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8/22/2019 Europe as a Symbolic Resource. On the Discursive Space of Political Struggles in Poland
1/33
Europe as a Symbolic Resource
On the Discursive Space of Polical Struggles in Poland
At L
No. 10 | January 2010
Working Paper
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2 | KFGWorking Paper No. 10 | January 2010
KFG Working Paper Series
Edited by the Kolleg-Forschergruppe T T Pw E
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v t d . It t h d xh w t tth d d x
h t d xt d E d th E U.
A KFG W P v th KFG wt t www.tf. dd t v t
Cht f th : At L
Edt t d d: F Ah
L, At 2010: E S R. O th Dv S f P St Pd, KFG W
P S, N. 10, J 2010, K-Fh (KFG) Th Tfv Pw f E, F Uvtt
B.
ISSN 1868-6834 (Pt)
ISSN 1868-7601 (Itt)
Th h fdd th G Rh Fd (DFG).
F Uvtt B
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Th Tfv Pw f E:
Th E U d th D f Id
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 3
Europe as a Symbolic Resource
On the Discursive Space of Political Struggles in Poland
A Lk
F U B
Abstract
Th f th t tt th tt f dv t t th h
tw Pd d th E U (EU). Sh z dw th
tht E w dtd t th tt d, t, th f th
xt fd t fd f th v f th EU. Th f th dt h
vd th dv whh z th d f d v th tt f
t. Th t t th EU h f th fth dz f Pd.
Th d v th EU th f tt tw v tt. Th t
f th tt t t f wth xt-tt tt d t t x
vt t th . Th thd d th EU tht h t th tt d
t tt. Th h f qv t th EU wth t v h. Th
dv dtd th h t hw hw th t d wd
(h, tht, tt, , tt, vt, E f fthd, d dz) q
dt th txt f tt f th wd.
T Ar
A Lk h t-d fw t th Rh C Th Tfv
Pw f E t F Uvtt B, 2008-2009, f th f
d th t f d Ph . S 2006 h
tt f t th Itt f P S, Kzz W Uvt,
Bdzz, Pd. Ctt: @w.
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4 | KFGWorking Paper No. 10 | January 2010
Contents
1. Itd 5
2. S th Ph Ctxt 11
3. Europe as a Discursive Resource -
Th P th P S 13
3.1 Europe as a Chance 12
3.2EuropeasaGameofInterestbetweenNaonStates 18
3.3 Europe as a Threat 23
5. C 27
Ltt 29
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 5
1. I
Th h tw Pd, t th Ct d Et E (CEE) t (Bt
2002: 526; G/Hh 1999: 189), d th E U (EU) dtd t tw
dt h. Th t h, d Stdt (2007: 6) th f , htzd
f wd d dtd f th E U t tt. At tht
Ph f w dd th d f Ez vd th t t
E (Tqt-Pw 2002). Th d h d wth th tt f 1997, wh
th t dw d w d d t. I wd
dh thd h t wth th M 2004. I th h Pd wthd f
t tt f jt whh td , t f t whh h t f d t t th h
f EU h. Th h td t w t whh E ,
d f th , hv t t f th t d wth
d th q f EU f, ft t, fth dvt, d f t
tt, t , d .
Athh t dt t wth L N tht E d
th CEE t , h v tht th -E w v th,
th f tht t dtd 1989 d t vd z
-E f (N 2008: 8). Th v th v d t th f
th f th E U t hh vt f th v f t
dt. Wth th f d w t f EU , th, tdwth ttz f th EU , d d ttd t h th hv f .
P hd t t d t th f dt d d. Th Y, t ht
f th dv tt f . O th hd, t hd th
t th EU, th th hd, q ttz f th EU
d th t dt tw h th. Sh d t th t
f t t th -t, h t dd, f t
t f.
Wh N h d f tv , wtht d th
tv tt f t, t t tt d tt th tt f
t wth th d wth t xt, t t z hw
twd E d th EU, w f dv tw th, w t. If d
t f t, d d t, whh v t th d h jt (Hj
2006: 67) d t d f t d vd j f h d,1
I ttd th tt f dv , t w t t Pd wh
t E d th EU. Wht th t t (d, t, t), th
tw th t d th t tt d t jf
f E d th EU? I wth th wh v d h
1 A vw wd hd d w th wth th H td d th
d ( H 1999; V Lw/Wd 1999). Th th ttd th -
t whh d t jf t ttt.
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6 | KFGWorking Paper No. 10 | January 2010
th td f EU t, I tht, d t th t v f th EU d E,
t t z th f v dt td t th v d f th
tt (Wv 1998: 113). Thf, I t z hw v f th tt d
t d w td wth d t E.2 T , t th f
th td, t tt dv E d, v th ht ht f
d, t h t th () tt.
Overview of the Literature
It wd t t d z t tht dh tw tw dt td f
tt th t d d E , t t t th w,
dt v d t f E vd t d. Ft d t ,
th f td ttd wth th d f (v) t d thw d f tt dvtd t th f E d Ez (Pt t .
2007; P 2006). A th td, th t fd t th
f K/Mdd (2002), Szz/Tt (2000) d Ldh (2002). Th t fw
t t th f Ez f w dvd Ldh hd tht th
qtv d qtv thd t t h th t
ttt, d tht f t th EU th t ft f f th t.
Th th fd t v, d th f t twd th EU wth
f dt t f E. Th d tw d hd E
d Szz d Tt (2000) d t qt q dvd K d Mdd
(2002) d t ffd t f td twd th E U: Etht, E,
Et d Ejt. Th t w vtd t v d t d t f
f t qf th f v t. A t dt td t, th fw
vd , d t t d t f th wh hv td t
t t th w w (Szz 2008: 225f). It d tht th d
tx t d hw t z th d t f
(Ed/Lw 2008: 239; Bt 2002: 535). H, th td twd , v hw
d f ttt (d), t f th td
f t. F th dv v dtd h, d tht th f
th tx th hd v whh tt d
d d f t d t dv tw d d t. Th
th, td f h f d v t t hd t t
t th f th th EU, f th td f twd th EU
d E xd thh d d t t qz th t t (.. Szz
2 I ttd v d f th tt xt (ht f th t, t
f th tt vt d tt, t) t d tt tt. Thf I
t Dz (2001: 13) th Wv (1998: 113) . Wh th f t tht d
t th dt tz f E t t t t t t , - d t tv. Rtd t f-dt, th d t th d f d
tt.
