EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM

What is Imperialism?

Imperialism is the direct or indirect

control of one nation or people over another. It comes from the Latin wordword

imperator

The "Old Imperialism," 16th to early-19th centuries

Spain led the way in the 16th century colonization of the

New World

The New Imperialism

At its largest territorial extent, the British Empire

(shaded ares to the left) covered about 20% of the

earth’s total landmass. Those territories held by Britain were among the

richest and most desirable lands in all the world.

Explanations of

Imperialism—Why Europe

Expanded Outside Its Geographic Boundaries

An Indian parable tells of blindfolded men told to describe an elephant.

Each man’s description was limited to the part of the beast that he could feel or touch—the tail, the leg, the body, the trunk. Similarly, imperialism has

many “body parts.” One’s explanation for the phenomenon

depends on where one puts the focus.

Three Main Explanations Provide a Comprehensive

View • The Economic Explanation—the

Deterministic Interpretation

• The Politico-Strategic Explanation

• The Shumpeterian Explanation

#1—The Economic Explanation—the Deterministic Interpretation

• Overseas markets

• Areas of investment

• Sources of raw materials

New land was taken to secure:

Crass material motives trigger imperialism; expansion is a function of economic self-interest for both present and future protection of domestic and foreign trade

J. A. Hobson's Imperialism, 1902—the 1st articulation of the economic argument. Hobson based his conclusions on his experiences on a visit to South Africa

Cecil Rhodes with J. A. Hobson

Rhodes made a fortune in exploiting South Africa’s gold and diamond reserves.

• The steady advance of industrial society creates a need for imperialism

• When Britain's monopoly of world trade ended, she was forced to find markets and investment abroad

• Other European powers entering the race for overseas territories (France and Germany) erected high tariff walls to safeguard her markets

• Imperialism is a response to overproduction, mass society, and the world market created by the 2nd Industrial Revolution

Imperialism and Industrialization

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, 1870-1924. Best known for his leadership of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 that overturned Tsarist Russia, Lenin also proposed the “Theory of Imperialism” as monopoly capitalism in Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1917.

Lenin believed that industrial capitalism harmed the workingman, led to overproduction, and the consequent imperialist search for overseas markets.

A period cartoon–a worker carries an imperialist soldier

Imperialism and Industrialization Continued

• It amounts to exploitation of the underdeveloped world

• Trade/investment is an alternative to making industry more competitive, efficient, modern

• Imperialism is an alternative to sharing the profits of industrialization with the working man

The Critique of the Economic Argument

• The areas taken usually weren't good security risks for investors

• Regions taken after 1870 were generally the bottom of the barrel

• In Britain, the standard of living for the working class actually improved as the 19th century advanced

Joseph Chamberlain

British Colonial Secretary Joseph

Chamberlain (1836-1914) invested some

of his immense personal wealth in

East Africa (left). His venture not only

failed to turn a profit but resulted in a

significant loss for this English

entrepreneur, imperialist, and

politician.

#2—The Politico-Strategic Explanation

The “Colossus of Rhodes”—a parody on Cecil Rhodes’ “Cape to Cairo” ambitions

Political Imperialism is an aggressive nationalism going out to conquer the world—a power game; defensive diplomatic maneuvering; protection of strategic areas of interest

Egyptian Khedive Ismail Pasha, 1830-1895—

Ottoman viceroy (1863-1879) who opened the

Suez Canal

British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, 1804-1881, and Queen Victoria, 1819-1901

—“Dizzy” purchased the controlling interest of Suez

Canal stock when Ismail (left) needed money to retire his

huge debts to European creditors

England around Africa to India

England to India

When complete in 1869, the Suez Canal cut over 4,000 miles off of the route from England to India. As such, it

became essential to the British government to control this new artery of transportation to insure the security

of the Empire

Boat passing through the Suez Canal, the “Spinal Cord” of Empire

A Bird’s Eye View

Mose in egitto!

