Ethics Ethics and and

International RelationsInternational Relations

Towards more ethical global Towards more ethical global relations? relations?

StructureStructure

1. What is ethics?1. What is ethics?

2. What is international relations?2. What is international relations?

3. How are the two related?3. How are the two related?

What is ethics?What is ethics?

Ethics has to do with questions of Ethics has to do with questions of

right and wrongright and wrong

Duties or obligationsDuties or obligations

Rules or lawsRules or laws

What is ethics?What is ethics?

Ethical questions are normative questions.Ethical questions are normative questions.

What What oughtought to be done? to be done?

Those who ask this question look at the Those who ask this question look at the world fromworld from

‘‘The moral point of view.’The moral point of view.’

Why be moral?Why be moral?

Why act ethically?Why act ethically?

Why look at the world from the moral Why look at the world from the moral point of view?point of view?

The Rejection of EthicsThe Rejection of Ethics

The doctrine of ‘nihilism.’The doctrine of ‘nihilism.’

The doctrine known as ‘Realism’ in IR theoryThe doctrine known as ‘Realism’ in IR theory

e.g. E.H. Carr in his work on the e.g. E.H. Carr in his work on the Twenty Year CrisisTwenty Year Crisis– – international morality is the morality of the Great international morality is the morality of the Great

PowersPowers

What is realist about realism?What is realist about realism?

Avoids the Avoids the ‘‘hopeless utopianismhopeless utopianism’’ of idealismof idealism

Based on empirical analysis of Based on empirical analysis of the human condition and the the human condition and the way the world worksway the world works

Some aspects of behaviour are Some aspects of behaviour are universal and eternal.universal and eternal.

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Theories of EthicsTheories of Ethics

Why are certain actions right or Why are certain actions right or wrong?wrong?

How do I decide what ought to be How do I decide what ought to be done?done?

Theories of EthicsTheories of Ethics

Two main theoriesTwo main theories

Ethical DeontologismEthical Deontologism

Ethical ConsequentialismEthical Consequentialism

Ethical DeontologismEthical Deontologism

Usually associated with Immanuel Kant Usually associated with Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)(1724-1804)

But can also be found in Hugo Grotius (1583-But can also be found in Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)1645)

The Laws of War and PeaceThe Laws of War and Peace (1625) (1625)

And in Aristotle And in Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Ethics (384-(384-322BCE)322BCE)

Deontological thinkingDeontological thinkingSome actions intrinsically wrong.Some actions intrinsically wrong.

E.g. murder E.g. murder

The proposition ‘murder is wrong’ is The proposition ‘murder is wrong’ is a logically necessary truth, like a logically necessary truth, like

‘2+2=4.’’‘2+2=4.’’To concede that an action ‘X’ is an To concede that an action ‘X’ is an

act of murder, whilst arguing that act of murder, whilst arguing that it is nonetheless one which ought it is nonetheless one which ought

to be performed (that it is ‘right’ or to be performed (that it is ‘right’ or ‘ethically permissible’ to perform ‘ethically permissible’ to perform

it) is to contradict oneself.it) is to contradict oneself.

Such actions ought never to be Such actions ought never to be committed, no matter what the committed, no matter what the

circumstances.circumstances.

Deontological thinkingDeontological thinking

Why are these actions wrong/unjust?Why are these actions wrong/unjust?

The principle of reciprocityThe principle of reciprocity

Kant’s ‘categorical imperative.’Kant’s ‘categorical imperative.’

