Evaluating urban expansion and land use change in Shijiazhuang

Landscape and Urban Planning 75 (2006) 69–80

Evaluating urban expansion and land use change in Shijiazhuang,China, by using GIS and remote sensing

Jieying Xiaoa, Yanjun Shenb,∗, Jingfeng Gec, Ryutaro Tateishia, Changyuan Tanga,Yanqing Liangd, Zhiying Huange

a Graduate School of Science and Technology, Chiba University, Yayoi 1-33, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japanb Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Komaba 4-6-1, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan

c College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Yuhua Rd. 1, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province 050016, Chinad School of Civil Engineering, Shijiazhuang Railway Institute, East Bei-Erhuan Rd. 17, Shijiazhuang 050016, China

e College of Natural Resources, Shijiazhuang University of Economics, Huainan Rd. 302, Shijiazhuang 050031, China

Received 6 August 2004; received in revised form 5 December 2004; accepted 6 December 2004Available online 11 February 2005

Abstract

This paper presents an integrated study of urbanization trends in Shijiazhuang City, Hebei Province of China, by usingGeographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing. The study explores the temporal and spatial characteristics ofurban expansion from 1934 to 2001, and land use/cover change from 1987 to 2001. Temporally, urban expansion shows fast and

f urbanl urban

changed.es a forcese/cover

tors that

verbalnde

slow growth stages, with the high-speed growth districts shifting to the east or west side of the city. The spatial patterns ogrowth can be categorized into three types: special objectives oriented type, social-political intervention type, and normagrowth type. The remotely detected land use/cover change from 1987 to 2001 shows that the land use/cover was largelyThe land use/cover conversion relationship implies that these changes are governed by urban expansion, which producto drive the land use changes in search of a higher return. Lastly, the major factors influencing urban expansion and land uchange are also discussed. In general, the population, traffic conditions, industrialization, and policy are the major facinfluenced the urban expansion.© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Urban expansion; Land cover change; GIS; Remote sensing; TM; Shijiazhuang

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 3 5452 6382;fax: +81 3 5452 6383.

E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Shen).

1. Introduction

In recent decades, research on land use/land cochange has become an important aspect of glochange, or global warming studies, since land use/lacover change is a major factor for global chang

0169-2046/$20.00 © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.12.005

70 J. Xiao et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 75 (2006) 69–80

because of its interactions with climate, ecosystemprocesses, biogeochemical cycles, biodiversity, and,even more important, human activities (e.g.,Lopez etal., 2001; Aguilar et al., 2003). For this reason, LandUse and Land Cover Change (LUCC) was, therefore,treated as one core joint project of the InternationalGeosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and Interna-tional Human Dimensions Program on Global Environ-mental Change (IHDP). In the last 10 years, much moreattention has been paid to urban land use/land coverchange because ecosystems in urban areas are stronglyaffected by human activities and have close relationswith the life of almost half of the world’s population(Stow and Chen, 2002.)

Remote sensing provides spatially consistent datasets that cover large areas with both high spatial detailand high temporal frequency. Dating back to 1960, re-mote sensing can also provide consistent historical timeseries data. The importance of remote sensing was em-phasized as a “unique view” of the spatial and temporaldynamics of the processes in urban growth and land usechange (Herold et al., 2003). Satellite remote sensingtechniques have, therefore, been widely used in detect-ing and monitoring land cover change at various scaleswith useful results (e.g.,Stefanov et al., 2001; Wilson etal., 2003). Recently, remote sensing has been used incombination with Geographical Information Systems(GIS) and Global Positioning Systems to assess landcover change more effectively than by remote sens-ing data only (Muller and Zeller, 2002; Weng, 2002).I eas,a g ofu e.g.,G al.,2

r thel lop-m (e gea withb nd-s niza-t 0;S ont angeoee ;

Sui and Zeng, 2001), and of the historical city of Lhasa(Zhang et al., 2000). However, less attention has beenpaid to the big cities in the middle of China which cor-rectly depict the general situation of urbanization andconsequential landscape change in China.

