture (76.051 gm/100gm) and crude protein (16.126 gm/100
gm) were significantly highest (P
109
4.1.7 Proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii from Alaknanda
river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand
Mean value of proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii
from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand was found statistically
significant (P
110
The values of proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat,
ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate) of golden mahseer between Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand was illustrated in Fig. 4.1. It
was observed that highest moisture (74.265 gm/100 gm) value was noted from
Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and lowest value (72.245 gm/100 gm) from
Kosi river, Uttarakhand. On the other hand, crude protein (20.846 gm/100 gm),
crude fat (3.517 gm/100 gm), ash (1.507 gm/100 gm), crude fiber (1.495
gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (1.882 gm/100 gm) values were higher in the
sample collected from Kosi river, Uttarakhand and lower value from Kameng
river, Arunachal Pradesh.
4.2.2 Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Kosi river, Uttarakhand: Tor
putitora (June-September)
The proximate composition of golden mahseer between Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand were presented in Fig. 4.2. The
values showed that moisture (72.851 gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.246 gm/100
gm) and carbohydrate (4.360 gm/100 gm) compositions were higher from the
sample collected from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, higher
crude protein (22.092 gm/100 gm), crude fat (5.134 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.342
gm/100 gm) levels were observed from the sample of Kosi river, Uttarakhand.
However, lower values (17.659, 4.553, 0.575 gm/100 gm) were recorded from
the sample collected from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.
4.2.3 Kameng River, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Kosi river, Uttarakhand: Tor
putitora (October- January)
The proximate composition of golden mahseer between Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand in the month of October-
January was recorded (Fig. 4.3) which indicated that higher moisture (75.412
gm/100 gm), crude fat (2.350 gm/100 gm) and crude fiber (0.910 gm/100 gm)
values were observed from the samples of Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.
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However, lower values (74.973, 1.154 and 0.559 gm/100 gm) were in the
sample from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. In the present study, crude protein
(19.052 gm/100 gm), ash (1.384 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (2.569 gm/100
gm) levels were higher from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. On the other hand lower
values (18.532, 1.323 and 2.381 gm/100 gm) were recorded from Kameng
river, Arunachal Pradesh.
4.2.4 Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Bhimtal hatchery,
Uttarakhand: Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis
The results of the analysis were recorded in Fig. 4.4. It was noted that
chemical composition of chocolate mahseer between Kameng river, Arunachal
Pradesh and Bhimtal hatchery, Uttarakhand. Moisture, (77.255 gm/100 gm);
crude protein, (18.734 gm/100 gm); ash, (1.209 gm/100 gm); crude fiber
(0.7gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (1.366 gm/100 gm) were seen higher from
the sample of Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh in contrast to the low values
recorded from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Crude fat value was highest (3.496
gm/100 gm) from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Conversely lowest value (1.434
gm/100 gm) was recorded from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.
4.2.5 Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Champawat
experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (February-
May)
The proximate composition of rainbow trout between Shergaon trout
farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand,
in the month of February-May was recorded in Fig. 4.5. Moisture (74.675
gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.637 gm/100 gm) levels were higher in
Champawat experimental fish farm. Conversely the values were lower in the
case of moisture (72.048 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (2.361 gm/100 gm)
from the sample of Shergaon trout farm. From the result, it was revealed that
higher values of crude protein (19.581gm/100 gm), crude fat (4.513 gm/100
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gm), ash (1.496 gm/100 gm) and crude fiber (1.314 gm/100 gm) were observed
from Shergaon trout farm in comparison to Champawat experimental fish farm,
Uttarakhand (17.492, 1.461, 1.325 and 1.228 gm/100 gm).
4.2.6 Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Champawat
experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (June –
September)
The biochemical composition of rainbow trout between Shergaon trout
farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand
in the month of June – September were presented in Fig. 4.6. Higher levels of
moisture (77.42gm/100 gm); ash (2.576gm/100 gm); crude fiber (0.744gm/100
gm) and carbohydrate (1.756 gm/100 gm) were observed in Shergaon trout
farm, Arunachal Pradesh. On the other hand, lower (75.047, 1.577, 0.418 and
0.905 gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand
composition were observed. However, crude protein (19.792 gm/100 gm) and
crude fat (2.678 gm/100 gm) values were higher in Champawat experimental
fish farm conversely lower values (16.879 and 1.367 gm/100 gm) were
recorded from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh.
4.2.7 Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Champawat
experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (October-
January)
The estimates of proximate composition of rainbow trout collected from
Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish
farm, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January, were presented in Fig. 4.7.
From the data, it was seen that higher moisture (74.675 gm/100 gm); crude fat
(3.827 gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.629 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.637
gm/100 gm) were recorded from Champawat experimental fish farm,
Uttarakhand. Conversely lower values of moisture (74.613 gm/100 gm); crude
fat (2.679 gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.124 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.634
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gm/100 gm) were recorded from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh. On
the other hand, crude protein (17.536 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.536 gm/100 gm)
values were higher in Shergaon trout farm and lower (16.505, 1.355 gm/100
gm) in Champawat experimental fish farm.
4.2.8 Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,
Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (February-May)
The results of carcass composition of snow trout between Tenga river
and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May
presented in Fig. 4.8. The higher moisture (76.514 gm/100 gm) and crude fat
(3.488 gm/100 gm) values were noted from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and
lower (76.051 and 1.637 gm/100 gm) values from Tenga river. Similarly, crude
protein (16.126 gm/100 gm), ash (1.483gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.513 gm/100
gm) and carbohydrate (4.701gm/100 gm) values were higher from the fish
muscle of Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and lower values (16.122, 0.73,
1.749 and 3.144 gm/100 gm) were noted from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,
Uttarakhand.