‘‘Always act such that one can at the Always act such that one can at the same time will the maxim of your same time will the maxim of your

action to be a universal law.’action to be a universal law.’e.g. murder or theft could not be made a universal e.g. murder or theft could not be made a universal

lawlaw

Deontological thinking in traditional Deontological thinking in traditional humanitarian principleshumanitarian principles

Needs-based humanitarianismNeeds-based humanitarianism Relief of sufferingRelief of suffering

ICRC- 7 principles of humanitarian ICRC- 7 principles of humanitarian actionaction

• humanityhumanity• impartialityimpartiality• neutralityneutrality• independenceindependence• voluntary servicevoluntary service• unityunity• universalityuniversality

ICRC’s principles are based on ICRC’s principles are based on deontological ethicsdeontological ethics

ICRC principle of Humanity ICRC principle of Humanity

Deontological ethics Deontological ethics • i.e. human as human being outside belief systemi.e. human as human being outside belief system• being concerned to alleviate suffering of any being concerned to alleviate suffering of any

human irrespective of their race, ethnicity, social human irrespective of their race, ethnicity, social class, religion, politics or other beliefsclass, religion, politics or other beliefs

• ‘‘not affected by any political or military not affected by any political or military consideration’ - Pictet, 1958, p. 96consideration’ - Pictet, 1958, p. 96

non-judgmental, not subjective i.e. not deserving non-judgmental, not subjective i.e. not deserving v undeservingv undeserving

to relieve suffering not to reform (society or to relieve suffering not to reform (society or individual)individual)

Ethical ConsequentialismEthical Consequentialism

There are no actions which are absolutely right There are no actions which are absolutely right or wrong.or wrong.

Everything depends on the circumstances, Everything depends on the circumstances, especially the consequences of performing especially the consequences of performing

one action rather than another.one action rather than another.

How much ‘good’ does the action bring into How much ‘good’ does the action bring into the world?the world?

‘‘The priority of the good over the right.’The priority of the good over the right.’

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

The ‘principle of utility.’The ‘principle of utility.’

‘‘Always act so as to promote the Always act so as to promote the greatest happiness of the greatest greatest happiness of the greatest

number.’number.’

‘‘Happiness’ = ‘pleasure’ and not ‘pain.’Happiness’ = ‘pleasure’ and not ‘pain.’

Is Utilitarianism a moral Is Utilitarianism a moral doctrine?doctrine?

Ethical deontologists like Kant would say that it Ethical deontologists like Kant would say that it is not, as it could be used to justify actions is not, as it could be used to justify actions

which in their view are intrinsically wrong and which in their view are intrinsically wrong and ought never to be performed.ought never to be performed.

But not everybody is an ethical deontologist.But not everybody is an ethical deontologist.

Utilitarianism is generally accepted as being Utilitarianism is generally accepted as being one of the major ethical traditions in the one of the major ethical traditions in the

history of Western philosophy.history of Western philosophy.

Ends and means in ethicsEnds and means in ethics

Does the end justify the means?Does the end justify the means?

Some have said ‘yes’ to this question.Some have said ‘yes’ to this question.

E.g. Niccolo Macchiavelli (1469-1527)E.g. Niccolo Macchiavelli (1469-1527)

The PrinceThe Prince (1513) (1513)

Consequentialist Thinking in New Consequentialist Thinking in New HumanitarianismHumanitarianism

Rights-based humanitarianismRights-based humanitarianism

Traditional v New Humanitarian Traditional v New Humanitarian principlesprinciples

Deontological v consequentialistDeontological v consequentialist Needs-based v rights-basedNeeds-based v rights-based Neutralists v solidaristsNeutralists v solidarists

Consequentialist Thinking in Consequentialist Thinking in Humanitarianism’s expanded remitHumanitarianism’s expanded remit

‘‘no longer reserved for the provision no longer reserved for the provision of independent and impartial relief to of independent and impartial relief to victims of conflict… it now includes victims of conflict… it now includes the attempt to advance human the attempt to advance human rights, increase access to medicines, rights, increase access to medicines, further development, promote further development, promote democracy and (to) build responsible democracy and (to) build responsible states’ Slim, 1997, p. 249states’ Slim, 1997, p. 249

International Relations and International Relations and International EthicsInternational Ethics