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 7
2008). Th tht t d qt x t f f t d
t d t d jf th d, tt h d t dt txt whh
th . Fth, th th th EU E t th vt f
d E. If dd dd ft t th d d h
t f ttt, t dv, f xt ttt t d th
tt h f t ; th th v h t wth .
Th f vdd th w t th t f EU td d d
. I th t tw d wth th h: v v d td
f th t f th t f tt, d E (Wv 2005: 203f).
Th t h f t th td f dv h, dd t f t
t d d t, z ht d t f
t t t-v d t t td wth t-tt
t f d h (Jhtfh/Dz/J 1998; Dz 2001; L/M 2007).
3
Thed hz th h tw d d f d t t th d
ht f d wth th f dv tt d f t f t.
It d h tht t f th t , tt d E (Wv 2005)
w th d f t (L 1997) f t v f E
whh, t, h th tjt f f td t th EU. Bth h h f
d whh v t th vw dtd th . Ft, th d th tt
dv tw d d tt, whh tt f v t , t d
wh t t th x f th hv f t. It t d
f v d t th th t v tht tt ht t f th wdvw
f t, th wd, th dv ttd. Sd, th d th t f
d t tw , d th, t t ttt whh
tt th f th td. Thd, th t dv ttd d
th d wh d t, t f , t th dt E.
It t t d th d E v d f th Sv t, w
w d f dv . Fth, h t d t th th
h, d h th f t t, d d t whh
tt d. Th wth th h tht, dt th th t
th dv v, th vd v f d. Hwv, f wt t
f t t t d v th t t, th t f
t th, wd t d th f th th txt.
TheorecalAssumpons,Methodology,ResearchQuesonsandData
Th th d thd v dtd h dw th d th f
Ft (2002), L/M (2007), th d f Fh (2003) d th d-
ht h f Wd (2000). Dt th t dt, th v ttd
3 F x d t (L/M 2007: 120).
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t t h th d q th h jt wth t f t d t
t (d th) d tx t z
z f ( d [CDA] Wd dht h). Ft,
d th tht jt d f d tht th fd
ht t f . It t t dtd hw tt f
t f f dt . Sd, wht tt f th v th tv
ht f whh t t, v, d tt d x -v
d d jt. It th whh, t t , tt
d, h tw th w t f wd d f (Fh 2003:
36; Ph/Hd 2002: 4). Thd, f th tt ft f d t t ht.
M t dt xd d, d t h f , th
hv th th t-d (Hwth/Stv 2000: 7). Fh, th
q f w, t d t th f x d th t tt dt.
Wth th v, w ttt t th x f t . It ,
, th t t dd th tt f wd thh th f th v
f d f whh f d x t. Th t t
z th t f th th th f th dt f th f.
T th v-d t th f th t d whh tdd
h, tht tt t whh t t hv h thh
th t t t f t. Ev th f v
f t f t. O th t t t t f th j d z
th v xt f t. It tt t t t dv
thv t t th. P t t dt dw f dv
w t vt f th t (Hj 1995: 53). A th tht t d t
v d f jt d t th jt v--v th. Th d
, t ft d jf th h t hv (v
Lw 2007: 91f).
Gv th ht f d, t t tht th v f Pd w
t td wth th v f E. Ft, v th ht f d, wh
Ph t E, th t Pd. Th v f
Pd v tt, d t t f th EU htt(f th x H 2002: 2). Sd, th v f Pd th t f th
t tt f th EU. A th EU t t tt, t t t
th wtht f t E. Thd, th v f Pd td wth th txt
f th d h. Th EU tt f Ph t th vz d
h t f f, t jt Pd t , t tt f f Ph
f d, t t t t, t d t tt. Thf,
f th d f dv E h t t Pd t t. Fth, v th
f d , d h th th t t, th t
t E d, v, tt. Thf, h, d, t d t
td t E t xd , t t dt dd th
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 9
v dv t th d . Sxth, th f t
thfd: t vd d f t, t jf t, d t d tht w whh ftt th
d t f v f-t d v t f th th.
I ttd th tt f dv td t E, dd d
tw . I d t v th wh dv tt t th d f vt
tw 2004 d 2007. Th th q whh fth
dw t dtd q: Wht d t t t
E? Hw th h tw Pd d E wth v td? Hw d
wht f dv th dtd f h th?
I d t w th q th dt h h. Th h w d
th f th t f dt: t ft4 (d, t, td ttt d
), ht hd t f t dt vt f Ph f
td th Mt f F A,5 w ttt f th v
t.6 Mft dv ttt f t . Athh th ft
hd th d, dd th t d , dd t t,
th vd f th tt f d f t d. Th vd th t fw
whh d th d dt, tt , d f t th
j tt t t t d ttt. A ft
tt thh whh d t f t th t .
Athh th ft t t t h , f ft t th
t vd f t t v. Yt ft ht, xt , vv,
v, d v. Th ht v t h t, t f th qtv, d-
v d t th t f dv x, t ttt
t. Th th h t f h whh t ttd h
qf d. Wht t h t th f h ttt d , t th
th h h. Thf t w dt d t h td t
v vzd t f d t t t ft. P d f
t ttt d f t t th h vd q
f h t wh d t f th . Mt t tv,
t wht th dd, t d d wht th twd t , wh th t
f t t t th h d t th .
Mthd th h w d th fw dvd Wd d t
t td dv tt thh whh d d ttd. I fd t
t t td tt f wh dv v
4 Th ft f x w t t t: CivicPlaorm, DemocracLeAlliance , LawandJusce,
League of Polish Families, PolishPeasantsPartydSelf-Defense.
5 Dt th h f th Mt f F A, Ad Rd, hd 21 J 2005; th Mt
f F A, Stf M, hd 15 F 2006; d th Mt f F A, A Ft,
hd 11 M 2007.
6 Kzz Mwz (10 Nv 2005), Jw Kz (19 J 2006), Dd T (23 Nv
2007).
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t th d: d f th t, j, d th t f dt
d d. Th tx d R/Wd (2001) t f v t
whh v wth th fd th t: (1) t f t ;
(2) d f , tt; (3) t thh whh t z
dz t ttt ; (4) v t t t f vw f whh
t tt d; (5) tf tt t h t tt
(R/Wd 2001: 44f; R 2008: 99).