4.2.9 Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,
Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (June-September)
The mean value of proximate composition of snow trout between Tenga
river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the
month of June-September was illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Hence, the data showed
that higher moisture (74.574 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.878 gm/100 gm) values
were observed from Tenga river and lower values (72.088, 1.532gm/100 gm)
were from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag. On the other hand, crude protein
(16.572gm/100 gm), crude fat (5.474gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.361gm/100
gm) and carbohydrate (4.333gm/100 gm) values were found maximum in
Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and minimum (15.746, 3.596, 2.336 and 4.21
gm/100 gm) from Tenga river.
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4.2.10 Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,
Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (October-January)
Figure 4.10 explained the proximate composition of snow trout in Tenga
river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the
month of October-January. Higher moisture (75.381gm/100 gm); ash (2.544
gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.158gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.607gm/100
gm) levels were observed from the fishes of Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh
and lower values (74.474, 1.505, 1.598 and 2.753 gm/100 gm) were from
Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand. Also, crude protein (16.502
gm/100 gm) and crude fat (4.764 gm/100 gm) value were found maximum
from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and lower values (15.829 and 2.638 gm/100
gm) were observed from Tenga river.
4.3 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL FISHES
BASED ON PRODUCTION SYSTEM
4.3.1 Tor putitora from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand
The comparative results showed that the proximate composition of
golden mahseer from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand was found
statistically significant (P
115
The results showed that there was significant variation in case of
moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber and carbohydrate between
Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river. But there was no variation in ash level.
4.3.2 Schizothorax richardsonii from Champawat experimental fish farm
and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand
The mean value of biochemical composition of snow trout of
Champawat experimental fish farm and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,
Uttarakhand was recorded in Table 4.9. The results indicated significantly
higher concentration of moisture (72.088 gm/100 gm); crude fat (5.474 gm/100
gm); crude fiber (2.361 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (4.333 gm/100 gm) in
Alaknanda river. Similarly, crude protein (17.120 gm/100 gm) and ash (2.758
gm/100 gm) levels were higher (P
116
4.4.1.1 Moisture
The Fig no 4.11 explained moisture content of golden mahseer based on
three seasons and two different habitats i.e. Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh
and Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Moisture forms the major component and its
seasonal variation was ranging from 70.551- 75.412%. The analysis indicated
that highest moisture content was observed (74.973 gm /100 gm) in the month
of October-January in Kosi river. Similarly, moisture content was highest
(75.412 gm /100 gm) in the month of October-January from the sample
collected from Kameng river. While comparision the results it was also noted
that moisture level was maximum (75.412 gm /100 gm) from Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh in the month of October-January. On the other hand, lowest
moisture level (70.551 gm /100 gm) was noted during June-September from
Kosi river, Uttarakhand.
4.4.1.2 Crude protein
Crude protein content of golden mahseer (Fig no. 4.12) varied from 17.659-
22.092%. It was observed that Kameng river contained highest crude protein
content (20.244gm/100 gm) in the month of February-May. Kosi river sample
showed maximum crude protein content (22.092gm/100 gm) in the month of
June-September. From the comparative studies based on two habitats and
seasons, lowest (17.659gm/100 gm) level was recorded from the sample of
Kameng river in the month of June-September.
4.4.1.3 Crude fat
Crude fat content of golden mahseer presented in Fig no. 4.13. Crude fat
varied between 1.154- 5.134%. It was seen that Kameng river content
maximum crude fat (4.553 gm/100 gm) during June-September. On the other
hand, comparision between two habitats and three seasons recorded highest
crude fat (5.134gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September from Kosi river.
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Similarly, lowest crude fat (1.154gm/100 gm) level was observed from Kosi
river, Uttarakhand during October-January.
4.4.1.4 Ash
The Fig 4.14 elucidates the ash content of Tor Putitora based on three
seasons and two different habitats. In the present study the ash content of fishes
varied from 0.575- 1.507 %. However, the highest ash content was found
(1.323gm/100 gm) from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh in the month of
October-January. Similarly, highest ash contents 1.507gm/100 gm from Kosi
river, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May was recorded. When
comparing the results highest ash content (1.507 gm/100 gm) was recorded
during February-May from Kosi river. Conversely lowest ash content
0.575gm/100 gm was noted from Kameng river in the month of June-
September.
4.4.1.5 Crude fiber
The crude fiber of golden mahseer presented in Fig 4.15. Crude fiber
contents of the fishes were within the range of 0.397- 2.246 %. Based on this
observation, it was noted that the highest crude fiber (2.246 gm/100 gm) was
observed from Kameng river in the month of June-September. While
comparing the data among three seasons and two habitats the lowest value
(0.397gm/100gm) of crude fiber was observed from Kosi river in the month of
June-September.
4.4.1.6 Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate content of Tor putitora from was illustrated in Fig 4.16. In
the present study, the value ranged from 0.879- 4.36%. From the graph, that
highest carbohydrate content (4.36 gm/100gm) was found from the sample of
Kameng river in June-September. Similarly, the highest carbohydrate content
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(2.569 gm) from Kosi river in the month of October-January was recorded.
Comparision of two habitats and seasons of the experimental fishes it was
recorded that lowest carbohydrate content (0.879gm/100 gm) was observed
from Kosi river, Uttarakhand.
4. 4. 2 Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
4. 4. 2.1 Moisture
The variation of moisture content also has been recorded from two
different habitats i.e. Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat
experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand (Fig. 4.17). Moisture varied from 72.048-
77.42 %. The results showed the highest moisture level from Shergaon trout
farm 77.42 gm/100 gm in the month of June-September. Similarly, the highest
moisture content (77.241gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm
was observed in the month of February-May. The lowest value was
72.048gm/100 gm in the month of February-May from Shergaon trout farm.
