Ethnobotanical analysis for traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in North Jeolla Province (Korea)

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Ethnobotanical analysis for traditional knowledge of wildedible plants in North Jeolla Province (Korea)

Hyun Kim • Mi-Jang Song

Received: 2 May 2012 / Accepted: 29 November 2012 / Published online: 31 January 2013

� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract This study aims to investigate how wild

edible plants are used according to orally transmitted

traditional knowledge in North Jeolla Province, Korea.

Data was collected utilizing semi-structured question-

naires through the participatory rural appraisal

method. This study utilized 91 informants who

produced 244 viable usages from the collection of

108 species, within 96 genera in 52 families. Regard-

ing the distribution of recorded families, Asteraceae

(22 species) occupied 29.6 % of the total use-reports.

Within usage, vegetables (55 species) occupied

50.9 % of the whole. Overall, 22 kinds of plant-parts

were selected as edible materials requiring 48 various

preparatory methods. The category of preparatory

methods with the highest degree of consensus from the

informants were food dye, fried dry vegetables, pan

fried cakes, seared spikelets, seasoned cooked vege-

tables (Type V), and steamed rice cakes. For fidelity

levels (FL) of plants regarding preparatory methods,

27 plant species recorded a FL of 100 %. The results

of this study will be enhanced due to the value of

traditional knowledge of the local community con-

cerning wild edible plants and will provide various

usages for the plants as nutritional sources for the

residents of local communities.

Keywords Korea � Participatory rural appraisal

method � Pharmafoods � Traditional knowledge �Wild edible plants

Introduction

North Jeolla Province is located in the central region

on the western area of the Korean Peninsula (Fig. 1).

This province is geographically divided into the

western plains and the eastern mountainous regions.

The western plains region has engaged in paddy-field

farming for over 3000 years, and yet this tradition is

currently under attack by the rapid rise of industrial-

ization and urbanization. In contrast, the eastern

mountainous region contains comparatively less areas

of rice paddies and therefore has engaged in dry-field

farming. This area was even considered as a typical

backcountry of Korea until about 10 years ago.

The annual average temperature is from 10 to

12.9 �C with precipitation at approximately 1,259.4 mm

per year (North Jeolla Provincial Government 2011a).

The vegetation at 300 m above sea level is mostly

composed of deciduous forests (Quercus aliena com-

munity, Quercus serrata community et al.) and

partially covered with evergreen broad-leaved forests

(Camellia japonica community). Regions between

300 and 1,200 m above sea level are composed mostly

of deciduous forests (Carpinus tschonoskii community,

H. Kim (&) � M.-J. Song

School of Alternative Medicine and Health Science,

Jeonju University, 303 Cheonjam-ro, Wansan-gu,

Jeonju 560-759, Republic of Korea

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1571–1585

DOI 10.1007/s10722-012-9943-2

Carpinus laxiflora community, Quercus variabilis

community, Quercus mongolica community et al.).

The land between 1,300 and 1,900 m above sea level

contains subalpine forests (Abies koreana community,

Taxus cuspidata community, Pinus koraiensis com-

munity et al.) and two types of shrubbery (Rhododen-

dron schlippenbachii community, Betula ermani

community et al.) (Kil and Kim 1996).

The flora had been investigated at various times from

1942 to 1997. Relatively recent investigations recorded,

1,032 species in 1984 (North Jeolla Provincial Gov-

ernment 1984), 1,300 species in 1988 (Ministry of

Environment 1988), 1,650 species in 1990 (Ministry of

Environment 1990), and 1,754 species in 1996 (Kil and

Kim 1996). In regards to edible plants, Kil and Kim

(1996) estimated around 600 species; however, no in-

depth investigation was conducted at that time.

In the questionary investigation about wild edible

plants in Korea, the traditional market study of

Pemberton and Lee (1996) was the first ever recorded.

In 2006, an investigation of edible plants using an

ethnographic method was accomplished by Kim

concerning the medicinal efficacy of plants using

traditional foods from Korean Buddhism temples (Kim

et al. 2006). Again in 2011, Kim and Song (2011b) and

Song and Kim (2011) announced the results of their

ethnographical investigation about medicinal plants

within specific areas of North Jeolla Province. How-

ever, at that time, an ethnographical study about the

wild edible plants in this area was not conducted.

This investigation is the first to record the tradi-

tional knowledge of wild edible plants using the

ethnographical participatory rural appraisal method in

the North Jeolla Provincial region of Korea, in which

the traditional culture and ecogeographical properties

have been well preserved.

