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Ethics & Research
Communication Research
Week 2Myra Gurney
Communication Research Spring 2005 2
What is Ethics? Can be defined as a systematic attempt,
through the use of reason, to make sense of our individual and social moral experience in such a way as to determine the rules which govern human conduct and the the values worth pursuing in life
A set of standards that regulate our behaviour
Can be socially and culturally determined
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What is Ethics? Enables us to distinguish between what
is acceptable and legitimate and what is not
The word ‘ethics’ comes from the Greek ethos meaning custom and character
An important aspect of any ethical system is the role of truth and lies
Communication Research Spring 2005 4
Types of Ethics
Normative – dictate what is morally
correct behaviour. Fundamental concern is the
development and justification of systems of moral rules which guide conduct
Statements of ‘ought’
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Types of Ethics
Relative – “Fire burns both in Hellas and in
Persia; but men’s ideas of right or wrong vary
from place to place.” … Aristotle’s
Nichomanchean Ethics
Absolute – application of principles regardless
of context or circumstances eg exercise of
absolute power in politics – tyranny
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Research Ethics All researchers, even students, have a
responsibility to conduct ethical research
Participants in research studies should know and understand their rights and responsibilities
Ethical considerations are part of the design of the research project
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The 10 point Nuremburg Code
1. Participation must be voluntary, and subjects should have the capacity to give consent. Further, subjects should be fully informed of the purposes, nature, and duration of the experiment.
2. The research should yield results that are useful to society and that cannot be obtained in any other way.
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The 10 point Nuremburg Code
3. The research should have a sound footing in animal research and be based on the natural history of the problem under study.
4. Steps should be taken in the research to avoid unnecessary physical or psychological harm to the subjects.
5. Research should not be conducted if there is reason to believe that death or disability will occur in the subjects.
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The 10 point Nuremburg Code
6. The risk involved in the research should be proportional to the benefits to be obtained.
7. Proper plans should be made and facilities provided to protect the subject from harm.
8. Research should be conducted by highly qualified scientists only.
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The 10 point Nuremburg Code
9. The subject should have the freedom to withdraw at any time if he or she has reached the conclusion that continuing in the experiment is not possible.
10. The researcher must be prepared to discontinue the experiment if it becomes evident that continuing will be harmful to the subject.
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Unethical research – The Willowbrook Studies
1963-66 at Willowbrook State School in New York for “mentally defective persons”
Children deliberately infected with hepatitis in order to understand the natural history of the disease and the effects of gamma globulin in preventing the disease
Defended on the grounds that the children would have caught it anyway – better under “controlled conditions”
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Unethical research – John B Watson and “Little Albert”
Famous psychological experiment to test the effects of classical conditioning
Little Albert was 11 months old Introduced to a laboratory white rat of whom he initially
had no fear When the rat was later introduced, a scary stimulus (eg
a loud noise) was “paired” with the original Albert was later conditioned to fear anything white
including a Santa Claus mask
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Unethical research – Simulated Rape Field Study
Harari, Harari & White (1985) male participants alone or in groups were exposed to simulated rape (screaming woman grabbed by male assailant and dragged into bushes)
Measured yes or no to intervention by participants
Prior to intervention, participants debriefed
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Simulated Rape Study – problems
Should informed consent have been obtained? Post hoc informed consent?
Psychological Stress? Unexpected reactions by participants, e.g.
what if someone had a gun? Should subjects be stopped and
debriefed? What about those who didn’t stop? What should debriefing include?
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The Belmont Principles The primary task of the National Commission
was to identify the ethical principles that would guide all research involving humans. The Belmont Report -- Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects was published in 1978.
The principles of The Belmont Report govern all research supported by the U.S. government today.
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Current Standards
3 BASIC FACTORS 1. Respect for Persons: This principle
acknowledges the dignity and freedom of every person. It requires obtaining informed consent from research subjects (or their legally authorized representatives).
2. Beneficence: This principle requires that researchers maximize benefits and minimize harms associated with research. Research-related risks must be reasonable in light of expected benefits
3. Justice: This principle requires equitable selection and recruitment and fair treatment of research subjects.
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The Problem of Deception
Deception interferes with a subjects’ right to be informed
Role-Playing Research shows that informed and uninformed
participants behave differently Prior Consent
General consent to be uninformed Debriefing
Inform participants about study (methods, purpose, results) including deception used
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What is active deception? Misrepresenting the purpose False statements about the identity of the
researcher False promises to the participant Violations of promise of anonymity Misleading statements about equipment and
procedures Use of pseudosubjects
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What is active deception?
False diagnoses and other reports
False interaction
Using placebos or secret administration of
drugs
Misleading settings and behavior of the
experimenter
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Passive Deception
Doing unrecognized conditioning
Provoking and secretly recording negative
behavior of participants
Making concealed observations
Doing unrecognized participant observation
Using projective techniques and other
personality tests.
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Debriefing
Make a full disclosure of purposes of the research Give a complete description of and justification for the
deception Discuss the problem of perseverance Provide a convincing argument for the need for
deception Demonstrate bogus experiment or show participants
that actual responses were never seen by the experimenter
Have participants observe a subsequent session showing deception
Make the individual an active participant in the research
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Ethical issues in conducting research
Intentional deception
Use of confederates
Physical and psychological harm
Upholding anonymity and confidentiality
Videotaping and audiotaping participants
Debriefing participants
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Ethical Issues in reporting research
Ensuring accuracy Researcher is always responsible for
accuracy regardless of who helps Avoiding plagiarism by
Using direct quote Using summaries or paraphrases Acknowledge ideas or contributions
Protecting identities of participants