Or Moses Moderniz

ed

#3—The Shumpeterian Explanation

Framed as a Challenge to Lenin's Prediction of the Inevitable Fate of Capitalism

Joseph Shumpeter's Definition of imperialism: "the objectless pursuit for territory and glory"

Schumpeter explained imperialism as a social atavism or throwback to the feudal era when a warrior aristocracy ruled Europe

Support System of Imperialism

Some have said that the justification for Imperialism rested on the twin pillars of

Nationalism and Humanitarianism

Nationalism—imperialism appealed to the national ego and sense of national security and interest. Action to preserve national

security also gave sanction to imperialism

Humanitarianism—pro-imperialists argued that imperialism improved the moral and

material conditions of the subject people (e.g., through public works, education, health

programs, etc.), preparing them for eventual independence

A Dozen Variations on the Imperial Theme

#1 Neo-Mercantilism The desire to build a powerful national

economy augmented by

overseas possessions whose

economies/production are geared to the needs of the Mother

Nation

In Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote concerning colonies: “The general advantages which Europe, considered as one great country, has derived from the discovery and colonization of America, consist,

first, in the increase of its enjoyments; and, secondly, in the augmentation of its industry. . . . .

One of the principal effects of those discoveries has been to raise the mercantile system to a degree of

splendour and glory, which it could never otherwise have attained to. It is the object of that system to enrich a great nation rather by trade

and manufactures than by the improvement and cultivation of land, rather by the industry of the

towns than by that of the country.”

#2 Colonialism Colonialism is a desire for space for surplus population—a

quest as old as the Greek city-states

5th Century B. C. Greek City-States—the prosperity and

subsequent population increase in these polities produced the need

for colonization.

Indeed, the Greek colonies spread throughout the entire

Mediterranean world, not only in nearby Asia Minor but along

the banks of the Black Sea, Italy, France, Spain, and the

northeast African coast

Greek Colonies in Ionia—The Greeks planted colonies in Asia Minor (above). Beginning in the 17th century, the English did

the same in North America.

#3 Creeping Imperialism

The collection of colonies (particularly by Britain) in the 18th century was a slow, almost mindless acquisition of overseas

territory. From 1783 (the end of the American Revolutionary War to 1870, Empire grew without welcome from the home

government or public interest.

The Incorporati

on of Fiji into the British Empire

Sir J. R. Seeley’s Expansion of

England (1883) observed: “the British Empire was acquired in a fit of absence of

mind.”

In 1874, at the invitation of Fiji chiefs, the British annexed the Fiji Islands (right), incorporating them into the

British Empire. This came only after the U.S. failed to acknowledge a similar request to be annexed. In an age of high

imperialism, the Fijian people preferred to be under American or

British rule rather than submit to the late-19th century German imperial

expansion that threatened to swallow them up.

The Dynamic of the Age

Gladstone, the Reluctant

Imperialist

vs.

Disraeli, the Architect of

Empire

How England Acquired Egypt

Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, 1809-1898—England’s “reluctant” imperialist. “Rescue and Retire” was his Egyptian policy.

In Gladstone’s Midlothian (Scotland) Campaign of 1879-1880 (map, left), he attacked Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli’s pro-imperialist policies and won the prime ministership. Nevertheless, forces beyond his control pulled him into Egypt in 1881. The British imperial presence remained there until 1956.

Gladstone’s Midlothian Campaign of 1883. . . . . . and

the promise to return Cyprus

British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), 1804-1881

Disraeli took Cyprus (the green island above) for England in 1878

Sir Garnet Wolseley, 1883-

1913

Battle of Tel-el-Kebir, September 13, 1882

#4 Social Imperialism

Giving the masses “something to shout about.”

Imperialism used as a method to secure national unity, gain full employment; it is an alternative to socialism and class war. The

notion is diametrically opposed to the idea of national community; it sought to transform

class struggle into national struggle.

#5 Diversionary Imperialism Diversionary Imperialism was imperial activity designed to

divert the public attention and interest away from problems by stirring up things on the periphery.

Alfred Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe),

1865-1922

Publications like Harmsworth’s Daily Mail (first appearing on May 4, 1896) stirred public opinion and generated popular support for imperial activity. Through

careful manipulation and cleverly crafted press releases or information leaks,

European governments could sometimes divert attention away from domestic

problems and re-focus public interest on imperial action in some distant corner of

the globe.

#6 Sub-Imperialism, a.k.a., Secondary Imperialism and Settler

Imperialism The actions of those living in colonial or imperial regions precipitate events that compel the home government to

further involve itself in support of imperial activity which, in many instances, it would just as soon not

support (usually because of the costs involved).

The Flag Follows Trade

Cecil Rhodes, 1853-1902—

diamond miner and entrepreneur

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Rhodes hoped to recover the American colonies, build a British-controlled Cape-to-Cairo railway, and inaugurate an era

of Anglo-Saxon world rule.