This research recently carries an important meaning

bringing to light the situation where wild edible plants

used in local communities of industrialized nations has

recorded much attention (Bonet and Valles 2002;

Pieroni et al. 2002; Hadjichambis et al. 2008).

Particularly, in the case of Korea, its rapid industri-

alization has progressed. On the other hand, the

traditional knowledge of genetical resources has strictly

remained with the elderly above 70 years of age (Kim

and Song 2011b; Song and Kim 2011). The death of

these experts means that the traditional knowledge of

wild edible plants could soon disappear forever (Martin

1995; Cotton 1996; Balick and Cox 1999).

Therefore, this research attempts to preserve the

traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in North

Jeolla Province.

Fig. 1 Investigation sites in

the study area

1572 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1571–1585

123

Study area

The study area is bisected into the eastern mountain-

ous and the western plains regions. Most of the eastern

mountainous areas are at a height of between 100 and

500 m above sea level. Three specific locations in this

area are the Chinan Plateau, Janggye-Jangsu Basin,

and Namwon-Osu Basin. The region between 500 and

1,915 m above sea level contains the Sobaek and

Noryeong Mountains.

The western plains area is at 100 m or less above

sea level from the foot of the Noryeong Mountains to

the west coast and consists of paddy fields centered

along the Mangyeong and Dongjin Rivers (Fig. 1).

The administrative district is composed of eight

counties and six major cities. The total area covers up

to 8,066.8 km2 and the total population of North Jeolla

Province was 1868963 in 2011 (North Jeolla Provin-

cial Government 2011b).

Methods

Investigative method

Field investigations were conducted throughout 46

sites from July, 2008 to November, 2010 (Fig. 1). 91

key informants (25 men and 66 women) were inter-

viewed who have lived over 40 years around the areas

of investigation. The average age of the informants

was 76 years old with informants ranging in age from

52 to 93, elderly residents who have hardly been

affected by modern culture and education (Table 1).

Proper data was collected through the participatory

rural appraisal (PRA) method, as informants also

become investigators themselves, involved in inter-

views, informal meetings, open and group discussions,

and overt observations with semi-structured question-

naires (Kim and Song 2008, 2011a).

The content of the semi-structured questionnaires

was organized using previous organization methods

(Martin 1995; Kim and Song 2008, 2011b; Song and

Kim 2011). These questionnaires inquired of infor-

mation about diverse methods used for the collection

and usage of wild edible plants, including the local

names, plant-parts used, collective methods and

seasons, storage methods and seasons, preparatory

methods and usable durations of each plant-part

(Martin 1995; Kim and Song 2008, 2011a, b; Poonam

and Singh 2009; Song and Kim 2011).

All plant specimens were collected during either

their flowering or fruiting seasons and were organized

using the normal specimen manufacturing method

(Martin 1995). The voucher specimens were deposited

for preservation in the herbarium at Jeonju University

(JJU). The precise identification of plants mentioned

by the informants was performed in accordance with

Lee (1979) and Lee (2002). Scientific names of plants

were confirmed by the National Knowledge and

Information System for Biological Species (NKISBS

2011) of Korea.

Quantitative analysis

The informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to

identify the ethnobotanical importance of the collected

plant species and to analyze the agreement degree of

the informants’ knowledge about each category of

preparatory methods (Heinrich et al. 1998, 2009;

Zheng and Xing 2009). The ICF was calculated by the

following formula: ICF = (nur - nt)/(nur - 1), where

nur is the number of times a preparatory method was

mentioned in each category and nt is the number of

plant species used.

The fidelity level (FL) was employed to determine

the most important plant species used by the infor-

mants for certain preparatory methods (Alexiades

1996; Kim and Song 2008, 2011a, b; Song and Kim

Table 1 Demographic characteristic

Gender

Male 25 (27 %)

Female 66 (73 %)

Age

50–59 6 (6.6 %)

60–69 12 (13.2 %)

70–79 43 (47.3 %)

80–89 27 (29.7 %)

90–99 3 (3.3 %)

Educational attainment

Never attended school 64 (70.3 %)

Attended school for less than 6 years 5 (5.5 %)

Attended school for 6 years 7 (7.7 %)

Finished middle school 7 (7.7 %)

Finished high school 8 (8.8 %)

Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1571–1585 1573

123

2011). The FL was calculated using the following

formula: FL(%) = Np 9 100/N, where Np is the

number of the informants that mentioned the specific

plant species used with certain preparatory methods,

and N is the total number of the informants who

utilized plants as materials for any given preparatory

method.