4. 4. 2.2 Crude protein
The seasonal variation of crude protein was in the range of 16.505-
19.792 (Fig. 4.18). The highest crude protein content (19.581gm) was noted in
the month of February-May from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh. In
the Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand highest crude protein
content was 19.792 gm in the month of June-September. The minimum level
crude protein (16.505 gm/100gm) was observed during October-January from
Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand.
4. 4. 2.3 Crude fat
The Fig. 4.19 clarified the seasonal variation of crude fat of rainbow
trout based on three seasons. The variation of crude fat content also had been
recorded. Protein content of rainbow trout varied from 1.367- 4.513%. Highest
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crude fat content was noted 4.513 gm in the month of February-May from
Shergaon trout farm. However, maximum (3.827 gm/100 gm) value of crude
fat was noticed in the month of October-January from Champawat
experimental fish farm. On the other hand, the lowest value (1.367gm/100 gm)
was in the month of June-September from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal
Pradesh.
4. 4. 2.4 Ash
The ash content of rainbow trout of the three seasonal fish samples from
two different habitats were presented in Fig. 4.20. It was observed that the ash
content varied from 1.325- 2.576%. The Fig showed that the amount of ash in
fish attained maximum (2.576 gm/100 gm) in the months of June-September
from Shergaon trout farm. The lowest value (1.325 gm/100 gm) was noticed
from Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the seasons of
February-May.
4. 4. 2.5 Crude fiber
Average value of crude fiber content in rainbow trout throughout the
seasons and two different places were presented in Fig 4.21. It was found that
crude fiber contents in different seasons varied from 0.418- 2.629%. In
comparision between both the places the maximum value (2.629 gm/100 gm)
was obtained in October-January whereas the minimum (0.418gm/100 gm) in
June-September.
4. 4. 2.6 Carbohydrate
The Fig 4.22 showed the seasonal variation of carbohydrate of rainbow
trout. Carbohydrate content was ranging from 0.905 to 3.637%. It was
observed that the minimum carbohydrate content from Champawat
experimental fish farm (0.905 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September and
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maximum (3.637 gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm in the
season of October-January.
4.4.3. Snow trout (Schizothorax richardsonii)
4.4.3.1 Moisture
As shown in Fig 4.23, the highest moisture content was from Tenga
River, Arunachal Pradesh (76.051gm/100 gm) during the month of February-
May. Moisture content varied from 72.088 to 76.514%. The highest moisture
content was recorded from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag 76.514 gm/100gm in
the month of February-May and lowest moisture content from Alaknanda river,
Nandprayag (72.088 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September.
4.4.3.2 Crude protein
Crude protein (Fig 4.24) ranged from 15.746 to 16.572% from the
experimental fish muscle. The results showed that crude protein content was
highest (16.126 gm/100 gm) in the month of February- May from the sample of
Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh and 16.572 gm/100gm from Alaknanda river,
Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of June-September. From the Fig. no
4.24 it has been noted that lowest data (15.746gm/100 gm) was recorded from
Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh (June-September).
4.4.3.3 Crude fat
The Figure 4.25 depicted the details the all three seasonal proximate
data of crude fat of snow trout. The value ranged from 1.637 -5.474%. From
the results it was evaluated that the highest level of crude fat 5.474 gm/100 gm
was recorded in the month of June-September from the sample of Alaknanda
river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand. However, the lowest level (1.637 gm/100 gm)
was found in from February-May from the experimental fishes of Alaknanda
river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand upon comparing the two habitats.
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4.4.3.4 Ash
Figure 4.26 showed the highest ash content (2.544gm/100 gm) obtained
from Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh (October-January). The value ranged
from 0.73-2.544%. On the other hand, the highest content of ash (1.532gm/100
gm) was experienced from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in June-
September and lowest ash content was (0.73gm/100 gm) noted in the month of
February-May.
4.4.3.5 Crude fiber
Both seasonal and habitat wise variation of crude fiber of snow trout
was illustrated in Figure 4.27. Crude fiber content varied from 1.598 to
2.513%. Seasonal variation in the crude fiber content of the body muscles of
snow trout showed the highest content of crude fiber (2.513gm/100 gm) in the
month of February-May from Tenga River. The results of the present study
revealed that lowest content of crude fiber recorded as 1.598 gm/100 gm in the
month of February-May.
4.4.3.6 Carbohydrate
Fig. 4.28 provided the carbohydrate content of snow trout from two
different habitats and seasons. It was found that the carbohydrate content of
different seasons varied from 2.753 to 4.701%. Fish samples collected from
Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh was having maximum carbohydrate (4.701
gm/100 gm) content in the month of February-May. Similarly, samples from
Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand got highest content of carbohydrate
(4.333 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September. Upon comparing the
values between two different places, samples from Alaknanda river,
Nandprayag, Uttarakhand contained lowest carbohydrate (2.753gm/100 gm)
during October-January.
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DISCUSSION
Fish is known to be one of the cheapest sources of animal protein and
other essential nutrients required in human diets (Sadiku and Oladimeji, 1991).
The nature and quality of nutrients in most animals is dependent upon their
food type. In developing countries, fish is one of the potential sources of
animal protein and essential nutrients for the maintenance of a healthy body
(Fawole et al., 2007). The percentage of proteins in fishes is drastically higher
than that of milk and cheese which is carried out by Omotosho et al., (2011)
and as well as higher than poultry feed with protein content of 11.34%
(Prabakaran and Dhanapal, 2009). In recent years, fish has become favorite
foodstuff for the majority of societies because of several health reasons (Ali
and Kiumars, 2010). The knowledge of fish composition is essential for its
maximum utilization. Processors have direct interest in the proximate
composition of fish in order to know the nature of the raw material before
chilling, freezing, smoking or canning can be correctly applied (FAO, 2004).