1990s and end of the Cold War1990s and end of the Cold War

Potential for Potential for

- - more cosmopolitan global political more cosmopolitan global political communitycommunity

- new role for international organisations, - new role for international organisations, international law & human rightsinternational law & human rights

- pro-active UN Security Council & UN bodies - pro-active UN Security Council & UN bodies e.g Boutros Boutros Ghali’s e.g Boutros Boutros Ghali’s Agenda for Agenda for Peace, Peace, 19931993

International ethics and International ethics and international law international law

International arena as Hobbesian ‘state of nature’ International arena as Hobbesian ‘state of nature’ i.e. condition of war? NOT for Continental School i.e. condition of war? NOT for Continental School of Natural Lawof Natural Law

- Samuel Pufendorf (1632-94)- Samuel Pufendorf (1632-94)The Laws of Nature and of Nations The Laws of Nature and of Nations (1672)(1672)

- Christian Wolff (1679-1754), - Christian Wolff (1679-1754), Natural Law and the Law of Nations Natural Law and the Law of Nations (1740-1749)(1740-1749)

- Emerich de Vattel (1714-1767), - Emerich de Vattel (1714-1767), The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law Applied to the The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law Applied to the

Conduct and to the Affairs of Nations and of Sovereigns Conduct and to the Affairs of Nations and of Sovereigns (1758).(1758).

- Kant, - Kant, Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795).(1795).

International ethics and international International ethics and international lawlaw

The international arena is not as Hobbes The international arena is not as Hobbes portrays a ‘state of nature.’portrays a ‘state of nature.’

It is a condition of ‘peace’ regulated by law – It is a condition of ‘peace’ regulated by law – a moral law.a moral law.

This is the ‘law of nature.’This is the ‘law of nature.’

It is also the ‘law of nations,’ It is also the ‘law of nations,’ i.e. ‘international law.’i.e. ‘international law.’

Law of wars/IHLLaw of wars/IHL

Jus ad bellumJus ad bellumThe justice/injustice of going to warThe justice/injustice of going to war

Jus in belloJus in belloJustice/injustice in warfareJustice/injustice in warfare

Jus post bellumJus post bellumJustice after warJustice after war

e.g. Saturation bombing during WWII & the e.g. Saturation bombing during WWII & the dropping of the atomic bombs on Nagasaki dropping of the atomic bombs on Nagasaki

and Hiroshimaand Hiroshima

Ethics and IR in the Global EraEthics and IR in the Global Era

Cosmopolitan ethical idealsCosmopolitan ethical ideals

Two DimensionsTwo Dimensions

Global Distributive JusticeGlobal Distributive Justice

Global Rectificatory JusticeGlobal Rectificatory Justice

Global Distributive JusticeGlobal Distributive Justice

Global poverty and wealth Global poverty and wealth distribution:distribution:

The net worth of the 358 richest people The net worth of the 358 richest people in the world was then [mid 1990s] in the world was then [mid 1990s]

found to be “equal to the combined found to be “equal to the combined income of the poorest 45 per cent of income of the poorest 45 per cent of the world’s population – 2.3 billion the world’s population – 2.3 billion

people.” people.” David Harvey, David Harvey, The Limits to Capital The Limits to Capital (2006), p. xi(2006), p. xi

Global Rectificatory JusticeGlobal Rectificatory Justice

One law, which is natural lawOne law, which is natural law

Natural rights, or human rightsNatural rights, or human rights

Ought to regulate the conduct of both states Ought to regulate the conduct of both states and individualsand individuals

Global Rectificatory JusticeGlobal Rectificatory Justice

In a global political community, human rights abuses In a global political community, human rights abuses are the legitimate concern of everyone.are the legitimate concern of everyone.

In certain circumstances ‘intervention’ by one state, In certain circumstances ‘intervention’ by one state, or a supra-national institution like the UN, in the or a supra-national institution like the UN, in the

affairs of another is justified, even though it affairs of another is justified, even though it infringes the ‘autonomy’ or ‘sovereignty’ of the infringes the ‘autonomy’ or ‘sovereignty’ of the

state in question.state in question.