Results and discussion

The total number of wild edible plants recorded

in this study was 108 species, within 96 genera

and 52 families which produced 244 viable

usages (Table 2)

In this study, the 108 species of edible plant species

occupied 18 % of the 600 edible plant species

recorded by Kil and Kim (1996). This difference

exists for two reasons. One, the local community had

not gathered wild plants for usage any longer. Two,

most of the elderly people who directly gathered the

edible plants had forgotten their preparatory methods

and usages.

Examining the distribution of the recorded families,

Asteraceae (22 species) occupied 29.6 % of the total

use-reports followed by Rosaceae (6 species) at

4.33 %, Liliaceae (5 species) at 4.50 %, Fagaceae

(4 species) at 5.60 %, Chenopodiaceae (4 species) at

2.12 %, and Poaceae (4 species) at 1.44 % of the

whole, respectively. These large families contain very

common plants in the study area. The distribution

percentage of the families concurs with the patterns of

other research conducted in Europe (Leonti et al.

2006; Rivera et al. 2007; Hadjichambis et al. 2008).

This result confirms that people tend to prefer using

plants that are easily available to them, excluding the

toxic or noxious species. Namely, the views of Pieroni

(1999) and Stepp and Moerman (2001) confirm the

fact that the more common a plant is in an area, the

greater the probability of its popular use.

Concerning the number of times a plant was

mentioned by the informants regarding usage, Artemisia

princeps Pamp. (128 recordings) was the most fre-

quently mentioned plant, followed by Pinus densiflora

Sieb. et Zucc. (81 recordings), Taraxacum platycarpum

Dahlst. (56 recordings), Cedrela sinensis Juss. (54 recor-

dings), Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. (49 recordings),

and other mentioned plants. This result reflects that

the informants tend to mention the species with special

usages. Also, the results are similar to previous research

completed in that most wild edible plants were mainly

used as dietary supplements (Tardıo et al. 2005;

Rivera et al. 2007; Gonzalez et al. 2011; Menendez-

Baceta et al. 2011; Mustafa et al. 2011; Hazarika et al.

2012).

In regards to usage, 55 species of vegetables

occupied 50.9 % of the whole, followed by the

common favorites (beverages, teas, fermented foods,

sweet rice drinks and other foods eaten during a

famine) at 37 species, with eight species of fruit, four

species of spices along with three species each of nuts,

oils, and the sap of particular stems.

Among the favorite plants, four species, which

were used as food eaten during a famine included the

root of Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi and the

endodermis of P. densiflora Sieb. et Zucc.. Plants

used as beverages consisted of 18 species, including

the root of Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) Haraldson

while plants used as a tea totaled 16 species, including

the leaf and the fruit of Zanthoxylum schinifolium

Sieb. et Zucc. Interestingly, the stem sap of Acer

pictum Thunb. subsp. mono (Maxim.) Ohashi,

B. pendula Roth, and Cornus controversa Hemsl.

were drunk as kinds of functional beverages for bone

diseases.

Our analysis reveals that a total of 22 different

kinds of plant-parts were consumed as edible materi-

als. Leaves (including young leaves, regular leaves,

sprouts, young fronds, bamboo shoots, and needles)

were the most frequently used plant-parts, constituting

58.3 % of the whole followed by fruits at 18.5 %,

roots at 11.1 %, and other plant-parts (Fig. 2). The

percentages of plant-parts being used in North Jeolla

Province concurs with the patterns of most other

research in this field performed in other regions around

the world (Pemberton and Lee 1996; Leonti et al.

2006; Hadjichambis et al. 2008).

48 preparatory methods were utilized for the 108

species of wild edible plants. Seasoned cooked

vegetables were the most frequent method, constitut-

ing 58 species with 308 recordings, followed by the

brewing of 19 species with 111 recordings, 16 species

eaten raw with 156 recordings, 16 species eaten as a

soup, recorded 80 times, and 16 species of tea

mentioned 36 times. Particularly, the raw consump-

tion of these plants occupied 14.8 % of the whole

(Table 3).


123

Table 2 Wild edible plants investigated

Family name Scientific name Voucher Korean name Used part Preparation method FL

value

Aceraceae Acer pictum Thunb. subsp. mono(Maxim.) Ohashi

KH5194 Gorosoenamu Sap Sap 100.0

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes japonica (Miq.)

