Ethics of Ethics of WhalingWhaling

In search of the right thing to doIn search of the right thing to do

History of Antarctic Whaling

Should Whaling Be Banned?

Answer has several dimensions:Answer has several dimensions:economiceconomicculturalculturalscientificscientificmoralmoral

Our discussion will be limited to Our discussion will be limited to moralmoral argumentsarguments

Ethical Inquiry ““Seeking the right thing to do.”Seeking the right thing to do.” What is the right thing to do?What is the right thing to do?

action with best reasons (Socrates)action with best reasons (Socrates)among choices available to youamong choices available to you

Is Whaling Morally Wrong?

Develop a list of relevant reasons Develop a list of relevant reasons to support a moral argument to support a moral argument for/against whaling.for/against whaling.

For Whaling Against Whaling

Example Morally Significant Characteristics

Sentience - ability to sufferSentience - ability to suffer Intelligence Intelligence Self-awareSelf-aware Immortal soulImmortal soul Concern for conspecificsConcern for conspecifics PlayfulnessPlayfulness Ability to communicateAbility to communicate

Form of Moral ArgumentForm of Moral Argument

PremisesPremisesGuiding PrincipleGuiding PrincipleConclusionConclusion

Example Moral Argument Action Action xx causes pain and suffering to causes pain and suffering to

sentient* beingssentient* beingssentient = “capable of feeling pleasure sentient = “capable of feeling pleasure

and pain”and pain” There are alternatives to action There are alternatives to action xx It is wrong to cause pain and suffering, unless It is wrong to cause pain and suffering, unless

there is a sufficiently good reason to justify itthere is a sufficiently good reason to justify it Therefore, we should not do action Therefore, we should not do action xx

Develop Your Own Argument

PremisesPremisesGuiding PrincipleGuiding PrincipleConclusionConclusion

Evaluating Moral Arguments

Are premises true?Are premises true? Does conclusion Does conclusion

follow logically?follow logically? Is moral principle Is moral principle

justifiable?justifiable?

Need for General Moral Principles

Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism– our cultural preferences are our cultural preferences are NOT NOT based on based on

rational reasoningrational reasoning Consequences of Cultural RelativismConsequences of Cultural Relativism

Social practices would be immune from criticismSocial practices would be immune from criticism Social reform (or moral progress) is meaninglessSocial reform (or moral progress) is meaningless

Moral Theories

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Morally right actions maximize aggregate Morally right actions maximize aggregate

happiness. Pleasure is only intrinsically happiness. Pleasure is only intrinsically good thing. Pain and suffering are good thing. Pain and suffering are intrinsically bad things.intrinsically bad things.

– Egalitarianism Egalitarianism – equal consideration to interests of everyone equal consideration to interests of everyone

affected by our conduct.affected by our conduct.

Other Moral Theories

The Rights View --The Rights View -- Beings have certain Beings have certain moral rights that limit how they may be moral rights that limit how they may be treated. Rights are more basic than utility treated. Rights are more basic than utility and independent of the consequences of our and independent of the consequences of our actions.actions.

e.g. right to lifee.g. right to life– hunter-gatherer societies hunter-gatherer societies

Justice (Fairness)

Treat beings fairly according to Treat beings fairly according to individual needs and meritsindividual needs and merits

e.g. - punishment e.g. - punishment any differential treatment must be any differential treatment must be

justified by relevant reasonsjustified by relevant reasons Is it fair to deny whales to Norwegians Is it fair to deny whales to Norwegians

but not deny whales to Inuits?but not deny whales to Inuits?

Other Moral Theories

Moral Individualism Moral Individualism – equal consideration of interests unless there is a equal consideration of interests unless there is a

relevant difference that justifies difference in relevant difference that justifies difference in treatmenttreatment

Divine command Divine command – Action is right if, and only if, God commands itAction is right if, and only if, God commands it

Review of Ethics Lesson

Ethics involves deciding “What is the Ethics involves deciding “What is the right thing to do?”right thing to do?”

action with best reasons (Socrates)action with best reasons (Socrates) among choices available to youamong choices available to you

Evaluating Moral ArgumentsEvaluating Moral Arguments Are premises true?Are premises true? Does conclusion follow logically?Does conclusion follow logically? Is moral principle justifiable?Is moral principle justifiable?

Review ContinuedReview Continued

Dependence on whaling Dependence on whaling – Arctic regions (Iceland & Norway) & Arctic regions (Iceland & Norway) &

regions where land-based protein production regions where land-based protein production is limited by climate or geography (Japan)is limited by climate or geography (Japan)

Resumption of whalingResumption of whaling– no longer represents same threat of no longer represents same threat of

extinction of great whales because whale oil extinction of great whales because whale oil replaced by petroleum and vegetable oils.replaced by petroleum and vegetable oils.

Anti-whaling Argument #1 Killing whales is sadistic and cruel Killing whales is sadistic and cruel

behaviorbehavior Cruelty ought to be condemned and Cruelty ought to be condemned and

discourageddiscouraged Therefore whaling is wrong. Therefore whaling is wrong.

Argument #1 Evaluation

Killing whales is Killing whales is sadistic and cruel sadistic and cruel behaviorbehavior

Cruelty ought to be Cruelty ought to be condemned and condemned and discourageddiscouraged

Therefore whaling is Therefore whaling is wrong.wrong.

Are premises true?Are premises true?Does conclusion Does conclusion

follow logically?follow logically?Is moral principle Is moral principle

justifiable?justifiable?

Anti-whaling Argument #2 Whaling involves the infliction of Whaling involves the infliction of

unnecesary suffering and death on unnecesary suffering and death on sentient beings.sentient beings.