Kimberley Diamond Mine—the Largest Manmade

Hole on Earth

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Ropes from to surface mine claims

Kimberley Diamond Mine—the Largest Manmade

Hole on Earth

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Ropes from to surface mine claimsRopes leading to claims

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Ropes from to surface mine claimsAt work in Kimberly Mine

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Ropes from to surface mine claimsAt work in Kimberly Mine

British expansion in South Africa is an excellent example of the dynamic of Sub-Imperialism. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African interior

created an irresistible pull that drew England increasingly deeper into the African continent.

Cecil Rhodes often led this advance. He became rich from the Kimberley diamond

mine and Witwatersrand gold field.

Ropes from to surface mine claimsAt work in Kimberly Mine

Colonist's land hunger, bullion hunting, and seeking of labor and supplies—all of these

forces pushed settlers deeper into the interior.

Sub-Imperialism might also be the product of military personnel pushing boundaries

farther in hopes of satisfying ambition, gaining personal prestige or promotion,

career enhancement, or a desire to maintain order on a turbulent frontier.

For example. . . the British in Sudan

Sayyid Muhammad Ahmad Al Mahdi, 1845-1885.

In 1883, the Mahdi began a vigorous revolt against British intrusions into the region of Sudan. The British government sent Charles Gordon (right) to the region.

Charles Gordon, 1833-1885— Gordon was to supervise withdrawal of Britain from the area.

The death of Gordon at Khartoum—Gordon chose instead to remain in the Sudan and subsequently lost his life.

General Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1850-1916

Kitchener went to the Sudan in 1898 to avenge the death of Gordon and re-establish British control over the region. He and his army (including the 21st Lancers above) routed the Sudanese forces under Khalifa Abdullahi (the Mahdi’s successor) at Omdurman on September 2, 1898.

Two days later, Kitchener conducted a memorial service in honor of the fallen Gordon.

The Last Great Cavalry Charge of the British Empire

British India—the RajTo insure control of India, Britain

took the adjacent areas of Afghanistan and Burma.

Later, the British government would feel compelled to take Egypt and others areas of the Middle East to defend its interest on the Asian sub-continent. The security of India drove much British imperial expansion. Where does such a process ultimately end?

#7 Defensive Imperialism

#8 Pre-Emptive Imperialism Taking a territory to prevent a different or rival power from

doing so before you can

The “Scramble for Africa” in the late-19th century was perhaps the most dramatic example of this type of imperialism.

#8 Pre-emptive Imperialism

Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery,

1847-1929

Rosebery summarized defensive imperialism as the "pegging out claims for posterity" or the future, i.e., the acquisition of territory against the chance that its markets or resources might be of some future use.

Otto von Bismarck, 1815-1898

Host of the Berlin Conference of 1884-

1885 that initiated the Scramble for Africa

In 1885, the imperial powers of Europe divided the African continent among

themselves. They did so without respect to the customs, traditions, or tribal

boundaries of the native African people.

#9 Ultra-Imperialism

Karl Kautsky, 1854-1938

Austro-German Karl Kautsky's term to describe a capitalist world planned, conducted, and financed and directed by finance

capital. Among a long list of other works, Kautsky

wrote a book entitled Imperialism and the War

(1914).

#10 Informal Imperialism Control over a region (usually based on

economic realities) without colonies or formal administrative control

European and American influence in Asia (left) is a classic example of 19th century informal imperialism.

Rather than assuming the expensive costs of administering imperial territories on the other side of the world, many European imperialist powers divided up the Chinese coast into “spheres of influence” where

they enjoyed powers of extraterritoriality and could act with a relatively free hand.

In this manner, the imperial powers were able to do such things as advance the business interests of their

respective nations or freely spread the message of Christianity. Understandably, this subtle form of

imperialism bred keen resentment among the Chinese people.

#11 Anti-Imperialism ImperialismAn ideology employed by the U. S. and the U. S. S. R. after

World War II.

In spite of anti-imperialist rhetoric—not to mention encouraging the dissolution of the British Empire—the U.S. and U.S.S.R. embarked on

their own kind of imperial expansion following World War II.

#12 Missionary Imperialism A duty to deliver a superior culture, system, and way

of life to the backward peoples of the world Rudyard Kipling, 1865-1936

Kipling's "White Man's Burden” is the classic statement of this

mentality.