F th f th td, I th t f whh, th f th tt th
jt d th ft wth th dt, dw t dtd t whh
z d d f dt (T 1). A t h d v, th
d E, th q f E w dt d xt d t th
d d d t dtd th t f E d t f
w h t t d t d. I zd hw th w ttdv--v h th, wht th d, t d tt d t th w, hw h
t w jd d hw t w d t th d.
Table1:AnalycalCategories
Type of entity(nomination)
Dimensions of discursive construction (predicationand argumentation)
Lines of division(perspectivation)
PolandQuestion of membership
Vision of the role as a member (active participant vs.
passive beneciary)
Vision of a state
Reason of state/sovereigntyt
Question of sovereign (type of community: society/t
nation, its attributes)
Denition of the situation (problems/resources)t
Position vis--vis EU/Europe(central vs. peripheral)t
Positioning and counter-
positioning (us and them
constructs)
Lines of division on the basis of:
Position within/ towards thet
community
Identityt
Visiont
Aimst
Emotionst
Europe/EU Status generally (identity, federation, confederation,
Europe of nations etc.)
detailed denition of the situation
Historical pastt
Current statet
Future statet
Decision-making procedures (reforms, voting
mechanisms, institutional structure) and policy elds
Relations between member states
Consensual/conictualt
Basis of relationship (identity/ideology, interests)t
Old and new member statest
Distribution of resources between statest
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 11
2. S P Cx
Bf z dv ttd t ft, t t vd
f vt t,7 th d , , d th wth t t
d h f vt th td th v hd 2004 (E t
), 2005 (d d t ), d 2007 ( t ).
A t t th d d : Lw d J,8 Cv P,9 D
L A,10 Sf-Df,11 L f Ph F,12 d Ph Pt Pt.13
A t h d d, th w w f th t td wth EU d
t tthd v whh d th EU q d f tt tt f th
d t. A , dv d d f tw Pd d th EU d
d w ttd t th f tt, whh d th t vt
f th whh w t t d th f th dfd f tt. I
ft, t hd w txt t , d f th f td twd th
EU. A t x h th N dth d 2003 J Rt,
f th th d f t -E t th Cv P. Hh v w
d t th ft tht th d tw Pd d th EU w td th w
7 Rvt t , d t th St t, th t wh w t -
t t (St 1976). O th d whh w f h t w t th
Sejm (w h f Ph t) t t t.
8 LawandJusce w ht-w vv t fd A 2001. I 2005 th t fd
wth Self-Defense d League of Polish Families. Jw Kz, th t d t th h
J 2006. Th t t th 2007 t d th t. LawandJus-
ce dvt t Pd t E, t f t t , wht t th t
d th td f vt d tt.
9 CivicPlaorm w fd J 2001 d tf -vv t. Th t d
2007 wh t w th t d fd vt wth th Po-
lishPeasantParty, wth Dd T t. Wh d tf t E,
t d d t f tt t dfd th v t td th
Tt f N d th t f Pd th EU.
10 TheDemocracLeAlliance th t th Ph t t. I 2001, t w th t
d fd wth th Labour Union. D t d, th t th
d v d t th 2005 d 2007 t . It t tf t
-E. It w d th w vt wh Pd td th EU.
11 Self-Defenset d f th t t. It w t th 1990 th
t d f Adzj L. Self-Defense d th thd t t th 2001
t . A 2005 Self-Defense t wth t d dt
. It fd t th 5 t - thhd f t t 2007.
12 The League of Polish Families w fd th t th 2001 t f v-
ht-w d -t . It v d 2005 t
td th tt f th t. It jtd th EU d th f th A
Tt.
13 The PeasantPartyw fd 1990 th z t th f t tt United
PeasantParty. Th t h f th vt hd td d 1993. Nvth t w
t th 5 t - thhd t t t 2005. A 2007 t w wth CivicPlaorm. It twd th EU t tw dt v d dt
td wth f tt.
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12 | KFGWorking Paper No. 10 | January 2010
fd th D L A d th Ph Pt Pt (Sjz Lw Dtzj
SLD d P Sttw Ldw PSL) whh hd w th 2001 t .
Th dd ft d th th t th v f E t
. Ft, th t-t ht f th d t t t dt
f Ph tt t th wh f 1989 hd vvd th t . Sd,
t tht d td wth t w v hh , th
t t th d d t f th vt. Thd, thh t
t, th f th E Ct Tt d h t th dt.
It d td t v th t h th v t th C f Mt
w tht d t d Pd d th Tt f N. Ov
hd t t d t d th w dt v. Th
q f th fd tw t: th f f t Ch v
th d th hd f w tw tt td wth th d w
v t whh, w d, dhd Ph . Nt , th J 2004
f th E Pt (EP), th t E td 27 t f th vt
(th t Cth L f Ph F d 16 t, th t Sf Df f th
Ph R 11 t f th vt). Th v D L A ( wth
W U), whh ht Pd t th E U, d th 10 t f th
vt th EP . Th xt t 2005 td th vt f Lw
d J v Cv P. Dt v d f th d ft
vt, t tw 2001 d 2005, d vw
, th hh d ht f th t , th vt f th Lw d J ddt
Lh Kz d , d w th ttd t t f tt d qt d t th f f th t. A t, Lw d J
ddd t tz t d th d wth d f th E
U: Sf-Df d L f Ph F M 2006 (Szz 2008). Athh
tv, t w t th d t th th f tht vd t
f th wth Pd d t t. Yt 2006 th d f Lw d
J d tht h -d f f th t-1989 tht d dd
hd th Ph f d tt. I wth whh t t
wtd f Pd d (Sf-Df), d t wt wthdw f th
EU (L f Ph F), th vt t dt d tt f t
whh, wth th dv t, d t d tv d th t
(Kz 2008: 15). Th tv dd t h th ft tht th jt f f,
xt w , d th f t f f th EU whh w t d
G d. Th j w td t th d jt t th d f
th t. Bth Lw d J d Cv P dvtd -d q t t whh
w jtd d th E St J 2007. D t th ft t f th
Kz vt, E d t d th t
2007. Th t f th th vt f th Cv P d th tt f th
vt th wth Ph Pt Pt d dw th th d d
t t E . Wh th t dt v th EU t f
w hd wth th f th L Tt D 2007, t th d v, th dt
v th t d vd th w t fth t t.