NakaiaKH5195 Soemureup Root A sweet drink made from

fermented rice

52.4

Brewing 42.9

Tea 4.8

Celosia cristata L. KH5196 Maendeurami Flower Food dye 27.3

Pan fried cake 36.4

Leaf Pan fried 36.4

Apiaceae Aegopodium podagraria L. KH5197 Sanminari Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Ledebouriella seseloides (Hoffm.)

H.Wolff

KH5198 Bangpung Young leaf Korean Salad (Type II) 50.0

Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

50.0

Araliaceae Aralia cordata Thunb. var.

continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu

KH5199 Dokhwal Sprout Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Asclepiadaceae Cynanchum wilfordii (Maxim.)

HemslaKH5200 Keunjorong Root Brewing 100.0

Metaplexis japonica Makino KH5201 Bakjugari Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Aspleniaceae Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

var. latiusculum (Desv.)

Underw. ex Hell.

KH5202 Gosari Young frond Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Asteraceae Adenocaulon himalaicum Edgew. KH5203 Myeolgachi Young leaf Freshy juice 50.0

Korean Salad (Type I) 50.0

Ainsliaea acerifolia Sch.Bip. KH5204 Danpungchwi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Artemisia capillaris Thunb. KH5205 Sacheolssuk Young leaf Rice cake 50.0

Soup 50.0

Artemisia japonica Thunb. KH5206 Jebissuk Young leaf Rice cake 50.0


(Type I)

50.0

Artemisia princeps Pamp. KH5207 Ssuk Young leaf Boiled rice 1.6

Flour cake 14.1

Freshy juice 0.8

Fried 0.8

Half-moon shaped rice cake

steamed on a layer of pine

needles

0.8


Pan fried 0.8

Porridge 1.6

Rice cake 27.3


(Type I)

12.5

Soup 29.7

Steamed rice cake 9.4

Aster scaber Thunba KH5208 Chamchwi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

50.0


123

Table 2 continued


value


(Type II)

50.0

Aster yomena (Kitam.) Honda KH5209 Ssukbujaengi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

76.5


(Type IV)

23.5

Carpesium abrotanoides L. KH5210 Dambaepul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Chrysanthemum morifoliumRamata

KH5211 Gukhwa Flower Pan fried with flower 100.0

Cirsium japonicum DC. KH5212 Eonggeongkwi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

20.0

Soup 10.0

Root A sweet drink made from

fermented rice

70.0

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist KH5213 Mangcho Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Erigeron annuus Pers. KH5214 Gaemangcho Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

50.0


(Type IV)

50.0

Hemistepta lyrata Bunge KH5215 Jichinggae Aerial part Boiled rice 28.6


(Type I)

71.4

Ixeridium dentatum (Thunb.)

Tzvelev

KH5216 Sseumbagwi Leaf Kimchi 2.5


(Type I)

95.0

Wrapped in leaves 2.5

Ixeris debilis A.Gray KH5217 Beoteumsseumbagwi Leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

50.0


Parasenecio hastatus (L.)

H.Koyama subsp. orientalis(Kitam.) H.Koyama

KH5218 Minbakjwinamul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Solidago virgaurea L. subsp.

asiatica Kitam. ex H.Hara

KH5219 Miyeokchwi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

33.3


(Type II)

33.3

Soup 33.3

Syneilesis palmata Maxim. KH5220 Usannamul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

50.0

Soup 50.0

Synurus deltoides (Aiton) Nakai KH5221 Surichwi Young leaf Rice cake 72.2


(Type I)

5.6


(Type IV)

16.7


Taraxacum coreanum Nakai KH5222 Huinmindeulre Aerial part Kimchi 25.0



(Type I)

25.0


123

Table 2 continued


value


Taraxacum platycarpum Dahlst. KH5223 Mindeulre Aerial part Kimchi 16.1



(Type I)

46.4

Tea 1.8


Root Tea 3.6

Youngia japonica (L.) DC. KH5224 Pporibaengi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Betulaceae Betula pendula Roth KH5225 Jajaknamu Sap Sap 100.0

Boraginaceae Lithospermum erythrorhizon Sieb.

et Zucc.aKH5226 Jichi Young leaf Pan fried 100.0

Brassicaceae Draba nemorosa L. KH5227 Kkotdaji Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

37.5

Soup 62.5

Campanulaceae Adenophora triphylla (Thunb.)