Shijiazhuang, as the capital of Hebei Province, is atypical city in the middle of China. Its developmentalcharacteristics and land use change provide good rep-resentatives of the middle China cities, since most ofthem have experienced the same political, economic,and technical revolution events. In this study, we usethe spatial analysis function of GIS to specify the urbanexpansion characteristics of Shijiazhuang City, China,during the past 70 years, and then, use two scenes ofLandsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images to detect andevaluate the land use and land cover change that oc-curred in the last 14 years. The objectives of the presentstudy are:

• to explore the temporal and spatial characteristics ofurban expansion in last 70 years;

• to detect and evaluate the land use and land coverchange due to urbanization between 1987 and 2001,and output land cover maps; and

• to analyze the main factors governing urbanizationand land use and land cover change.

2. Description of the study area

ina(3w itsn llu-v ut1 hes ita-t ndt st.H iji-a y duet re-s ars.N oleN on-m lop-m

t has already proved useful in mapping urban arnd as data source for the analysis and modelinrban growth and land use/land cover change (rey et al., 2003; Herold et al., 2003; Wilson et003).

China has experienced rapid development oveast two decades. Together with economic deve

ent, the landscape has changed significantlyLiut al., 2003). In the context of urbanization, larmounts of agricultural lands have been changeduilt-up or urban land-use. The impacts of the lacape change on the environment due to urbaion are significant (Carlson and Traci Arthur, 200hen et al., 2003). In China, research has reported

he urbanization and consequential land cover chf some large cities such as Beijing (Gu, 1999; Liut al., 2000), Guangzhou (Weng, 2002), of the newconomic star city of Shenzhen (Shi et al., 2000

The study area is located in North ChFig. 1) between the range of 114◦23′E–114◦42′E and7◦58′N–38◦60′N, with an area of around 341.63 km2,hich covers the whole city of Shijiazhuang andear suburban fringe. Shijiazhuang lies on the aial fan of Hutuo river with a slight slope of abo.5‰ declining from Northwest to Southeast. Temiarid monsoon climate determines its precipion, which is only about 500 mm/year with arouwo-thirds of which occurring in July and Auguutuo river runs through the North side of Shzhuang, and has become a seasonal river mainl

o the mass exploitation and utilization of waterources the in North China plain over the last 40 yeowadays, the regional water scarcity in the whorth China plain is becoming the biggest envirental problem and the barrier to sustainable deveent.

J. Xiao et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 75 (2006) 69–80 71

Fig. 1. The position of Shijiazhuang in Mainland China.

Shijiazhuang is the capital and the largest city inthe Hebei Province and is important as the center ofadministration, culture, economy and transportation.The current population is around 1.6 million. In theearly 1900s, it was just a small village with less than600 inhabitants. The construction of the Jing-Guangrailway line (Beijing to Guangzhou) and Shi-Tai line(Shijiazhuang to Taiyuan) provided it a good opportu-nity for development. During WWII, the city extendedfast because of its important position in military oper-ations. After becoming the capital of Hebei Provincein 1968, it experienced rapid development with expan-sion of its urban extent. Especially in the last 20 years ofeconomic reform, urban expansion in Shijiazhuang hasbeen very significant. According to the Economic An-nals of 2001, its population and built-up area are 1.6million and 165.5 km2. As a result, the landscape ofShijiazhuang region was largely changed. The impactson the hydrological environment due to urbanizationare very significant in this case (Shen et al., 2003).

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Data

In this study, multi-annual socio-economic statisti-cal data, multi-temporal city maps, and two scenes ofsatellite multi-spectral image are collected for evalu-ating the temporal and spatial characteristics of urbanexpansion from 1934 to 2001 and the land use landcover change between 1987 and 2001. The materialsused in this study are listed inTable 1.

3.2. Maps processing

The five maps of different historical periods weredigitalized and put into GIS software (MapInfo5.0).The maps were geometrically inter-matched and con-verted to Universal Transverse Mercator map projec-tion. The topographical map of 1981 was employed asthe base map. The urban area borders in the different


Table 1List of the materials and data used in this research

Data types Year Producer/provider Process Output

MapsMap of Shimen City (1:70,000) 1934 Department of

Defense, Republic ofChina

Digitalization; coordinatesintegration

Map of urban region in 1934

Map of Shijiazhuang (1:150,000) 1947 Unknowna Same as above Map of urban region in 1947Topographical map of

Shijiazhuang (1:100,000)1981 Bureau of Survey and

Cartography, HebeiSame as above Map of urban region in 1981

Land use map of ShijiazhuangPrefecture (1:150,000)

1991 Bureau of LandResources, Hebei

Same as above; makeground truth dataset.