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 13
3. E D R - T P P S
A d f, d hd t ttd f t whh f
dd d t th t w d tt t v t. Itd, t tt f
whh t f tw t t. D jt t
E t t wht d d th f whh t. Th
t th dh, td wth th ht f th dv d d v
t, d h, t t th tt f h tw jt.
F-d f th Ph v th dv , whh d t
th xd d. Itd f t th th, t t v th
th tht t d t d tt f th hvt f th
. A th t t f dv t (d, t,
t, f t, xz, th t.) t th t f
h v d dv f t (Bd 1990: 137). Wht t td th
fw th t t d ht t d t t whh,
t d h, t dtd th w whh td v f
E. Th td wth th v f th E U th th wth t t
h, t t tt tw th tt d tt. Athh th
t t xv, th f dt d t t dt d f t
d f t; th th ft t t t th tt f . Th t
t dtd th tt td f h whh t d, th d th
t f tt (th Ph d E), d th thd th d f E tht. I
th txt f t vt (f x dt v th Ct Tt) th v
t f d t whh ()d v th th d th
t t, ht f. Tht wh t f Ph wt f v, t
tt h f , th ft tht t t dv f dt
(.. x, t) wh tt x th t twd th EU.14
3.1 Europe as a Chance
F th dv , th E U vd tt tht h d t f
. Th EU d td v vt whh
tt j f v h Pd h xd 2004. Th EU h
ft f tt f Ph 1989. Ev , Ph th EU
tt d th d f Ph ht: Chd f Pd,
th NATO d th EU, hv vdd th t t fw hdd
. Th th f th Ph dt (P Owt 2007: 22). U th d
fd t, ht, t t th t-w dv f th t t tw t. EU
14 Th N dth, d J M Rt, f th th CivicPlaorm d, 2003 th
t dt th Ct Tt, vd d x f h h-. Wh t w xd -E f xv vd tt, th w
xd f th t -E d jd h w.
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14 | KFGWorking Paper No. 10 | January 2010
t jt f Ph f . It f th d f jt f th
Wt wd (P Ej P Owtj 2005: 35), whh w dd f
f P (Mft Ej Sjz Lw Dtzj 2005: 71). It td
wth Sdt -t vt d t t t t th dd
d v xt f th d th 1980 (P Ej P Owtj
2005: 35). H th EU td t t f th t1989 t th jt
f v f t f t. Th ht v d t
d tv f th t. It th t th h f ht t wth
E vt th. Th dv h h t t q d
xtd t d txt d thh whh v d, t, t
f td wth th EU t v t. I th wd, th EU
z ft. D f -E d f Pd t th EU t f
v f-t. E d th E U qtd wth t, vz, hh
tdd, xt ttd, dd t, t d. A f th t
t f th t-t D L A ft tt: W hv t wd
Pd t th E U th t d (Mft Wz Sjz
Lw Dtzj 2006: 147, t th). Sh f, thh th
dtd t h th d f th t t d tth th d
d (Twz 2003), w t t t th f txt. I wt t tht Cv
P th -E t d tht wh w fw wth th f th Mt
f F A wth Wt h (J Rz t
dt vt f Ph f 2006, t th). Rf t
E, x f t f th EU d f fv f E t td thh h. Wh t th tht ht x
v t f th, t vd z t t t
th v t f th wd E th E U d t dvv.
Th v v th v f h d t th q f th f
Ph h. O d t d t d f t t vt f. Th t
f Pd vd th tht d t t xt. It th t t
hvd th d x t. It h t d th, tt whh
d, t wtd. Th dt whh x th f th d f t
th ft (Rhd 2007: 60) td h t x. A f th
t ft d: Pd hd [] thh t vt th f E t
f th E d (P Owt 2007: 2). Ath t d h
t t: W hv t dt tt t t td EU [...] t w
hv t w w th EU, t h wh d d d t t
th d- (M Bw t dt vt f
Ph f 2005, t th). Mh dtd thh th t: v
f vvt, d d t hvd. A t th t, t ttd tht t hd
v , wth Pd hv d d v f th ft E. Pd t vvd
tt d d hd v t f t t thEU t d th wd. Id, Pd hd hd f E t,
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 15
th f d , t d . Tht wd v Pd
dt -d d t d vd Pd wth th t
vt . A t th d, Pd hd t ft th t d f th EU qt
d f . Th h tw Pd d E d d
xd thh th f vt . Pd hd v v ft, h
E h v Pd zd, wd (Jt
Sz-Dz t dt vt f Ph f 2007,
t th). Thd, v-d f td wth th ft
f Pd. It hd t f f th d f th EU t. Pd
td hv . It t tht f jt, t th f jt wh
dd t w t, t d t tt t th EU. Th f Pd d
t t f t xt, x , t q t, th
d f wth t t. O th v wth th vd Pd th
t dv. Dt dd dh , d th w-w ht f f d wd (Jd 2002: 14) wh qtd wth
ft t d wd wth th t t. Bwd th d (wht
h t ft vd v t, .. Mft Wz
Sjz Lw Dtzj 2006: 146.) xt td ( t t
h, .. Zw Chw th dt ttt f Dd T 2005). E
h ttd wth th tht f td, zd d wd. A zd
t w d t t whh d t th t f vtd
wh. It h, t t th t , t th th f t whh
d t th tv dz. Th, th t d f Pd th td f tt
t, t dh t d w t t t d th tt
f th th t. Th f tht d t z jt d d, t
f dz f dv (P Owt 2007: 2; Mft Wz Sjz Lw
Dtzj 2006: 154).
St t dh E jd th t f Pd. Th
d tw Pd d th EU td t th h. Th Et-Wt dv
d th f Wt t t ttd t , t th q f
dt , f wth tt t t. Th t d
f t , t td d. I th t, Pd td
qt v t d wd t. O th f th dt zd
h, t t t th th f h wd. Th f h t
hdd d xtzd. Th hdd th th z th t vdt f
ht (P Ej P Owtj 2005: 39), wh th t f wth th
t vvd tfd t th , d t d t v (Fh 2003: 143). Th
xtzd thh th f t t ht x whh hd t Pd. Th,
t t th Pd P whh , t t , d f th tt f th , t
th th xt ft, t , ht f, tt , th t t
d . Dt th wd whh tt fd t th xt t, Pd td t whh dv d hd tv f t . H d
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td dt th t d, d t vt th t f th t d
td h t f th t E t. Th h d f
Pd, t wth d z d , t th d t
(Jt Sz-Dz t dt vt f Ph f
2007). Oth ft f Ph tth d. Th tht, wh hv th t
f E t, th wh Ph d f ht f fd, t, d
dt d tt t, th t , w t t d f t
(Bw Kw t dt vt f Ph f
2007). Sh t f Ph , d v--v E h twfd .