E.g. Bosnia (1992-95)E.g. Bosnia (1992-95)Rwanda (1994)Rwanda (1994)Iraq (2003-)Iraq (2003-)E.g. ICTY, ICTR, ICCE.g. ICTY, ICTR, ICC

Kosovo War 1999 as humanitarian Kosovo War 1999 as humanitarian warwar

improving humanitarian situation?improving humanitarian situation? preventing genocide?preventing genocide? improving human improving human rights? rights? promoting peace promoting peace

and and

ethnic relations?ethnic relations?

International ethics and International ethics and humanitarian interventionhumanitarian intervention

The Responsibility to Project: Report of The Responsibility to Project: Report of the International Commission on the International Commission on Intervention and State SovereigntyIntervention and State Sovereignty, , 20012001• Changing international law on principle in Changing international law on principle in

UN Charter 1945 on non-interference in the UN Charter 1945 on non-interference in the internal affairs of statesinternal affairs of states

• humanitarian concerns paramount over humanitarian concerns paramount over national sovereigntynational sovereignty

• expansion of idea of universal jurisdictionexpansion of idea of universal jurisdiction

Controversies over international Controversies over international ethics todayethics today

Evolving international criminal law & Evolving international criminal law & R2P expanding humanitarian military R2P expanding humanitarian military interventionintervention

Prohibitions on use of force v rights Prohibitions on use of force v rights to use force to use force

‘‘the concept of international right becomes meaningless if the concept of international right becomes meaningless if interpreted as a right to go to war. For this would make it a interpreted as a right to go to war. For this would make it a right to determine what is lawful not by means of right to determine what is lawful not by means of universally valid external laws, but by one-sided maxims universally valid external laws, but by one-sided maxims backed up by physical force’ Kant, backed up by physical force’ Kant, Perpetual PeacePerpetual Peace..

E.H. Carr, E.H. Carr, Twenty Year CrisisTwenty Year Crisis on on international moralityinternational morality

theories of international morality = theories of international morality = ‘product of dominant nations or ‘product of dominant nations or groups of nations’groups of nations’

‘‘unconscious reflections of national unconscious reflections of national policy based on a particular policy based on a particular interpretation of national interest at interpretation of national interest at a particular time’a particular time’

relation of norms and power?relation of norms and power?

Controversies over international Controversies over international ethics todayethics today

‘‘I certainly cannot imagine the West I certainly cannot imagine the West conceding that they too should be conceding that they too should be subject to these norms of subject to these norms of humanitarian military intervention on humanitarian military intervention on human rights grounds’ David Rieff, human rights grounds’ David Rieff, Bed for the Night: Humanitarianism Bed for the Night: Humanitarianism in Crisisin Crisis, p. 282. , p. 282.

Crisis of humanitarian ethicsCrisis of humanitarian ethics

‘‘The political nature of humanitarian aid, coupled The political nature of humanitarian aid, coupled with the new context of insecurity, militarisation, with the new context of insecurity, militarisation, privatisation and the merging of developmental privatisation and the merging of developmental and security aims, has created dilemmas that will and security aims, has created dilemmas that will plague NGOs' humanitarian programming for plague NGOs' humanitarian programming for years. How NGOs adapt themselves and make the years. How NGOs adapt themselves and make the decision whether to abandon or adapt decision whether to abandon or adapt humanitarian principles will be a crucial factor in humanitarian principles will be a crucial factor in the future positioning of NGOs within the emerging the future positioning of NGOs within the emerging system of global governance.’ Barbara Brubacher, system of global governance.’ Barbara Brubacher,

http://www.globalpolicy.corg/ngos/aid/http://www.globalpolicy.corg/ngos/aid/2004/0928neutrality.htm 2004/0928neutrality.htm