Map of urban region in 1991;Ground truth dataset.

Map of Shijiazhuang city(1:10,000)

2001 Shijiazhuang Bureauof Urban Planning

Same as above Map of urban region in 2001;ground truth dataset.

Satellite images:Landsat 5 TM 1987/06/29 NASA Geometric correction;

Enhancement;Classification

Land use and land cover mapin 1987

Landsat 7 ETM+ 2001/05/10 NASA Same as above Land use and land cover mapin 2001

Socio-economic records:Annals of land resources of

Shijiazhuang1992, 1995,1996, 1999

Shijiazhuang Bureauof Land Resources

– –

Annals of economy of HebeiProvince

1978–1998 Hebei Bureau ofStatistical Affairs

– –

Annual report on environmentalquality of Shijiazhuang

1991, 1994 Shijiazhuang Bureauof EnvironmentalConservation

– –

Local chronicles of Shijiazhuang – – –

a This map is adopted from Shijiazhuang Urban Planning Bureau, 1994.

periods were determined for calculating the extensionrate.Fig. 2 shows the urban area of Shijiazhuang cityin different historical periods. Use of historical maps toextract the boundaries of the city to investigate patternsof urban expansion is relatively simple and can collectinformation from the pre-satellite ages. Even though itmight have some potential errors in accuracy, becausethe maps have been drawn up with various degrees ofaccuracy, the influence of this variability will be mini-mal due to the relatively coarse time scales used in thepresent study.

3.3. Annual urban growth rate

In order to evaluate the spatial distribution of urbanexpansion intensity, we adapted an indicator called an-nual urban growth rate (AGR) for evaluating the ‘ur-

banization’ speed of unit area. AGR is defined as fol-lows:

AGR = UAn+i − UAi

nTAn+i

× 100% (1)

where TAn + i is the total land area of the target unitto be calculated at the time point ofi + n; UAn + i andUAi the urban area or built-up area in the target unitat timei + n andi, respectively, andn is the interval ofthe calculating period (in years). Generally, the target-calculating unit is set to the administrative district soas to link with administration or economic statistics.In this research, we preferred the geographical grid-ding unit since the administrative borders have beenchanged so frequently in this city. The maps were there-fore gridded as 1 km× 1 km units, and the annual urbangrowth rates of each unit were then calculated. Lastly,


Fig. 2. Map of urban area of Shijiazhuang, China in different years. (The railway shows the situation in 2001.)

the grid-based annual urban growth rates were clus-tered by using natural break method, and mapped toevaluate the spatial features of the ‘expansion’.

3.4. Satellite image pre-processing

Two scenes of Landsat images were collected foranalyzing land use land cover change between 1987and 2001. One was Landsat 5 TM image recorded onJune 29, 1987 and the other was Landsat 7 ETM+ imagerecorded on May 10, 2001. Both images are cloud free.First, the image in 1987 was geometrically correctedto Universal Transverse Mercator map projection sys-tem. Then the image in 2001 was also geo-encoded andmatched to the TM image with the total RMS error ofless than half-pixel. Both images were filtered with a3× 3 median kernel to exclude noise.

3.5. Land use and land cover classification

Before land cover classification, a 9-class classifi-cation system was designed with consideration of theland use properties of the study area as urban/built-up,residential, crop field, vegetable field, forest/trees, or-

chard, grass, water body, and barren/sandy lands. Thewidely used supervised classification method, Maxi-mum Likelihood (Murai, 1996), was employed to de-tect the land cover types. According to the land use mapof 1991 and the large scale map of 2001, we createdtwo sets of ground truth samples for each image, oneof which used as training data set; the other used astesting data set for accuracy assessment.

4. Results

4.1. Urban expansion over the past 70 years

The urban area of Shijiazhuang city expanded from6.31 km2 in 1934 to 165.5 km2 in 2001 at an averagerate of 2.4 km2/year.