Various studies have been carried out on the proximate chemical composition
(Exler 1987; Chandrashekar and Deosthale, 1993; Eun et al., 1994). The
principal constituents are water (66 – 84 %), protein (15 – 24 %), lipids (0.1 –
22 %), minerals (0.8 – 2 %) and sugar in very minute quantity (0.3%) at
maximum value in fishes (Jacquot, 1961).
The moisture results of experimental fishes exhibited significant
variation (P
123
that the proximate composition of the fish depends on season but also to a great
extent in relation to reproductive cycle (Islam and Joadder, 2005). In our
studies it was observed that golden mahseer had moisture contain 70.551-
75.412 gm/100gm, chocolate mahseer 74.585 - 77.255 gm/100gm. Average
value of moisture content was 72.048 - 77.420 % in rainbow trout and snow
trout 72.088 - 76.514 %. The similar finding also agreed with observation of
Marais and Erasmus 1977; Abdullahi, 1999, 2001; Effiong and Mohammed
2008; Gallagher et al., 1991; Babalola et al., 2011; Abii et al., 2007; Islam and
Joadder, 2005; US-RDA, 1994; Ozogul et al., 2011; Oyebamiji et al., 2008. A
slightly higher range of moisture was found by Farhat Jabeen and Shakoor
Chaudhry (2011) in Labeo rohita from two different places. The high moisture
contents recorded for all the fish are comparable to our study those reported in
other fresh water fish species such as Mormyrus rume, Oreochromis niloticus
and Clarias lazera (Otitologbon et al., 1997), Citharinus citharus and C. latus
(Abdullahi, 1999), Alestes nurse, A. macrolepidotus, Hydrocynus brevis and
Hepsetus odoe (Abdullahi, 2000a), Labeo coubi, L. senegalensis and Barbus
occidentalis (Abdullahi, 2000b), three Channa spp (Zuraini et al., 2006). The
moisture values were lower comparable to our study than those reported in
freshwater fishes were carried out by Adeniyi et al., (2012); Oyebamiji et al.,
(2008); Abdullahi et al., (2001); Mazumder (2008). The proximate composition
of the hill stream fishes N. stracheyis, Labeo pangusia, Semiplotus
manipurensis, Schizothorax richardsonii, and Ompok bimaculatus were
analyzed by Hei and Sarojnalini (2012). High moisture value was observed in
Neolissocheilus stracheyi 15.77%DW and lowest value in Schizothorax
richardsonii 9.36%DW.
In our investigation muscle of rainbow trout from Shergaon trout Farm,
Arunachal Pradesh showed higher moisture contents in the month of June-
September. Similar result was also found by Effiong and Mohammed (2008).
Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout Farm, Arunachal Pradesh showed
lower moisture in the season of February-May. The higher range of moisture
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was found in the season of October-January in the muscles of Tor putitora
from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand which is same agreement by Boran
and Karaçam (2011); Huss (1988; 1995); Shamsan and Ansari (2010) and
Majumdar and Basu (2009) when feeding activity was low. At spawning time,
the fillets contained more moisture than any other time of the year. The finding
is more or less similar to other related fishes as well as in other vertebrates due
to maturation of gonads. This corroborates the findings by Das (1978), in
which low values of moisture content were noticed during the spawning
season, which could be due to the decline in food intake. Proximate
composition of hill stream fishes viz., Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis, Raiamas
guttatus, Schizothorax richardsonii, Semiplotus manipurensis, Tor putitora and
Tor tor has been studied by Laishram et al., (2001) during December-January.
Moisture content of N. hexagonolepis (29.90% DW) and S. manipurensis
(21.30%DW) was found. Moisture ranged from 70.8% in C. cultriventris
caspia to 77.8% in C. carpio (Pirestani et al., 2009).
It is noteworthy that the lowest concentration of moisture in winter and
higher in summer were found in the muscle of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis
from Arunachal Pradesh, Oncorhynchus mykiss from Uttarakhand,
Schizothorax richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The
results are in agreement with those reported by Nargis, 2006; Nabi and
Hossain, 1989; Islam and Joadder (2005) for other fishes. It was observed that
the proportions of the components of muscle tissues varied with the change of
season and attributed to maturation of gonads (Nabi and Hossain, 1989). In our
study it was found that an increment trend of moisture from July in
experimental fishes with the advancement in maturation and spawning activity
which is similar as observed by Shamsan and Ansari (2010). Chandra Shekhar
et al., (2004) reported that moisture content was low when other constituents
(lipid, protein and carbohydrate) were high in Labeo rohita. The biochemical
components fluctuated widely irrespective of size and growth of the fish
without showing any distinct pattern. The change in flesh composition of fishes
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due to spawning affects its consumer acceptability both for direct consumption
and also for further processing and storage. Poor nutritional status occurs
during the period after spawning since both the major components are utilized
for metabolism in the new cells of gonads and the rest becomes inadequately
available for body maintenance, which drops down the overall concentration of
nutrients in spent fish (Majumdar and Basu, 2009) as also evidenced recorded
the present our study. The results suggest that the proximate composition of
fish species greatly varies based on the season. This might be due to
physiological reasons and changes in environmental conditions, i.e., spawning,
migration, and starvation or heavy feeding. It is also suggested by other authors
that species-specific physiological characteristics might greatly affect the
proximate composition (Boran and Karaçam, 2011). In general fish
populations change from one area to another because of the following factors;
water temperature, water velocity and transparency, alkalinity and available
habitat. However, the result of the present investigation stated that the
proximate compositions of the experimental fishes are having the values in
adequate quantities which will be helpful to provide nutrition to the people in
upland areas. This will help to maintain the status of health and general
wellbeing irrespective of different age groups.