O th hd, th d f zd d wd t d t z
th t f th td v. O th th hd, th v v f Pd
f t, dd wth th ht f dvd t z t.
It tth jt vd v txt, whh ht t
thh th t f t fwd d .
Athh th t f f t th (Cv 2008) th t td
th xv t. Th td t th . Ev
th th dv td t f z
t f dt wth q ht (100 tw - P Lw Dtw
2007: 1). Sh t f dt d th z f dt f
ht, h t f ft t t. O th t, th th
th td t dt . H th d f E t
d zh (th Ph d E) t ttd t w wd
th f . Th t vd tdt t f dt, t
t, t th d, whh th f td (Bw Kw
t dt vt f Ph f 2007). Mv, th
d tw Pd d E th EU t xtd. O th t, v f t xt, t
t d dd. Pd ttd t f E, t dtt t f
th h. A P Mt Dd T t t h ttt: I h w ,
d f, f t th t E. I wd t t dt :
W Pd, th th E U. A th E U h (P ttt f
Dd T 2007, t f th).
Th t f d d th q f Pd d th E U hv tt
q f th t f tt d tt vt. Th tw t
t ftd wth th EU. O th t, th EU dv d th z f
tt f v tt. Ph tt ttd t wth th EU
d th hvd thh th EU. Sh t, th hd, td
wth td tt t xt d d v t th d;
th th hd, t x th tht th t dd Wt t
t t t d t td tht t h (Jt Sz-Dz
t dt vt f Ph f 2007). Th th
f vt, whh t ttd td d t t f th tt t th
h whh hd wh th tt dd tht t t tt t d t
d t xt-tt tt. F th dv h d -tv d
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 17
t f td (Tdz Iw t dt th vt f Ph
f 2005). At z Ph d h th E U
t t vt f v: t, d tt. Ct-t th
t tt. E t f v whh v wth Ph dt. It jt whh
dd t d f d d f-t. It vd t t t Pd t t
th t f th wd d tz d d d d, v d t th
d f th t-t tt.
Pv h f th EU t Pd td wth whh d t tf
t th t tt d t dv tt f t. Th
whh d t th EU h tt wth v t. It th EU
h tht td xtd h f Pd. Ch td
tt, whh hd d Pd wth th t tt. Th h d, t t
wtd. It th txt d f th d (th vt ) whh dt th t f h. G , t f
twfd. Ft, t f v th EU; d, t hd fth fd . It
tt t f v ttt t t th ft whh t t tzd. Wh
h t t EU Pd, h z v f E
t, t w t x d t f t f t v f
EU t. Wth h t th f th EU d E t whh f
th t f Pd. Th EU d th wth E h d
t . Wht , th EU fd t th f E t. Bd tht,
d th wth th djv E d: f f , E
h,15 E t, E tdd, E v, E vz, d
E d (P ttt f Dd T 2007). E t dv t
h. I wth th wd t q v . It f t f
th EU , t, w t, whh d tt d d f-
tt. It v f wd, t f v th h
wd. W wth d wth w wt t t f d E th wd f t,
fd d t t th f th th. Th t f th ft t E
wth v t: dt, fd, t, t. It t wd, dt f
th td. It td wh Pd t t td, t t
t t. E wd dd wth t, v v v h z
f, t, f t hh d v d v t f f (100
tw - P Lw Dtw 2007: 1).
Wh t d tht th EU tt (P ttt f Dd T 2007), th
d t vd dtd f E th d. It th td tt in
statu nascendi (P j P Owtj 2005: 35). O t
ttt td t th ft f th EU, whh v h t t wht th td
f. Hwv, t t d ttt th t tt f th EU d
v. Th E U hd t, t t tw tt. [...]
W t tth d v th f f EU t E C d
15 F th th : Cht/I (1993: 7f).
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E Pt (P Ej P Owtj 2005: 36). Dt th f xt
ttt th txt th tht d t w d tht th EU d t
t t h. O d d f t th t f d d
ft t. O th d v th t t f th t tt f E
. Th jt f h d ttt td t d v d
d dtd t t f wth EU tt t vd
t. Th EU v t whh t vd d ttd fd
tt d d d v , wth d v th
t thh f (Mft Ej Sjz Lw Dtzj
2005: 72f; P Owt 2007: 22f). O h t dd tht th v f E d t z
w d t t v d- d. L w td f th
Ct Tt, wh Cv P dhd t th td th Tt f N.
Sh t f Pd, th EU E d th h t h t th() t th xdd t t th v d t th v f dv th t f
dv t. Mt , th th w th t f th t -E,
d t f-d, . Th -E thd h f qv
tw f t. H th th w td d dtd thh
(ht w, t P Mt), td (E, t, ft, x
td, , d h), f d (ht-htd, w-dd,
d-fhd, wth 19th t v f vt), v d th t (t
th t , , z Pd, w dw t ).
3.2 EuropeasaGameofInterestbetweenNaonStates
Th t t t f th dv th d f Pd tt t
t tt dd. Th t d v td
w, dd th ft f t d d t f tw tt th d
E. M dtd vt, d th wth th t f dd,
tt f th E t f t ft d t th
dt. Th fdt f f th df f th tt. [] Th
f E : [] vt f vt f th R f Pd f (IV
Rzzt wdw d wzth 2006: 127). Th v f E d
th t f t whh tt th td f d. Ft, th t ht t th
tt f z t f d t . Th Ph tt
th t t fd t. It th d t tt t, x th tt
f th t v wth t d. A P Mt Kzz Mwz t t h
ttt: A ddt d f Ph tt d, wth v t d v
(P ttt f Kzz Mwz 2005, t th th). Sd, tt
t, td f d tz . It vd
ht, h d v f th tt. N tt h whh t f v th dv . Pd d w E td [] It
t t th dd th t f tt ttd th t t f th
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 19
2005 t ft f Lw d J (P t jj PS 2005: 120).