4.1.1. Temporal properties of the urban expansionOver the past 70 years, the process of urban growth

or urban expansion of Shijiazhuang experienced somehigh- and low-speed stages (Fig. 3). The data extractedfrom the five historical maps (circles) are consistent


Fig. 3. The temporal changes of built area in urban development ofSijiazhuang, China (+): statistical data; (©): map calculation data.

with those from statistical data (cross-line). Accordingto the multi-annual change of urban area (Fig. 3), ur-ban expansion of Shijiazhuang can be divided into fourstages as: (1) initial growth stage from 1934 to 1949,(2) short recovery stage from 1950 to 1955, (3) slowgrowth stage from 1956 to 1980, and (4) fast expansionstage from 1981 to 2001.

During the initial growth stage (1934–1949), urbanareas grew very slowly with an annual speed of around1.15 km2/year. During this stage, the city was in its ini-tial form with a slow natural growth. According to theLocal Chronicles of Shijiazhuang, Shijiazhuang wasappointed as a ‘city ’ in 1925, and it was later con-structed as a military base in WWII by Japanese troopsand the National Army due to its important position.The urban growth in 1930s was mainly driven by themilitary objectives.

The second stage (1950–1955) was during the re-covery age with the nation’s reconstruction of ‘newChina’ after WWII and the following civil war. Stablesocial environment brought a quick urban growth at therate of 3.65 km2/year.

Unfortunately, after the short recovery growth pe-riod, from the late of 1950s, the development speedof the whole country was strongly influenced by po-litical movements, such as the Great Leap Forward,a movement led by Chinese Government to attemptto implement communism through high-speed produc-tion activities from 1958, and the following Great Cul-tural Revolution (an important political movement inC allo pe-r nd0 edu

From the 1980s, China commenced economic re-form. The urban development of Shijiazhuang had agreat progression. Thus, the period since 1981 is re-ferred to as ‘fast expansion stage’, which had an an-nual expansion rate of around 5.6 km2/year. In the first10 years, the annual rate of urban expansion reached3.43 km2/year due to industrialization. In the second 10years, expansion was raised to 7.89 km2/year becauseof feasible policies, introduction of a market economy,and stable socio-economic environments.

4.1.2. Spatial distribution of the urban expansionintensity

The spatial distributions of urban expansion inten-sity during the different periods are illustrated by theindex of annual urban growth rate (Fig. 4). On the baseof 1 km× 1 km grid, annual urban growth rate variessignificantly.

During 1934–1947 (Fig. 4a), the mean value of an-nual urban growth rate was 1.9% with a maximum of7.2%. Most of the high-speed expansion grids are dis-tributed at the western part of the city. This is becauseof the military usage for barracks and military maga-zines during the Resistance War against Japan and thefollowing civil war from the late 1930s to 1947. Par-ticularly, the railway surrounding the city was used totransport military materials, and outside of it were de-fense trenches and walls.

During the long period from 1947 to 1981, the meanannual urban growth rate was 1.32% with a maximumo iona of1 an-s us-t ntialu tra-t ges)u dis-p por-t oodp oret cted.F ncew calr

fa ofa ainly

hina from 1966 to 1976, during which almostf the economic activities stopped). Thus, a longiod of slow growth occurred with a rate of arou.46 km2/year. This slow growth situation continuntil the late 1970s.

f only 2.95 %. The cells with high-speed expansre mainly distributed around the old city territory947 (Fig. 4b). The large area of high-speed expion cells at the east part of the city was for indrial (textile, pharmaceutical, and steel) and residese; while the cells at west part were for adminis

ion (Province government) and educational (collese. In 1950s, the military defense works wereosed of and Shijiazhuang was planned as an im

ant textile production base in China due to its gosition in the cotton belt of North China so that m

han 10 large scale textile enterprises were construurthermore, the provincial capital of Hebei Provias moved to Shijiazhuang in 1968 for politi

easons.From 1981 to 1991 (Fig. 4c), the mean value o

nnual urban growth rate was 3% with a maximumround 9.75%. High-speed expansion cells are m


Fig. 4. Spatial distributions of annual urban growth rate (AGR) of Shijiazhuang city, China. (The grids are 1 km× 1 km; railway line representsthe situation at the end of each period.)

distributed at the southeast of the city and the Northside of Shi-Tai line, as used for residential, education,and factories. These expansions can be understood asnatural urban growth due to economic development.