It was revealed from the study that the moisture was inversely related to
crude fat content. The similar relationship had also been reported in marine
fishes such as Mugil cephalus (Das, 1978); Sarda sarda (Zaboukas et al., 2006)
and freshwater fishes like Wallago attu (Bloch) (Jafri, 1969); Ophicephalus
punctatus (Jafri and Khawaja, 1968) and T. trachurus, S. aurita, M. furnieri, S.
scombrus and C. gariepinus (Babalola et al., 2011). Inverse relationship
between crude fat and moisture content is evident from the negative correlation
between the two constituents (Shamsan and Ansari, 2010; Katikou et al., 2001;
Fjellanger et al., 2001 and Ozogul et al., 2011) which is also felt in our study.
It is thought that the variation observed in crude fat content in the present study
not only because of food abundance, but also related to reproduction activities
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of fish species. Since nutrients are more abundant in spring and summer, an
increase in the dry matter and a decrease in the moisture contents are usually
observed in the same seasons which is also reported by Ozogul et al., (2011).
Changes in water and fat indicated that while there was a decline in water
content, fat content evidently increased due to heavy feeding during this period,
which is in good agreement with previously reported results by Huss (1988;
1995). The percentage of water is good indicator of its relative contents of
proteins (Dempson et al., 2004).
The dietary protein act as replacement of endogenous loss of body
proteins due to wear and tear, formation of new tissues during growth period
and synthesis of enzymes, blood, hormones etc., which are proteins in nature.
Compared to other sources of protein, fish are well known to be excellent
sources of protein, which can be seen from amino acid composition and protein
digestibility (Louka et al., 2004). The results of the present study indicated that
the crude protein showed a significant difference (P
127
The concentration of the protein content in the present study were within
the range as previously reported in Tilapia zillii (Zelibe, 1989); freshwater fish
from both temperate (Henderson and Tocher, 1987) and tropical regions
(Andrade et al., 1995). However, few authors have reported lower average
protein content in comparison to the present study Celik 2008; Bandarra et al.,
2001; Osako et al., 2002; Boran and Karaçam 2011; Munshi et al., 2005; Islam
and Joadder 2005 and Osibona et al., 2006. Low protein levels were recorded
for C. carpio, L. rohita and O. mossambicus (10.6–11.3%) wet weight (Farhat
Jabeen and Shakoor Chaudhry, 2011); Tilapia (50–55%) dry muscle tissue
(Onyeike et al., 2000); Cichlidae family (30 –54%) dry muscle tissue (Ukoha
and Olatunde, 1988); P. chola (14.08%) wet weight (Mazumder et al., 2008).
Protein levels for carp (16%), (FAO, 2008) which is in good agreement with
the present findings. Also slightly high range of crude protein was reported by
Zuraini et al., (2006) in C. striatus. Hei and Sarojnalini (2012) observed that
highest protein level (71.08%) (dry weight) was found in Schizothorax
richardsonii, which was followed by Labeo pangusia (70.08%). In our
experiment the values were higher than those reported in several fishes (Eyo,
2001; 1998; Zenebe et al., 1998b). Eyo (1992) also reported similar results
from clupeids as shown in this present experiment. Abdullahi (2001) and Islam
and Joadder, (2005) stated that the protein content in fish might vary with
species due to certain factors such as the season of the year, effect of spawning
and migration, food available etc. In this present experiment also the variation
was observed in case protein content of the fish muscle. Laishram et al., (2001)
recorded higher crude protein value in hill stream fishes. Protein value was
highest in Schizothorax richardsonii (79.25% dry weight) and lowest in Tor tor
(74.75% dry weight). The finding of the a high concentrations of protein in the
muscles of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh in the
month of October-January in respect to the seasons confirmed the validity of
the results of earlier research by Effiong and Mohammed (2008) for freshwater
fish species. The sample of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Schizothorax
richardsonii and Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh
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showed protein increment in the month of October-January which might be
associated with egg development. The similar result was also reported by
Boran and Karaçam (2011) and Nargis (2006). Plankton concentration is at the
highest level during November and December, which could explain the
increment in both fat and protein contents. Variations in nutrient composition
have been reported in other fish species, Sardinops sagax (Gamez-meza et al.,
1999); Pike perch, Rainbow trout and Eel (Mustafa et al., 2001). Knowing that
the protein value varied seasonally, low value in February-May and highest in
June-September were noted in the muscles of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus
mykiss, Schizothorax richardsonii from Uttarakhand in the present study. It was
revealed from the analysis that the value of protein were found to be high may
be due to the ecological condition of hill streams. This is because high velocity
of water, high dissolved oxygen and abundant food availability may enhance
the internal metabolism of these fishes. This tends to agree with the work done
by Laishram et al., (2001).
Osako et al., (2002) was in the opinion that the difference might be
because of species-specific characteristics. The difference in protein content
might be because of different catching locations as environmental conditions
might cause dramatic variations among the same species living in different
locations (Boran and Karaçam, 2011). Parulekar (1964) reported maximum
protein content in the ripe fishes and the minimum in spent and early
maturation phases. Protein content can be correlated with the phases of
maturity and spawning, with high values when the gonads are ripe which
decline during post-spawning period (Parulekar and Bal, 1969; Das, 1978).
Bhuyan et al., (2003) reported higher protein content in ripe and gravid fish,
whereas a low level of protein was recorded in spent and young fish. The
feeding intensity does not appear to have any effect on the protein content.