Itt td txt-ddt d x. Th v d d th
th xd. Rd f th fq wth whh tt fd t, t v dt t d
d f th. Th th vd t vt d . Thd, th
t f dd td t f th tt. It t t tht th
t f dd d th wth th t f vt. I th Ph
t th t, dd v d dd wth ht
t t d vt f th t. Sh t f t tf th v
f E tw f tt. It d t vd d f t d
th t dt f dvt tt f tt. Nt , th
v f tw Pd d th EU, t td t thht, dt
d td twd th . I th t, th fw xt f th t ft t:
O ht , dtd th vt, w h t t th tht d th h
td wth th f Pd th EU (P t jj PS 2005: 120).Ch whh th EU vd, vd th t dv , h d
, dd th tht. Athh EU h v vtd t ttd
d t tht t Ph vt.
It h, h v d t d th vt f th tt. Th f tt d t
t t dd t th v df f status quo t th xt f. Nth Pd
vd v whh t t dfd t tt. O th t, vt ft
td t th t. Th f Pd th E U hd h t
f Ph tt, t v t tt (P t jj PS 2005:
120). It th v thh whh Ph tt dfdd d whh h hv
t E. Th jd th , th tt whh t f
Pd t, d , th whh vd t t
d Pd d th EU. Athh th f t z
Ph , th hv , d d d t vd t f f
tt. Th fdt f f th df f th tt (IV Rzzt
wdw d wzth 2006: 122). Nt th t ttd thh th f
t th w t td . O d h t f,
t, td, d h. Th tt th v f th t
. Th t tht th t f td, t h whh q
d. A txt vd dd f whh h t
dt th t. Sttt td d, t (P
t jj PS 2005: 120), d thd--d td f Ph d tt (IV
Rzzt wdw d wzth 2006: 131) t tht th vd
h, t d t t th f d wth th . Athh th
xt ttt whh wd t t th dtd f th t, t
Ph tt, Ph t, Ch v whh v v t th
td t f th tt. At d t d , h t t
t f td , t th th hd hd t f .Th v f th v t t d Ch v td
th f th tt tt whh t v th tt f th d wh th
f tf t h. It th Ph tt, t th EU, whh vd h (D
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P. D Pw. P PS 2007: 1) d th f dd v th d
f d t t tt d vt. Th v f th t, ddt tt wth
th ttd vt d ht d xt t. Th t
Pd hd wth vt, th f dd d ht t th w tt
whh dw th w f th ht . Th d f Pd d ht
(M J t dt vt f Ph f 2005) d
t x f th Ph ht wh Pd vt w vtd - th 19th
t, Wd W Tw, th t t 1945 - t fwd t t t
th th f Ph vt. Th dd t jf tt td twd whh
t th tf f vt t th th d. Ht tt
t f th t tt d t vd . Ad t th dv ,
d t x jf dtd t Wt h. Th t
zd thh ht t. Th dvt f Pd d th t
f th wd f th wh E U (P t jj PS2005: 122).
Pv f-t t xhtd th v f Ch . Th xt v
ttt whh d th t f th Ph . It t th dh, tt,
z d ftt t whh f d, t t, th f
dv d f tth. Th ttd t wh dt d
t. Th t jt f , v d ft f , t d
whh vd dt d whh w f dd f tht
(P t jj PS 2005: 120). Th d zd f t tt
t t f ht d d , t f th d t zd d Cth
ttd t wdvw f th . Ct t d h t t
f, dfdd d t, , jt f tv f th EU. Thf th d
f t vt t fwd (P ttt f Jw Kz 2006). Ct th h
wh vt t jt f . Athh th dv t
t f vt tt td, t t d t th d f t, td
f ddt h. A tv th h ttd d d
t th f f t. Sh t t dv wth th ht
t t t d t th wd f th t wth dd.
Th f v f-t z t f d tht. Th
d f t d tw whh h t z f f
d f EU-h td th dv . Th t
tht th f f v vt w v d v. Wht w dtd
th t dv th vt v t th E d d tt f th
tt v td f Ph t. Th f tht d th
d t dt d th v. L d, d f th, th
t f wht (P t jj PS 2005: 120), th f d ,
th (Pw Kw th dt v th ttt f Dd T 2007) x
d t t f dd th Ph dtt. A d
wth t t td d f t d t f th Ph twd th Wt
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 21
t. Th th f th t , wh d d tt hd d
f d wd tt tv x f h
d. Th tht Pd hd v d th t f d t t
th dvt f th EU d t vd d tt, t t z, td t
wth th t E d ht x (Sdt vt, vt v
). Ath z t tht vt d t vd tv
dz whh wd d Pd t h dt t f , d f
d td.
Th d j Ph h fqt f t wd.
E d xtzd td wth ht t. Athh th
tt f t v t th t dv , th d xt f
ht t d t. Th d th wd f th
h tw Wt d Et t f th t wth t th Yt t 1945.Gw t f th ht , th dv d t jf
dtd twd Wt E tt. Th f dt, tt d th txt, t t
th dt f Wt t t h th Et E h ttd jt th t. Th EU,
qtd wth Wt E t, hd t d t t w f dt t d
ht j d t f th t v d th dv f th t. Th d
d t f h th z t fv f EU h. Thf
th t f Ph d d tt th EU d t v d th tt
tht t xtt fd th v f t z- .
Th dv t f E zd d t t f th fw . Ft, th
t dv tw th v d th dv v f th EU d t th f whh
vd th v fw f th . Th v v d t f t th ft,
t t th t. Ad t th Lw d J ft, th fd fth f th EU
thht f E tt d Ch v d t t t th t
dv f th d. Sd, th t tt f zd dv th f th
t t f th fd fth f th EU d f th ft d. It tt
th tht d th f th tt EU tt (whh v xt d).
Thd, th ft tf thh fd t: h h whh d
th t x f E, v f th dt thh t t th tw h d EU t, d f th wh EU t t tt,
f th d E, wth th xv f tt d t f th
tt, t f th t dv tw w d d tt t f
d t (P t jj PS 2005: 121). Fth, t d t
th v f th EU vh dv th tt f th tt tt. Thf, th EU
tht d h d f th t v wth th xt/t f thh whh
th EU vd. Th EU xt tht td thh t x (t dfd,
t, dd, ) wth fd f. Th t h th v f th EU
tht th, t v d t th ht d d f th
t ht f th tt. Fh, th v v d th d f hw
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t (v thh th wd d xt d), th f
th th t. Th t f tt dt , h d
h wd t t. Th f th d tw tt
t f th v f t, h th d f d E jtd. Md E
wd d t q ttt f tt wth th t d tw th t d ht
tt d th t. Th dt th f th tt hd vt whh t
td t t h (.. f , t). Th EU td t
tw tt dd th f vt. It th f th dvt
f t d tdt tt, th th f t whh wd t
t vvd t (A Ft t dt vt f Ph
f 2007). Th EU vd v d td t th xtt t w f th xz
f th d tt f Pd. It dd t t
wh d w , tht d vt. Nt ,
th dv , thh t v th dt zd h,
th f E f Fthd. It v d f t th tt t
t th t.