In the last period from 1991 to 2001 (Fig. 4d), themean value of annual urban growth rate suddenly roseto 7.81% with a maximum of 10.1%. Except for the‘in-filling’ growth at the fringe of old city territory,most of the high-speed growth cells are ‘out-extension’growth, which mainly lie on the Northwest and South-west side for residential and associated use. It seemsthat the change of railways in the southwest side hasaffected urban growth to some extent in that direction.The high-speed cells on the east side were used by theso-called new high-tech district, which has been estab-lished in most cities throughout China during the 1990sfor attracting overseas investment.

4.2. Landscape change in the recent 14 years

In order to evaluate the landscape change due tohigh speed urbanization in the recent years, especiallyafter the Economic Reform from 1980s, two scenesof TM and ETM+ images were used for land use/landcover classification as described earlier, and the landuse and land cover change was then detected andanalyzed.

Fig. 5 shows the two land use/land cover classifi-cation maps. The classification accuracy is assessedthrough evaluating the overall classification accuracyand Kappa statistics, which are calculated accordingto the method ofCongalton et al. (1983)by usingthe two sets of testing datasets. The overall accura-cies of the classifications are 84.96% and 87.84% in1987 and 2001, respectively; these indices can meet


Fig. 5. The land use and land cover map of Shijiazhuang in (a) 1987 and (b) 2001.


Table 2The conversion matrix of land use land cover change from 1987 to 2001 (unit: hectare)

1987 2001

Urban Residential Crop lands Vegetablelands

Trees Orchards Water Sandy/baresoil

Grass Total

Urban 4977.79 936.72 0.00 20.04 0.00 0.00 30.60 0.00 10.20 5975.4Residential 3196.61 3216.79 358.92 937.70 4.50 42.29 109.62 0.00 53.10 7919.5Crop lands 1216.62 1469.25 4805.12 3690.34 23.22 293.31 114.84 1.00 59.62 11673.3Vegetable

lands1072.90 985.86 396.54 2034.57 4.32 267.30 88.97 0.00 52.74 4903.2

Trees 120.60 83.52 20.74 103.05 7.02 23.22 30.51 0.00 0.94 389.6Orchards 202.95 130.77 96.72 1605.73 46.98 734.33 83.88 0.00 84.60 2986.0Water 30.96 8.06 2.61 11.16 0.00 0.00 16.11 0.00 0.00 68.9Sandy/bare

soil25.11 23.94 46.20 102.51 14.26 26.91 2.07 1.00 0.00 242.0

Grass 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.00 5.0

Total 10843.5 6854.9 5726.9 8505.1 100.3 1387.4 476.6 2.0 266.2 34162.9Change

rate (%)81.47 −13.44 −50.94 73.46 −74.26 −53.54 591.73 −99.17 5220.00 –

the lowest demand for change detection (Lucas etal., 1989). The Kappa statistics are 0.822 and 0.828,respectively.

Comparing the two classification maps as demon-strated inFig. 5, landscape change is significant: the ur-ban region is largely broadened; the agricultural landshave largely decreased; and most part of the windbreaktrees and orchard distributed at the North side are dis-appeared. Through change detection analysis, the landuse/land cover conversion matrix between 1987 and2001 was produced (Table 2). Fig. 6demonstrates theconversion relationship of some major land use/covertypes. FromFig. 6, we can see the land use/cover con-version relationship more directly. For example, urbanland change shows a major increase and mainly con-verted from residential, crop land, and vegetable land(Fig. 6a). The change of residential land shows that onebig part decreased and changed to urban surface whileanother large area increased and changed from cropland (Fig. 6b). The change of crop land also shows adecrease and has been converted to urban, residential,and vegetable land (Fig. 6c). The changes of vegetableland show a similar situation as that of residential land,i.e., it is mainly converted from cropland and orchard,on the other hand, a large part of vegetable land has beenconverted for urban use (Fig. 6d). The loss of orchardhas mostly been converted to vegetable land (Fig. 6e).This may imply that economic returns from vegetable

cultivation are better than that from orchards. The in-crease in water surface is mainly because a new canaland some parks were built after 2000 to improve theurban environment (Fig. 6f). From the land use/coverconversion matrix table (Table 2), the change rate ofwater surface is about 591.7%. At the same time, pub-lic green land, i.e., grassland, has also largely increased.The grassland area increased to 266.2 ha in 2001, about52 times of the grassland area in 1987 (Table 2). Eventhough the increase in water surface and grassland wasvery fast, the total area of water and grassland is stillrather small; only about 4.2% of the area of urban andresidential land.