A.DC. var. japonica (Regel)

H.Hara

KH5228 Jandae Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

46.2


(Type IV)

26.9


Campanula punctata Lam. KH5229 Chorongkkot Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Caprifoliaceae Lonicera japonica Thunb.a KH5230 Indongdeonggul Stem A sweet drink made from

fermented rice

50.0

Brewing 50.0

Caryophyllaceae Arenaria serpyllifolia L. KH5231 Byeorukijari Aerial part Soup 100.0

Stellaria media (L.) Vill. KH5232 Byeolkkot Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

71.4

Soup 28.6

Celastraceae Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold KH5233 Hwasalnamu Stem Tea 20.0

Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

80.0

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. var.

centrorubrum Makino

KH5234 Myeongaju Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

70.0


(Type II)

20.0

Sub-ingredients 10.0

Salicornia europaea L. KH5235 Tungtungmadi Stem Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Suaeda glauca Bunge KH5236 Namunjae Young leaf Boiled rice 20.0


(Type I)

80.0

Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. KH5237 Haehongnamul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Cornaceae Cornus controversa Hemsl. KH5238 Cheungcheungnamu Sap Sap 100.0

Cucurbitaceae Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim.a KH5239 Haneultari Fruit Brewing 81.0

Root Clear soup with flour

dumplings

9.5

Rice cake 9.5


123

Table 2 continued


value

Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. KH5240 Soetteugi Reproductive

shoot

Tea 100.0

Ericaceae Rhododendron mucronulatumTurcz.

KH5241 Jindalrae Flower Brewing 36.4

Fermentation (Type II) 6.8

Pan fried with flower 18.2

Raw (Type IV) 22.7


fermented rice

15.9

Vaccinium oldhamii Miq. KH5242 Jeonggeumnamu Fruit Brewing 46.7

Raw (Type II) 53.3

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia humifusa Willd. KH5243 Ttangbindae Whole plant Tea 100.0

Sapium japonicum (Sieb. et Zucc.)

Pax et Hoffm.aKH5244 Saramjunamu Seed Oil 100.0

Fabaceae Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwia KH5245 Chik Flower Fermentation (Type II) 2.4

Root Boiled rice 4.9

Brewing 19.5

Clear soup with flour

dumplings

4.9

Flour cake 17.1

Freshy juice 7.3

Porridge 4.9

Raw (Type III) 9.8

Tea 19.5

Sprout Fermentation (Type II) 2.4

Tea 7.3

Robinia pseudoacacia L.a KH5246 Akkasinamu Flower Brewing 42.9

Flour cake 14.3

Raw (Type IV) 42.9

Trifolium repens L.a KH5247 Tokkipul Whole plant Tea 100.0

Fagaceae Castanea crenata Sieb. et Zucc.

var. kusakuri (Blume) Nakai

KH5248 Sanbamnamu Nut Raw (Type I) 100.0

Quercus acutissima Carruth. KH5249 Sangsurinamu Fruit Boiled rice 24.4

Flour cake 2.2

Starch jelly 73.3

Quercus dentata Thunb.a KH5250 Tteokgalnamu Fruit Boiled rice 16.7

Flour cake 33.3

Starch jelly 50.0

Quercus serrata Thunb. KH5251 Jolchamnamu Sprout Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Fumariaceae Dicentra spectabilis (L.) Lem.a KH5252 Geumnanghwa Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Gentianaceae Gentiana scabra Bungea KH5253 Yongdam Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Lamiaceae Lamium amplexicaule L. KH5254 Gwangdaenamul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

60.0

Soup 40.0

Mentha piperascens (Malinv.)

Holmes

KH5255 Bakha Leaf Fermentation (Type IV) 50.0

Tea 50.0


123

Table 2 continued


value

Teucrium veronicoides Maxim.a KH5256 Gwakhyang Leaf Spice 100.0

Lardizabalaceae Akebia quinata Decne. KH5257 Eureumdeonggul Fruit Brewing 14.9

Raw (Type II) 80.9

Sprout Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

2.1

Tea 2.1

Lauraceae Lindera obtusiloba Blumea KH5258 Saenggangnamu Flower Tea 57.1

Leaf Spice 14.3

Vegetables preserved in brine 14.3


(Type I)

14.3

Liliaceae Hosta capitata (Koidz.) Nakai KH5259 Ilwolbibichu Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

46.7

Soup 53.3

Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch.a KH5260 Okjamhwa Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Lilium tsingtauense Gilg KH5261 Haneulmalnari Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Paris verticillata M.Bieb. KH5262 Satgatnamul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Smilax china L. KH5263 Cheongmiraedeonggul Fruit Brewing 21.2

Raw (Type II) 78.8

Loranthaceae Taxillus yadoriki (Maxim.) Danser KH5264 Chamnamugyeousali Whole plant Tea 100.0