Take up the White Man's burden-- Send forth the best ye breed-Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild-- Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.

In cartoon to left, Uncle Sam observes, “I don’t like the job, Rudyard my boy!”

Queen Victoria, 1819-1901

The Secret of British Greatness—Queen Victoria presents a Bible to

an African chieftain

Civilizing mission often included Christian missionary work. Much as the Christian missionaries of the 1st century A. D. used the infrastructure of the Roman Empire to spread their Gospel message, 19th century Europeans followed the path of imperial expansion and sewed the seeds of Christianity as far as the roads of empire would take them.

As these cartoons imply, civilized states had both the right and responsibility to help barbaric societies develop, become elevated

The Historical Evolution of Modern Imperialism

• Ruthlessness

• Belligerence

• Blatant aggression

• Bloody, one-sided wars

The "New Imperialism," c. 1870-1900Key Traits:

Cambridge historian D. K. Fieldhouse (above) likened the British to an “ambitious minnow” in a pike in a pond. Eventually,

Britain became the “dominant pike.”

In Fieldhouse’s imperial scheme,

when the pike had consumed all of the smaller fish, they

subsequently began to turn upon one

another.

Winston Churchill in the last great cavalry charge of British history. It occurred at Omdurman and was a lopsided

victory for British arms. This victory at Omdurman was typical of many colonial conflicts where the European

imperial power overwhelmed the less developed peoples with technology and force of arms

Traits Continued

5. Keen competition among the Great Powers for territory (which involved perpetual diplomatic crises)

In one of the most extraordinary episodes of imperial history, France dispatched a force of 150 Senegalese soldiers under the command of Captain Jean-François Marchand to cut off the British Cape-to-Cairo route. It took Marchand almost 2 ½ years to traverse the 4,000 miles from Senegal (far right) to Fashoda in the Sudan.

Marachand lay claim for France to the region. British Field Marshal Kitchener (right), with more than 2,500 troops, went to Fashoda to

challenge the French garrison there.

Field Marshal H. H. Kitchener, 1850-1916

Although the situation was successfully resolved in December

1898 when the French withdrew from the area, the Fashoda Crisis brought England and France to the brink of war. Moreover, it was typical of the

many imperial rivalries that heightened tensions between the

Great Powers and ultimately contributed to the coming of World

War I.

#6 Most historians agree that the "New Imperialism" was principally

defensive in nature

Imperialism Reached its Peak in 1914

• Europeans controlled over half of the land in the world

• Their actions affected the lives of over a

billion people

National Variations

England

Pride in Empire reflected in a Canadian postage stamp

“Painting the Globe Red” became a common expression in 19th century England for the process of empire building. As England added new territories to its imperial holdings, map-makers represented those regions in the color red. Indeed, the British Lion went about the world devouring whom it wished.

The “Crown Jewel of the Imperial Diadem”

India—the “Crown Jewel of the Imperial Diadem”—was the most important possession of the British Empire. After establishing dominance there in 1763, the British control gradually expanded to fill the Asian subcontinent.

When India achieved independence in 1948, the rationale for empire dissolved. By the late-1960s, Britain’s Empire had all but vanished.

Britain constructed the largest empire the world had ever known. By the end of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), Britain’s empire had become the most impressive imperial edifice in the world. While its

colonial administration differed from one imperial holding to the next, British

officials and soldiers tended to remain aloof from the native populations—a

condescending behavior which sometimes instilled acute resentment within the

subject peoples.

France

Shaded areas on map above show the territories included in France’s West African imperial holdings

Map of Francophone AfricaThese are the African nations that today are French-speaking. Such is their legacy from the high day of French imperialism on the African continent

France held Algeria in northwest Africa as an imperial territory from 1830-1962. The nationalist move-ment in Algeria contributed to the general de-colonization following World War II.

French overseas expansion began about the same time as did England’s. In contrast to their British counterparts, French imperialists tended to view native populations somewhat more favorably. French explorers and colonists were more likely to assimilate with the native peoples and by the 20th century, the French government actually extended to some regions under French imperial control the opportunity to be represented in the French National Assembly.

Holland

Jan Pieterzn Coen, an early Dutch

Governor-General in the Dutch East

Indies (left)

In the East Indies, the Dutch were notorious for their brutal, ruthless

colonial administration and exploitation of the spice trade.