Bd h x d d, th dv th tt t f th .
Th dt t xtt t th j, d x f th . Pv
f-t ht td wth v th t, hh
t f th wh jt. Th th tw dt f h. Th
t f dtd t th ttd t, th , t
v vt Pd. H th th vd d, ,
v, v, dd tt d t ht, v xt tt,
fd v f E (P t jj PS 2005: 122 f; D P.
D Pw. P PS 2007: 49). Th d f th xt th dd wth th EU,
tt EU t, d th f d. A th td t th th fw:
d f-tt (th d t wt t t f th , w
dd tt), d td ( t t twd Ch v),
t d h td (th EU wt t tz, tt t wt t dt
w EU t) w t d t dv tw
tt. P t th t f th xt th th , whh
vd th jt whh d . At fd t t (..
D P. D Pw. P PS 2007: 49), whh v th w t vd t
, t dd, t v th . Ft, t t t f th td, th
wh w wht th f v d ttt. Sd, t h t f th
wh t t dh . Thd, t th f f tht, v
tt d t t th w jt.
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Europe as a Symbolic Resource | 23
3.3 Europe as a Threat
Th thd dv w t j f EU . Yt f th
fd t w t tt ttt whh xhtd t vt t th EU. H,
th Ph t th EU, t th q hw d hv
ttd t jt d t dt t th w t. A dd dv
w d th ft tht th t d E t t t f
th vt fd th 2005 .
Th f th d ttd th t f w th ht f d
th t th- v. Ft, d t hd t
d t th t t th f th t hv t w tt (G 1983: 1). A th
tt wt t dv th tt, th fdt t f Pd t tt t vt d
dd, th v wtht whh th xt f th .
Athh dd th v hd wth th d dv , t tt t
d f. Th tt ddt, f t t jtd t xt . Th ft f
th ddt tt th f t tt v th tt, whh t f th
wth th tt (Dz d UE? twj dw 2005: 150). Sd, th th
v d th tt hd v t tt d t t d w. Tht d t
t vt f th v. It w ttd d dtd th t w, ttd
th t t Gd. Thd, th tht th dt f h
d ht d ft, whh t f qh th. I
th Ph th td t t, d Ch v d
ht t fd whh w vd th ht. Td d f th
d th fdt f Cht ttd t t f Ph dt.
Th dv t t tdt td d th f f
f f th t. Tht wh th t wth ht t vd
th th d . Td td wth xvt td tht
th t f th wdvw v t d th tt hz. It t
t f th Ph wtht t wth Cth. Fth, th
td t t h t f t, t xt d dv ddt
f xt . Th dd t t th t xt f th
, th f th dvt. H, xt tt ft td
tht, whh hd d d td. S th x f th xt
vd tht hd f tht t d t th fw: Th dvt f Pd
d th EU (St dz 2006: 76). Fh, th d t tt
d . Th hv h d tth t vv th wd f th
. Athh t ft f tth t Ch dt d t,16 other factors are
d. A th t, tt, dh, t (Jz Dz
t dt vt f Ph f 2007). A t d
ft f th d t t w t fwd th t th . Wht
t t f , w d t th v xt f th
16 F th t d tw d Pd Zz (2006).
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zd . Th, d, whtv d whv d d dv q t t
f th . Sh t vdd, zd dd v ,
tdt t th f th .
Th whh tt dd d f, dvdd vt th v
f th wd thh th th f t. S t t th f f t,
t vd d t hd tt d tt f th t.
Sh hh x tf thh t d th dv tw th
d t . Dw d d d f tw th t d th xt-
h j dv h whh f th t f Pd, th EU
d th t h. Cqt, th dv tw v th d t v
xt v th. Nt tt th EU td d
th t dht tw tw . Ft, th th td f v
d ddt tt, h t t d f ftz f th thz, t th - t. Sd th th fd,
d - , h t th dd f , v h f ht
h th EU. (Dw j, dw z 2005: 149) Sh ht tt t
tdt d h t t th xt, t , thh t
v, t t th wtd, dt d dz . Stt th
t zd t t tt t th f Ph dd.
Wht t th ht t wth t (hz). Th
t f th EU tzd tt, t th t tt, d th
dv , dw th dt v f Ph tw t- d
-. Th -t f th t h d t
tht t th xt f ttd t th -E . Th th E
U dv qvt f th t t. Sh h, hwv, t
f th t tt d t dw tw v t f EU t
d d, ht t f Ph ht th 19th t , th t t
t th t (Jz Dz t dt vt f Ph
f 2006). Th ft f v th ht d d t dh th
f th t d th d . It th th f th th v tt f
d tht th d. Th ht th thd dv ttd d
t th t f d . A t vd v w
t th EU. Th t ht t th d th d f dft tt
ht h whh th EU fdt tt t th Ph dd d.
Cqt, th d tw t d th EU t dd (Dz
d UE? twj dw 2005: 151).
Th f dv vt d th t f dd t t
f th tt d t th j f h. Nvth, d f th t f th
f wd t f h. Th q hw t th f
th wth th fdt q f t d d. A fw dv tt whh
d t d th v f f th . Ft, t d tht P vtd f
th E f Fthd, t d, fd tt. It th v f E
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tt whh t wth th t f th tt, t h t td th t
f th E t h. W d , t I t : th jt
f P vtd f th E U th E f N, t fdzd tt, t Utd
Stt f E, dtd d, tdt t xtt t th jt f
f tt. (Jz Dz t dt vt f Ph
f 2005, t f th) Sd, t d tht d t
t hd hd th t. Th x dz th EU t
t t d d v f t whh d t fv q, d th f
dd. Thd, th Ph w td d td th -E d
(A P P wt w U Ejj 2006: 143). Th tth f t hd
xz. Pd dd t jt t th EU, wd t tt th dv
. Pd w th hd (A P P wt w U Ejj 2006: 143)
ht (J z t dt vt f Ph f
2005). Sh wd, thh t d (t t ttd wh hd ht ) t
w t tt d t txt d , t h t vd
f t th d t t th tt jt tht td , th
th v jt.