Viscum album L. var. coloratum(Kom.) Ohwi

KH5265 Gyeousali Whole plant Tea 100.0

Moraceae Morus bombycis Koidz. KH5266 Sanppongnamu Fruit Raw (Type II) 80.0


(Type I)

20.0

Morus bombycis Koidz. f. dissectaNakai ex Mori

KH5267 Gasaeppongnamu Sprout Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Osmundaceae Osmunda japonica Thunb. KH5268 Gobi Young frond Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. KH5269 Gwaengibap Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca esculenta VanHouttea KH5270 Jarigong Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Pinaceae Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. KH5271 Sonamu Endodermis Boiled rice 12.3

Flour cake 34.6

Porridge 7.4

Raw (Type III) 18.5

Rice cake 6.2

Needle Fermentation (Type I) 1.2


Freshy juice 3.7

Rice cake 2.5

Vinegar 1.2

Pollen A type of pattern-pressed

cookie

4.9

Flour cake 2.5

Sprout Brewing 1.2

Raw (Type III) 2.5


123

Table 2 continued


value

Plantaginaceae Plantago asiatica L. KH5272 Jilgyeongi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

54.5


(Type VI)

9.1

Soup 27.3

Vegetables preserved in

Korean traditional sauces

(soybean paste)

9.1

Poaceae Alopecurus aequalis Sobol. KH5273 Ttuksaepul Spikelet Parched 55.6

Leaf Boiled rice 22.2

Soup 22.2

Imperata cylindrica P.Beauv. var.

koenigii (Benth.) Druce

KH5274 Tti Spikelet Flour cake 33.3

Raw (Type IV) 33.3

Rice cake 33.3

Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex

LehaieaKH5275 Juksundae Bamboo

shoot


(Type I)

100.0

Sasa borealis Makino et Shibata KH5276 Joritdae Root Tea 100.0

Polygonaceae Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.)

HaraldsonaKH5277 Hasuo Root Brewing 100.0

Rumex crispus L.a KH5278 Sorijaengi Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

62.5

Soup 37.5

Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L.a KH5279 Soebireum Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Punicaceae Punica granatum L.a KH5280 Seokryunamu Fruit Brewing 100.0

Pyrolaceae Pyrola japonica Klenze ex Alef. KH5281 Norubal Whole plant Tea 100.0

Ranunculaceae Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex

Nakai) Nakai ex NakaiaKH5282 Halmikkot Whole plant Grain syrup 100.0

Thalictrum aquilegiifolium L. var.

sibiricum Regel et Tiling

KH5283 Kkwonguidari Leaf Brewing 100.0

Rosaceae Prunus davidiana (Carriere)

FranchaKH5284 Sanboksanamu Fruit Brewing 40.0


Fermentation (Type III) 5.0

Fermentation (Type IV) 5.0

Raw (Type II) 20.0

Stem Brewing 5.0

Prunus serrulata var. spontanea(Maxim.) E.H.Wilson

KH5285 Beotnamu Flower Fermentation (Type II) 100.0

Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm.f.) Nakaia KH5286 Dolbaenamu Fruit Brewing 31.8

Raw (Type II) 68.2

Rosa rugosa Thunb.a KH5287 Haedanghwa Fruit Raw (Type II) 100.0

Rubus crataegifolius Bungea KH5288 Santtalgi Fruit Brewing 50.0

Raw (Type II) 50.0

Sorbus commixta Hedl. KH5289 Magamok Young leaf Pan fried 50.0


(Type I)

50.0

Rubiaceae Rubia akane Nakai KH5290 Kkokduseoni Root Brewing 100.0

Rutaceae Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC.a KH5291 Chopinamu Young leaf Pan fried 12.2


123

Table 2 continued


value


(Type III)

2.0

Spice 2.0


Pericarp Spice 42.9

Seed Spice 30.6

Zanthoxylum schinifolium Sieb. et

Zucc.

KH5292 Sanchonamu Fruit Fermentation (Type II) 12.5

Spice 31.3

Tea 25.0

Leaf Spice 31.3

Tea 25.0

Seed Oil 31.3

Spice 31.3

Stem Fermentation (Type II) 12.5

Sabiaceae Meliosma oldhamii Miq. KH5293 Hapdarinamu Sprout Soup 100.0

Scrophulariaceae Veronica polita Fr. var. lilacina(T.Yamaz.) T.Yamaz.