GermanyBismarck, Germany’s “Iron Chancellor” from 1871 to 1890

Bismarck oversaw the conference in Berlin that in1885 partitioned

Africa among Europe’s great imperial powers.

The Germans were latecomers in the race for overseas colonies. The British and the French

had been building empires since the early-17th century. Germany did not become a

formal, traditional nation-state until 1871. German leaders like Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I (1797-1888) considered overseas

colonies to be part of the necessary trappings of a 19th century European Great Power.

Accordingly, late in that century the Germans moved vigorously to acquire their colonial holdings and establish themselves as

a major imperial polity.

Decline of Imperialism—Why?

• The Impact of Two Great World Wars

• Rising Nationalism Among Subject Peoples

• Democracy Was Incompatible With Keeping Subject Powers in Subjection

World War

The “Great War” (1914-1918) not only materially weakened the imperial powers of Europe. It undermined the European claim to moral and institutional superiority over the subject peoples under Europe’s imperial sway. Likewise, the Second

World War (1939-1945) drained Europe’s nation-states of the resources and physical strength necessary to maintain control over colonial areas. The Holocaust demonstrated a new and

frightening capacity for man’s inhumanity to fellow-man Perhaps most importantly, World War II dramatically

demonstrated that liberal, democratic, capitalist, industrial, and Christian institutions were no guarantee that a civilization was ethical, moral, or humane. The same civilization that had

unlocked the secrets of the atom had applied that very knowledge to destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Rising Nationalism Among Subject Peoples

Mahatma Gandhi, 1869-

1948

Kwame Nkrumah, 1901-1972

The British educated lawyer Mohandas “Mahatma” Gandhi led the way to Indian independence. India, being the lynchpin of the British Empire, was the

underlying raison d’étre for Britain’s entire imperial enterprise. When India (left map above) ceased to be an imperial holding, the Empire very quickly began to

unravel. At that juncture, many of Britain’s other imperial possessions began agitating for and ultimately received independence. In 1957, under the leadership

of Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana (formerly the Ivory Coast—see map, upper right) became the first British colony

in Africa to gain its freedom. Only a remnant of the British Empire remains today.

Results of Western Imperialism

Political• In some instances, imperial powers permitted the

creation and growth of local or national political parties—groups that formed the core of developing democracies in at least some of the former colonized regions.

• In the long run, those imperial powers with strong democratic traditions, e.g., Britain and France, could not surmount the philosophical tension between imperial control and liberal democratic theory—the latter demanded that the colonized areas of the world be given their freedom.

Economic• The Age of European Imperialism set in motion forces that

are transforming the world into a single, integrated global economy

• Many of the subject nations continue to play a subordinate role in the world economy, providing raw materials that the former imperial powers transform into finished goods and products.

• In some instances, the former colonial nations have adopted capitalist and industrial practices; in others, their experience as a subject nation to a capitalist-imperial power has inspired a more socialist approach to national economic development.

Social Effects

• The presence of developed imperial powers in backward areas of the world often shattered the old tribal identities of the native people

• Chieftains and tribal leaders who had previously drawn support and validation from their subject now looked to colonial administration for approval and validation—they often became “collaborating elites” who neglected the welfare of their own people

• The colonial powers often replaced relatively flexible tribal boundaries with rigid imperial ones; frequently, the new boundary lines lumped diverse and sometimes even hostile tribal groupings together (a volatile combination that could erupt in civil conflict once the paternal imperial power vacated the region after de-colonization ran its course)

Civilizing Effects

• The imperial powers often introduced helpful technological innovations and improvements—roads railways, bridges, dams, irrigation systems, and communication networks—ultimately creating an infrastructure that would facilitate internal domestic trade and development.

• They also introduced knowledge relevant to medicine and hygiene that would improve the health and lower the mortality rates of the native populations.

• They often brought with them opportunities for education, either by building schools in the colony itself or allowing the elite among the subject peoples to study in the schools of the imperial power itself

Lammers’ LawAmong nation-states, there will always be

disparity in power. Human nature, being what it is, will generally move in an assertive direction, i.e., those people, institutions, or nation-states

with greater power tend to take advantage of that superior power to impose their will, values,

culture, desires, and self-interest on those with less power. As such, imperialism is a practice and behavior that, like the poor, is destined to be with humanity as long as disparities of power continue

to exist.