Anything that causes unnecessary Anything that causes unnecessary suffering, or unnecessary death, on suffering, or unnecessary death, on sentient beings is wrong.sentient beings is wrong.

Therefore whaling is wrong.Therefore whaling is wrong.

Whaling = Livestock Slaughter?

Speciesism:discrimination based solely on speciesmembership

Pro-whaling Argument #1

Whaling is an important Whaling is an important cultural traditioncultural tradition

All cultural traditions All cultural traditions are permissibleare permissible

Therefore, whaling is Therefore, whaling is permissiblepermissible

All Cultural Traditions Permissible?

cock-fightingcock-fighting hub-cap stealinghub-cap stealing infanticideinfanticide

The Appropriate Questions

What Cultural Differences What Cultural Differences are Respectable?are Respectable?

Are we being consistent in Are we being consistent in our moral arguments?our moral arguments?

Pro-whaling Argument #2 Whaling provides for nutritional and cultural Whaling provides for nutritional and cultural

needs of certain coastal societies.needs of certain coastal societies. Whale killing can be done with minimum pain Whale killing can be done with minimum pain

and suffering to whales.and suffering to whales. Humane killing of whales would maximize the Humane killing of whales would maximize the

interests of all sentient beings affected by interests of all sentient beings affected by whaling.whaling.

Therefore, whaling is permissible in these Therefore, whaling is permissible in these circumstances.circumstances.

Ethics of Other Wildlife Decisions

Deer ManagementDeer Management Wolf Re-introductionWolf Re-introduction International Wildlife International Wildlife

ManagementManagement

The Case for Animal RightsTom Regan 1983

Normal mammals (1 yr+) have basic Normal mammals (1 yr+) have basic moral moral right not to be harmed right not to be harmed on the grounds that on the grounds that doing so benefits others doing so benefits others

In philosophical jargon:In philosophical jargon:– moral rights are “trump cards” against moral rights are “trump cards” against

utilitarian argumentsutilitarian arguments

Animal Rights View Incompatible with Environmental Ethics?

Captive breeding of individual sentient beings Captive breeding of individual sentient beings (e.g. endangered species) is a moral atrocity(e.g. endangered species) is a moral atrocity

Impermissible to kill exotic, destructive Impermissible to kill exotic, destructive animalsanimals

Hunting would be prohibited, even therapeutic Hunting would be prohibited, even therapeutic (required to preserve ecosystem integrity(required to preserve ecosystem integrity

Obliged to prevent “natural” predationObliged to prevent “natural” predation

Can the Utilitarian Argument Bridge the Gap?

Utilitarianism: max aggregate “happiness”Utilitarianism: max aggregate “happiness” How to define happiness? two ways:How to define happiness? two ways:

Hedonism: happiness is pleasure or absence of Hedonism: happiness is pleasure or absence of pain and sufferingpain and suffering

Preference: satisfaction of conscious aimsPreference: satisfaction of conscious aims Harm of action depends on “future-Harm of action depends on “future-

oriented” desires of a beingoriented” desires of a being

A Hedonistic Utilitarian Argument for Therapeutic Hunting

We have a moral obligation to minimize pain.We have a moral obligation to minimize pain. More pain would be caused by letting “nature” More pain would be caused by letting “nature”

take its course than by carefully regulated take its course than by carefully regulated therapeutic hunts.therapeutic hunts.

Therefore, we are morally obligated to conduct Therefore, we are morally obligated to conduct carefully regulated therapeutic hunts. carefully regulated therapeutic hunts.

Disagreements?

Can Animal Rights and Environmental Ethics Converge?

Any workable ethics Any workable ethics must recognize some must recognize some hierarchies.hierarchies.

“Whenever I injure life of any sort, I must be quite clear whether it is necessary. Beyond the unavoidable, I must never go.” Albert Schweitzer

Overriding Moral Duties General duty to preserve integrity of ecosystems General duty to preserve integrity of ecosystems

as the necessary context in which future as the necessary context in which future generations pursue their most important generations pursue their most important interestsinterests..

TheseThese interests interests are of overriding moral are of overriding moral importance, andimportance, and

safeguarding future generations’ pursuit of these safeguarding future generations’ pursuit of these interests requires us to remove exotics, breed interests requires us to remove exotics, breed endangered species, reintroduce predators, and ...endangered species, reintroduce predators, and ...

Lessons Learned

Desired goals Desired goals must be acceptablemust be acceptable ScienceScience is one part of management is one part of management Regulations must be Regulations must be enforceableenforceable Animal welfare Animal welfare is a desirable goal is a desirable goal

(humane killing, if killing is necessary)(humane killing, if killing is necessary)

Leopold’s Land Ethic

An ethic, ecologically, is a limitation on An ethic, ecologically, is a limitation on freedom of action in the struggle for existence.freedom of action in the struggle for existence.

The extension of ethics to land is an The extension of ethics to land is an evolutionary possibility and an ecological evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity.necessity.

All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a member of a premise: that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts.community of interdependent parts.

The Leopold Imperative

“ “A thing is right when it tends to preserve A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwisetends otherwise.”.”

Homework AssignmentHomework Assignment

Continue to develop and debate Continue to develop and debate moral argumentsmoral arguments

Evaluate sources of informationEvaluate sources of information Recognize your ethnocentric biasesRecognize your ethnocentric biases Identify oversimplified or Identify oversimplified or

exaggerated argumentsexaggerated arguments

Ethics Quiz

Your Name:Your Name: What was the most important thing you What was the most important thing you

learned today?learned today? What question is still troubling you about What question is still troubling you about

this topic?this topic?