Bumb (1992) reported that low rate of feeding intensity was observed during
summer and heavy feeding during monsoon and that there was no direct
relationship between feeding intensity, maturation, spawning and protein
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content. Islam and Joadder (2005); Love (1974) reported that protein depletion
occurs at the end of spawning time to show the selection of materials for
building up the gonads for further reproduction. The variation of protein might
be influenced by their feeding and breeding capabilities (Borgstrom, 1961 and
Chakraborty et al., 1985). The protein cycle appears to be having a strong
correlation with feeding and spawning reported in a number of fish species.
This intense feeding perhaps is more in the months, i.e., immediately after
spawning, as the fish during spawning incurs energy expenditure along with the
loss of gonadal elements and recoups to compensate the expenditure through
vigorous feeding activity. Stansby (1954) made similar observations in the
trout. The present finding revealed the high value of muscle protein content
immediately after spawning which is similar as reported by earlier authors
Islam and Joadder (2005). This is because while maturing and at the mature
stage; most of the proteins might have been accumulated in the gonads and at
the time of spawning. The gonadal elements get released either as eggs or
sperm carrying the protein along with them. But immediately after spawning,
as the gonad is in recovery stage and without any gonadal elements, the food
that is consumed by the fish might have been used in the building up of the
muscle. This observation made in this study was also confirmed by the earlier
findings of Greene (1921); Bruce (1924) and Majumdar and Basu (2009).
However, in the case of marine fishes the protein content showed much
fluctuation. This behaviour could be explained taking into account that, during
the depletion period, once the lipid reserves are spent in severe depletion
situations, the fish could survive at the expense of muscle protein (Yeannes and
Almandos, 2003).
In case of other fresh water fishes it was reported that in spring, summer
and autumn, S. aurata gave the highest protein level while S. sihoma gave the
highest level in winter Ozogul et al., (2011). In the present investigation, the
protein contents of the fish samples showed that the fishes are having high
protein concentration within the range of 15-22 %. It is known that protein in
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fish is influenced by the fat and water content Munshi et al., (2005). The high
tissue protein content may result from the equally high protein content of their
diets (fish items, crustaceans, molluscs, algae and diatoms).
In general it is known that the variation in the proximate composition
specially protein (Ssali, 1998; Zenebe et al., 1998a), among individuals of the
same species is a common phenomenon in fish. These variations were
attributed to factors such as the geographical area in which the fish was caught,
age, sex and size (Osibona et al., 2006). The nutritional elements showed
variable values in all the fishes analyzed; with crude protein recording the
highest values and lipid recording the lowest. This makes the fishes important
living resources of dietary protein as other sea and freshwater fish (Zuraini et
al., 2006). High lipid with had less water and more protein than low-lipid
fishes. This is in-line with the report of Steffens (2006), that protein forms the
largest quantity of dry matter in fish. The relatively high to moderate
percentage of crude protein could be attributed to the fact that fishes are good
sources of pure protein, but the differences observed in the obtained values
may also be attributed to fisher’s consumption or absorption capability and
conversion potentials of nutrients from their diet or local environment into such
biochemical attribute needed by the organism’s body (Burgress, 1975; Adewoye
and Omotosho, 1997). It is widely accepted that the protein composition of
tissues of fishes are related to many factors such as feeding, growth maturation
and spawning (Jafri, 1968) such as and metabolism, mobility of the fishes and
geographical area (Stansby, 1962). The amount of protein in fish is influenced
by the fat and water content. González-Fandos et al., (2004) reported protein
content (16.04%) in rainbow trout (O. mykiss), similar results found in our
result in rainbow trout from Arunachal Pradesh (June-September) and
Uttarakhand (October –January).
In the present study it was observed that significant seasonal variation in
ash content were observed (p
131
content of ash were also found for several experimental fishes (Ozogul et al.,
2011; Munshi et al., 2005). However, no different was seen in Tor putitora and
Oncorhynchus mykiss collected from Uttarakhand. Similar observation in the
nutrient composition of the fish samples was also noted by Effiong and
Mohammed, 2008 and Osibona et al., 2006. It was explained that the
proportions of the components of muscle tissues varied with the change of
season. However, the fluctuation of ash content made difficult to show any
relationship with the spawning season. Ash content were ranging from 0.575-
2.576 gm/ 100gm in the present study. Similar results were also observed by
Babalola et al., (2011). A slightly higher range of ash level was observed by
Osibona et al., 2006 in Clarias gariepinus; Malapterurus electricus and Tilapia
guineensis (Adeniyi et al., 2012) and in several fish species (Oyebamiji et al.,
2008). The ash content was in higher range in Labeo panguisa (5.65 % dry
weight) and low value in Neolissocheilus stracheyi (4.43% dry weight) as
recorded by Hei and Sarojnalini (2012). Besides, crude ash ranged from 1.15%
- 3.33% (Pirestani et al., 2009) in fresh water fish species. However, low values
of ash content was reported by Nargis (2006); Islam and Joadder, (2005);
Effiong and Mohammed (2008); Ozogul et al., (2011). Ash contents in the
samples of hill stream fishes were ranging from 5.20 to 7.00% (% Dry Weight
Basis) (Laishram et al., 2001). In our study highest content of ash was observed
in Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh; Oncorhynchus
mykiss both from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand; Schizothorax
richardsonii from Uttarakhand during June-September season. The low level of
ash was noted in October-January. These results are in agreement with the
study made by Effiong and Mohammed, (2008); Nargis, (2006); Islam and
Joadder, (2005). In general, body composition of fishes seems to depend on
age, sex, season and diet (Phillips et al., 1966; Graves, 1970; Love, 1970). The
ash content gives a measure of the total mineral content in the tissue (Nair and
Mathew, 2001). According to Stansby (1954); Salam et al., (1995) and Jacquot
(1961), variation in ash composition of fish flesh also may vary with species
variation, season, age and the feeding habit of fish.