KH5294 Gaebulalpul Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Veronica persica Poir. KH5295 Keungaebulalpul Aerial part Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

60.0

Soup 40.0

Simaroubaceae Cedrela sinensis Juss. KH5296 Chamjuknamu Young leaf Fried dry vegetables 25.9

Fried or dried vegetables 3.7

Pan fried 16.7

Raw (Type I) 9.3


(Type I)

24.1


(Type IV)

7.4


(Type V)

3.0

Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. KH5297 Kkamajung Fruit Raw (Type IV) 100.0

Styracaceae Styrax japonicus Sieb. et Zucc. KH5298 Ttaejuknamu Fruit Oil 100.0

Ulmaceae Ulmus davidiana Plach. var.

japonica (Rehder) Nakai

KH5299 Neureupnamu Bark Tea 16.7

Rhizodermis Tea 16.7


fermented rice

33.3

Brewing 33.3

Valerianaceae Valeriana fauriei Briq.a KH5300 Jwiojumpul Young leaf Seasoned cooked vegetables

(Type I)

100.0

Violaceae Viola mandshurica W.Becker KH5301 Jebikkot Young leaf Soup 100.0

Annexed explanation: Fermentation (Type I): yeast fermentation; Fermentation (Type II): sugar fermentation; Fermentation (Type III): honeycomb

fermentation; Fermentation (Type IV): pepper and sugar fermentation; Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type I): seasoned after partial boiling or boiling;

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type II): pan broil after partial boiling or boiling; Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type III): dip into soy sauce after partial

boiling or boiling; Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type IV): seasoned after drying and partial boiling or boiling; Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type V):

pan broil after drying and partial boiling or boiling; Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type VI): stew after partial boiling or boiling; Seasoned cooked

vegetables (Type VII): raw after pan broil; Korean Salad (Type I): seasoned raw; Korean Salad (Type II): dipped raw into red pepper paste and soybean

paste; Raw (Type I): eating the uncooked plant parts; Raw (Type II): fruit; Raw (Type III): foods eaten during a famine; Raw (Type IV): flower or

spikeleta Cultivated plants according to Hoang et al. (1997)


123

Some preparatory methods were divided into

several sub-preparatory methods, such as six kinds

of seasoned cooked vegetables, four kinds of fer-

mented foods, and two kinds of Korean salads

(Annexed explanation of Table 2).

The 48 preparatory methods recorded in this study

are similar to the 42 methods used in cooking plants

for temple food in Korean traditional Buddhism (Kim

et al. 2006). However, these numbers are significantly

higher regarding the number of preparatory methods

recorded in the results of ethnopharmacological stud-

ies, with 26 methods found in both the southern and

western regions of North Jeolla Province in Korea

(Kim and Song 2011b; Song and Kim 2011). The

major difference is largely due to the variations in

edible and medicinal usages.

The FL is useful for identifying the informants’

most preferred plant species and its preparatory

methods. FL values vary from 1.0 to 100 %. Gener-

ally, a FL of 100 % for a specific plant indicates that

all of the use-reports record the plant being used the

same way (Srithi et al. 2009). This research classifies

27 species of plants with FLs of 100 %, even without

considering plants that were mentioned only once for

better accuracy (Table 2). This information means that

the informants had a tendency to rely on one specific

plant species with one preparatory method than

several preparatory methods.

Special attention was given to important species

(N, Np) of plants with a FL of 100 %, regarding the

viewpoint of the number of times mentioned and the

consensus level for specific preparatory methods. A

few species included Metaplexis japonica Makino.

(15,15), Youngia japonica (L.) DC. (11,11), Solanum

nigrum L. (9,9), Castanea crenata Sieb. et Zucc. var.

kusakuri (Blume) Nakai (8, 8), Styrax japonicus Sieb.

et Zucc. (6, 6), and F. multiflora (Thunb.) Haraldson

(4, 4) (Table 2).

Plant species using a variety of preparatory meth-

ods were A. princeps Pamp. (12 methods), P. densi-

flora Sieb. et Zucc. (11 methods), P. lobata (Willd.)

Ohwi (9 methods), and Cedrela sinensis Juss.

(7 methods). These species will be able to develop

as pharmafoods or pharmaceuticals (Etkin and Johns

1998; Bonet and Valles 2002; Camejo-Rodrigues et al.

2003; Neves et al. 2009).

The category regarding preparatory methods with

the highest degree of consensus from informants were

food dye, fried dry vegetables, pan fried cakes, seared

spikelets, seasoned cooked vegetables (Type V), and

steamed rice cakes. The lowest degree of consensus was

for seasoned cooked vegetables (Type II) (Table 3).