D f j d wthdw td ttt t df f
Ph tt th h d Pd dd wth. It h hd
v, t th , t t th , th vt t td t v
fth t . H t dx t f fth t
ttd. It vd tht th th f tt th d
t th t t d t. Ad, v dt v f th EU
td. It dd t h f tw tt. S
th d f E f fthd vd, t t q t dt th
xt tt. Th v f th x h t -jt t d t th
t f dt f th t f d
whh tt th EU tt t f f. B t d f E wd f-
z. Hwv, d t dd, th dv t f dt d q
th th v d f th t. Th EU tt d td
fdt tht t d f th tt. A tt, dtd th
f xtd d xtv t th d tht (Fwdw/L/T 2002: 325),
d th t f th EU t d ft t. Th tw h whh
th tt d: th d-txtz d th z f th v t f th EU
tht th d th wh tt. Th v q dtd t th EU tht t
vt d dd, t th dtd q f dt t, f th
t d t Pd. Ft, th EU tt, wth tz td
d t tt. A t w d d, d t f th h,
ht td, f th f t th ttt d tht x
f th t. Th d t h t dtd d z th EU, t t dt t ft,
dd t f h th t. Sd, th EU tht d thPh td t t t t t w d d f . Th
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d f Pd ft t-tt vd th txt. Thd, th EU vd
d tt tht t d t dt d t dt th
. M tt, th EU jt t-d Ch td d Gd fd f th
d d. Th d , , d d h t th t.
Th f t td dd th d td. Rt
t f jt t f tt t h. Th t w t f
d th d t th d -z d t f tt. Fth,
th tht d th EU d d th th v v f dd
t dt t . It tz, t dd v tht, w t
f d thd f t whh dt t df. Th t t
h t t th f h q whh d t v th hdd t.
Th v f tht hd th t xz d t dt th h tw
Pd d th EU (f x , df, , ft) Sxth, th EU vd t
tt d t E, dtd th h t- (Cht) t.
Svth, x v t th h f qv,
th EU wth th wt. I f th dt th EU qtd wth th dt f Ph
t, f Ph t, x dv, th, f hd,
f th (Dz L Ph Rdz jt zw wt P d U Ejj? 2006:
76). Ehth, th EU t t d B jt
B. It vd tt whh v th tt f th t tt,
F d (v ) G. Athh th EU t fd t tt,
t t d h d whh df t d, th f w,
tth d z.
Th d d f th fd th v f d d t
f. Th th f th dd h, v , wh t
t t wth. Th f dv th th tt f w. D t
f th t t tw th ( th th d t tt) d
t (Cv 1999; Mdd 2004). Th th htzd t j d ht
twd tt. Th t th d Ph f d f
f th td twd th EU. D tw th zd d td,
t, hd th -E f. It th ttd
thh t tt . Th dd d t tt,
t t f th t . Th xt th td thh f
d d: th EU tzd tt, th Utd Stt f E (Jz Dz
t dt vt f Ph f 2005), f th
t E t, wd vt, th t t. Th ht ft f
th tw t f th tht th t td t xt td thh
th hh . Th d d th d f t w t xt .
Th f (xt t) td xt f d whh w d
wh.
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4. C
Th f th w t tt th tt f dv t t th h
tw Pd d th EU. Sh z f th h t dw th
tht E w dtd t th tt d, t, th f th
xt fd t fd f th v f th EU. Th f th dt h
vd th dv whh z th d f d v th tt
f t. Th t t th EU h f th fth dz f Pd
d t ft . It w d th D L A d Cv P. Th
d v th EU th f tt tw v tt. Th t f
th tt t t f wth xt-tt tt d t t x
vt t th . It td wth th Lw d J t. Th thd
dd tht wd. Th EU jtd tt h t th tt,
t tt, dd, d vt. Th L f Ph F hd d h.Th SfDf d Ph Pt Pt, whh th f t f
t, d th d th f t t f th dv
, , f x, ttd tt wth -E
td. Th thd dtd h hd t hw hw th t d wd q dt
th txt f tt f th wd. Ct h h, tht,
tt, , tt, vt, E f fthd, d dz w tw
dt t th d th dv t dt. Cv
t wth t f t td, th th f th f E, v
th ft tht th dt whh hdd hd th wd. Wht , E
dt th t th dt dv t
t th t tt f th t f t t ft tt f th th.
Th h fd th h v, v th tt f d. It
d wth th whh vd th tt th ttt. Th xt tt t
wd t z th dh d d t hw hw t th t
th f th dt vt th t ht f Pd EU . It wd z
th dt f th dv f th t vt. A dh d wd hw t
wht xtt E dtd t f th d f d th th
f, t, th z f th h 1989 d, d, th t th EU
2004. Th tth f th ht f d t d h, t tht th w
vdd th th f td f Ph thht. Gv tht
th d d t x tf thh h d f th vtd wh,
t t t th d t t t z hw th t d
dtd wth th d d f.
It tt t t tht th t d xt th v f t d,
tht t v th EU d t, t h
t dvv t td thh dt f th wd. I ft, t t
th d f 2000, t f Ph w f th w df t, whh d d d-fhd d w-t dv tw t-
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t d -t. F th dv v th E U t d
ddt th t. Th EU , th t t d t v t th -tt
tt d th t th v, th E Pt , hv d
w f d vdd w t t t v. Wht , th w,
x, t t d f tt d th th t f
t f t xt: dt, vt, d v f th t. Nvth,
t q whth th t ft t t v th d d x
dv. Th E Pd tt th f f
t d t dd d f t d. A th td h hw, th d
xt td wth th t, th d dv d x t th d v.
Th E t w th td t th d x tt f t th
d ttd th f t. F, h t th t f
th dhd dv t t th E . Gv th tt f
d h, t t th d t tt f th w whh ht
t th ft th f q f th w tt.
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T K-F - E A Ex
I R
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hd th G Rh Fd 2008. It t -
f th KFG t vd vt whh vv h t dt wth d d
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d tz th wth th v-
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