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It is known that crude fat of the muscle of the fishes has got tremendous
impacts for the human health benefits (FAO, 1998; Land, 1986). Analyses of
the crude fat in the muscle of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Schizothorax
richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, Neolissocheilus
hexagonolepis from Uttarakhand showed statistically significant variation
(p
133
difference in fat and protein content may be due to different sampling
locations. This is due to environmental conditions cause dramatic variations
among the same species living in different locations. The content of fat
depends on feeding habits. With respect to the fat content of the present
experiment of Tor putitora from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand,
Oncorhynchus mykiss from Arunachal Pradesh, a gradual decrease in October -
January and then an increase from February -May was observed, which might
be due to maturation and spawning as fishes normally spawns from July until
November. Same results were obtained by these authors Boran and Karaçam,
2011; Nargis, 2006. The percentage of fat depends on the reproduction and
food. Similar results were obtained on Macrognathus aculeatus (Nabi and
Hossain, 1989). The differences in season, depending on the availability of
food at different time of the year, have a considerable effect on the tissue
components particularly the fat. Changes in the reproductive cycle also have a
marked effect on the body composition. Fish like other animals, store fat to
supply energy needed during food scarcity and reproductive phases (Ahmed et
al., 1984). Reduction of the fat content during the spawning season has been
recorded for mirror-carp and three spined stickle back (Habashy, 1972).
Bhuyan et al., (2003) reported higher fat content in ripe and gravid fish,
whereas a low level of fat was recorded in spent and young fish. The major
contributing causes that effect the raw fat level in the reproduction period. The
low levels of raw fat in the present study may be sampling time being after the
reproduction period. The ether extract level in the fish tissues could have been
due to the influence of food (Reinitz, 1983) as experienced in the present
investigation on.
There is inverse relationship between the fat and protein contents of the
fish, (Munshi et al., 2005). Similar results were also obtained in this study for
Tor putitora, Schizothorax richardsonii, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from
Arunachal Pradesh, Oncorhynchus mykiss collected from Uttarakhand. Less
content of crude fat were occurred from the muscle of Oncorhynchus mykiss
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from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the month of June-September in
our study. Similar finding of crude fat were obtained by Islam and Joadder,
(2005) who carried out research on freshwater fish gobi, G. giuris. It may be
inferred that during mature stage, gonad studded with the lipid hence, muscles
contain less fat. Thus, it was observed that fat content of muscle is less during
spawning season. These four fish species might be very good sources of fish
oil, which is required for food therapy in humans. It is reported that low-fat fish
have higher water content and also fat content is influenced by species,
geographical regions, age, and diet (Piggott and Tucker, 1990).
Crude protein, crude fat, crude ash and moisture content in pomfret
muscle are closer to the result of the present study (Feng Zhao et al., 2010).
Moisture, protein and ash contents of the rainbow trout meat studied in other
places were ranging from 71.65, 19.60 and 1.36%, respectively (Celik et al.,
2008). These values are similar to those for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri),
reported as 76.23, 18.57, 3.71 and 1.47%, for moisture, protein, fat and ash,
respectively (Özden 2005). However, the values of the present study are
comparable with the published reports in different salmonid species (Kinsella
et al., 1977; Ünlüsayin et al., 2001; USDA 2005; Testi et al., 2006). Slightly
higher or lower range of moisture, ash, protein, carbohydrate from different
marine fish and shellfish samples were found by Nurnadia et al., (2011) and
Ravichandran et al., (2011). Overall the moisture, protein, fat and ash contents
in the experimental fishes of this study were within the range or more or less
similar with other studies (Kalay et al., 2008; Azam et al., 2004;
Chandrashekar and Deosthale 1993; Mustafa et al., 2012; Nabi and Hossain
1989; Gopalan et al., 1978; CSIR, 1962; Ali et al., 2005; Salam et al., 1995;
Mazumder et al., 2008). A little variation of fat was also found which might be
a function of age, sex, season, feeding habit etc (Islam and Joadder, 2005).
These environmental changes primarily affect metabolic processes (Sheridan,
1989), causing accumulations, which may vary in the different organs of
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aquatic organisms (Farkas et al., 1980; Sheridan, 1989; Borlongan and Benitez,
1992).
In the present experiment crude fiber results showed significant
(P
136
and Tafa, 2005). During the breeding season, the percentage of carbohydrate of
A. testudineus was lower which was gradually increased from March to June
and then in the winter season (Nargis, 2006). The same results were found in
the sample of Tor putitora from Uttarakhand, Oncorhynchus mykiss from
Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Increased value of carbohydrate was
noted in the season of June-September from the sample of Tor putitora from
Arunachal Pradesh and Schizothorax richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand. Similarly, low value of carbohydrate was recorded in the season
of February–May from the sample of Tor putitora, Neolissocheilus
hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh, Schizothorax richardsonii from
Uttarakhand. Similar findings were also reported by Shamsan and Ansari
(2010). The results of the present study was also supported by Vijayakumaran
(1979) who stated that carbohydrate plays a minor role in energy reserves of
Ambassis gymnocephalus and its depletion during the spawning season is
insignificant. Phillips et al., (1967) observed that carbohydrates were utilized
for energy by trout and spared protein for body building. Also, feeding habit of
an individual fish species has great effect on its body nutrients composition
(Lagler et al., 1977). Carbohydrates and non-protein compounds are present in
negligible amount and are usually ignored for routine analysis (Cui and
Wootton, 1988). Carbohydrates formed a minor percentage of the total
composition of the muscle (Babalola et al., 2011). The low values of
carbohydrates recorded because, glycogen in many marine animals does not
contribute much to the reserves in the body (Jayasree et al., 1994; Babalola et
al., 2011; Ramaiyan et al., 1976). Oyster contained fairly high amount of
carbohydrate, with mean percentage of 6.45%, which was higher than our
study. On the other hand, cockles and cuttlefish contained only 1.51% and 0.87
% carbohydrate.