Young leaf, 41

Fruit, 15

Root, 11Aerial part, 10

Leaf, 9

Sprout, 9

Flower, 7

Whole part, 6

Stem, 5Sap, 3

Seed, 3 Spikelet, 2

Young frond, 2

Bamboo shoot, 1

Bark, 1

Endodermis, 1 Needle, 1

Nut, 1

Pericarp, 1

Pollen, 1

Reproductive shoot, 1

Rhizodermis, 1

Fig. 2 Numbers of species

according to used plant parts


123

Conclusion

The numerous usages of wild edible plants are a

distinct example concerning the traditional knowledge

of a local community. Local residents and their

community are proud of their foods and gather wild

edible plants for cooking. However, the globalization

of all kinds of food in the world has caused an increase

of the same or similar foods in various local commu-

nities of other cultures.

Presently, the results of this study will greatly

enhance the value of traditional knowledge of local

Table 3 Category of

preparatory methods and

their informant consensus

factor (ICF)

Preparation method Taxons Use citations ICF

Fried dry vegetables 1 14 1.00

Steamed rice cake 1 12 1.00

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type V) 1 7 1.00

Parched 1 5 1.00

A type of pattern-pressed cookie 1 4 1.00

Pan fried cake 1 4 1.00

Food dye 1 3 1.00

Fried or dried vegetables 1 2 1.00

Grain syrup 1 2 1.00

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type VI) 1 2 1.00

Vegetables preserved in Korean traditional sauces(soybean paste) 1 2 1.00

Starch jelly 2 39 0.97

Raw (Type III) 2 21 0.95

Spice 4 44 0.93

Raw (Type II) 8 98 0.93

Raw (Type I) 2 13 0.92

Flour cake 7 63 0.90

Rice cake 7 61 0.90

Pan fried with flower 2 10 0.89

A sweet drink made from fermented rice 5 35 0.88

Kimchi 3 17 0.88

Raw (Type IV) 4 24 0.87

Brewing 19 111 0.84

Oil 3 13 0.83

Wrapped in leaves 7 34 0.82

Korean Salad (Type I) 4 17 0.81

Soup 16 80 0.81

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type I) 57 274 0.79

Pan fried 6 24 0.78

Boiled rice 8 33 0.78

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type IV) 5 19 0.78

Porridge 3 10 0.78

Clear soup with flour dumplings 2 4 0.67

Fermentation (Type II) 6 14 0.62

Tea 16 36 0.57

Freshy juice 4 8 0.57

Seasoned cooked vegetables (Type II) 3 5 0.50


123

communities concerning wild edible plants and pro-

vide various usages as nutritional sources for residents

within these communities.

From this study, we learn that local residents even

now cook wild edible plants not only as an additive or

condiment, but also as a source of vitamins and

minerals like as Chenopodium album L. var. cent-

rorubrum Makino, Z. piperitum (L.) DC., and Z.

schinifolium Sieb. et Zucc. This information is similar

to data collected in other investigations (Manuel et al.

2005; Tardıo et al. 2005; Rivera et al. 2007; Gonzalez

et al. 2011; Menendez-Baceta et al. 2011; Mustafa

et al. 2011; Hazarika et al. 2012).

Especially, A. princeps Pamp., P. densiflora Sieb. et

Zucc., and T. platycarpum Dahlst. discovered as edible

plants, the species using a variety of preparatory

methods will be utilized as materials for the develop-

ment of pharmafoods and pharmaceuticals (Barrau

1989; Tardıo et al. 2005). Also, these species need

preservation and conservation for the diversity of the

genetic pool due to their close relationship with other

cultivated species.

The residents possessing traditional knowledge of

wild edible plants were mostly women and elderly

farmers as other research has shown (Bonet and Valles

2002; Pieroni et al. 2005; Hadjichambis et al. 2008).

This social phenomena means that the traditional

knowledge concerning wild edible plants will con-

tinue to decline in the near future. Therefore, policies

regarding the investigation and the preservation of this

traditional knowledge are immediately needed.

Acknowledgments The authors are extremely grateful to all

the informants for sharing their oral traditional knowledge

during the fieldwork surveys. We are grateful to Professor

Heldenbrand Brian in Jeonju University for his review. We

also thank our anonymous reviewers for their constructive

comments and valuable suggestions to improve this manuscript

substantially.

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Ethnobotanical analysis for traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in North Jeolla Province (Korea)