The data showed that moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber and
carbohydrate of golden mahseer were significant (P
137
between Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand. The present study
indicated that crude fat and ash values had significant difference (P
138
can be suggested that taste, size, freshness and other related external
appearances should not be the only factors to be considered in making choice
for marketing and consumption of the coldwater fishes but nutritional choice is
also very important. Likewise, the interest in commercial culture of fish has
increased to fill the gaps between supply and demand; therefore, this
information is useful in developing nutrient-balanced, cost-effective diets and
practical feeds for cultured fish. However, these values vary considerably
within and between species, size, sexual condition, feeding season and physical
activity. Fish is also widely accepted because of its high palatability, low
cholesterol and tender flesh (Eyo, 2001). It is therefore necessary to make
information available to consumers and fishery workers on the nutritional
contribution of some fish species in their daily diets as one of the important
objective and findings of the present study (Adewoye et. al., 2003; Barminas et
al., 1998). It was also observed that protein and lipid value of the endemic
fishes of hill stream fishes was found to be higher than that of other freshwater
fishes of India (Vishwanath and Sarojnalini, 1988) as observed in our findings
also.
While, seasonal changes in water temperature and nutrients are the
major factors affecting composition of fish muscle (Gruger, 1967). Stansby
(1954) has established that information on the chemical composition of fish in
respect to the nutritive value is important to compare with other source of
animal protein, foods such as meat and poultry products. Since fish are
poikilothermic and live permanently immersed in water, they are directly
affected by changes in their ambient medium. The variable undergoing change
may be the length or other physical dimensions, including volume, weight, or
mass either of an organism’s whole body or its various tissues or it may relate
to lipids, protein content, or other chemical constituent of the body (Weatherly
and Gill, 1987).
Fishing is a popular pastime in many places in the world (Toth and
Brown, 1997; Burger et al., 1992, 1993; Burger, 2002; Andrew, 2001)
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including in some urban areas (Burger et al., 1999a, 2001; Ramos and Crain,
2001). Most state agencies distribute fish consumption guidance with fishing
licenses (Reinert et al., 1991; Burger and Gochfeld, 1991; Burger et al., 1992,
1993, 1999a, b; Velicer and Knuth, 1994; Knuth, 1995 and Burger, 2000a).
Changes in consumption behaviour are possible only if people are aware of the
warnings and benefits. These have significant role in nutrition, income,
employment and foreign exchange earning of the country. However,
information concerning the chemical composition of freshwater fishes in
general is valuable to nutritionists concerned with readily available sources of
low-fat, high-protein foods such as most freshwater fishes (Sadiku and
Oladimeji, 1991; Mozaffarian et al., 2003; Effiong and Fakunle, 2012 and
Foran et al., 2005) and to the food scientist who is interested in developing
them into high-protein foods, while ensuring the finest quality flavor, color,
odor, texture, and safety obtainable with maximum nutritive value. It is also
useful to the ecologists and environmentalists who are interested in determining
the effects of changing biological/environmental conditions on the
composition, survival, and population changes within fish species.
The findings of the present study will also provide some information in
this direction and will give some information regarding nutritive value of
certain coldwater fishes as a dietary guideline. The proximate composition of
the species helps to assess its nutritional and edible value compared to other
species. The proximate data assist the nutritionist, dieticians and consumers to
estimate the intake of the principal nutrient in the human diet, to calculate
energy values of diet and to have the knowledge of the content of the diet. The
results of the present findings suggested that the proximate composition of fish
species greatly varies during the season. This might be due to physiological
changes related to the environmental conditions, i.e., spawning, migration, and
starvation or heavy feeding. Species-specific physiological characteristics
might greatly affect the proximate composition. This study provides valuable
information on variations in proximate composition of fish species in order to
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distinguish their nutritional value and make a choice based on the information
from a consumer point of view. The study of the proximate composition of
golden mahseer, chocolate mahseer, snow trout and rainbow trout revealed that
they are rich in protein and fat that may contribute to health, growth and
development of human beings and a safe food from environment concern.
Thus, the present study will provide valuable information of the nutritive value
in terms of proximate composition of the important selected edible coldwater
fishes especially of trout and mahseer from the state of Arunachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand.
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Table 4.1: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.2: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kosi river, Uttarakhand
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.3: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Kameng river,
Arunachal Pradesh
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.4: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm,
Arunachal Pradesh
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.5: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Champawat experimental
fish farm, Uttarakhand
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.6: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river,
Arunachal Pradesh
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.7: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Alaknanda river,
Nandprayag, Uttarakhand
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.8: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand based on
production system
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
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Table 4.9: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Champawat experimental fish farm and
Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand based on production system
Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P
150
Figure 4.1: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of February-May. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.2: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of June-September. Values are mean ± SD
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Figure 4.3: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.4: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhimtal hatchery, Uttarakhand. Values are mean ± SD
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Figure 4.5: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.6: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand in the month June – September. Values are mean ± SD
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Figure 4.7: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.8: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of February-may. Values are mean ± SD
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Figure 4.9: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of June-September. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.10: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD
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Figure 4.11: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.12: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.13: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.14: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.15: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.16: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.17: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.18: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.19: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.20: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.21: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.22: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.23: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.24: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.25: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.26: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand
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Figure 4.27: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.28: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand.
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