The lands converted from residential to urban aremainly distributed on the outskirts of the old city in1987 (Fig. 5). This has been caused by the urban ex-pansion and concentration of housing as the populationalso increased significantly during the 14 years to 2001.The urban lands converted from crop- and vegetable-lands distributes as circles around the old city terrain in1987 (Fig. 5). On the other hand, the new increased res-idential land is mainly as a result of population growthin suburban region (Fig. 5). As mentioned above, theincreased vegetable lands were mainly converted fromorchard gardens (Fig. 5) in pursuing a higher economicreturn, and for the same reasons, many crop landsaround the village were converted to vegetable culti-vation (Fig. 5).


Fig. 6. The conversion relationship between some main land use/cover types. Filled circle line: the changing source of 2001; blank circle line:the changing destination of 1987. The darker shadow area shows increase of land use/cover; the brighter shadow area shows decrease of landuse/cover.

4.3. Driving factors of the urbanization

Urban expansion and subsequent landscape changesare governed by geographical and socio-economicalfactors, such as population growth, policy, and eco-nomic development. In most cases, urban expansionand associated land use/cover changes resulted froma combination of these factors. For example, socio-economic policy can strongly affect urban expansion,and under the changes driven by urban expansion, theland use patterns of the urban outskirts are altered oradjusted in pursuit of high economic returns (orchardsor croplands changing to vegetable land).

Even though it is difficult to clarify the influence ofthese factors in these changes, their influence is exam-ined by analyzing the relationships between developed

area (including urban and residential area) and socio-economic factors, such as, population, industrializa-tion, traffic conditions, and infrastructure.Fig. 7showsthe relationships between developed area and these fac-tors during 1978–1998. The data are collected from theEconomic Annals of Hebei Province (1978–1998). Thepopulation’s growth is a major dominant factor drivingurbanization (Fig. 7a) during the fast expansion stage.The increase in developed area strongly correlates withthe population’s growth in a linear form (r2 = 0.98). Onthe other hand, the improvement of traffic conditionsmeasured by the annual transport weight also playsan important role in promoting the urban development(Fig. 7c). However, the development of gross industrialproducts and investment in infrastructure show a morecomplex relationship with urban growth (Fig. 7b and


Fig. 7. The relationships between urban expansion and some socio-economic factors. The transportation amount denotes the weight of transport,and Yuan is the unit of Chinese currency.

d). 1991 appears to be a turning point in the urban de-velopment course. Before 1991, or during 1980s, boththe growth of gross industrial products and infrastruc-tural investment were slow but the increase in devel-oped area was rapid. On the other hand, the oppositesituation was illustrated after 1991, namely, the grossindustrial products and infrastructural investment grewrapidly but the increase of developed area was relativelyslow. This fact may imply that the urban expansion be-fore 1991 was “extensive sprawl” and a large area ofland was just simply urbanized due to new factory es-tablishments. However, the urban expansion after 1991contains much more intensive components, such as, theimprovement of infrastructure and city function, thepromotion of industrial technology, and the increase ofservice industry.

5. Discussions/conclusions

From the above analysis, the spatial patterns of ur-ban expansion in Shijiazhuang can be categorized asthree typical types: (1)special objective oriented typein the war age (1934–1947), whereby the urban ex-pansion was governed by the establishment of militarybase and associated use; (2)socio-political interven-tion type, i.e., during the ages of Great Leap Forwardand Cultural Revolution. In this period, the urban ex-

pansion was strongly affected by the national politicalsituations; and (3)normal growth type, i.e., the urbanexpansion caused by economic development and pop-ulation growth over the past two decades.

However, as illustrated in the maps of annual urbangrowth rate and the land use/cover change in recentdecades, the urban expansion in Shijiazhuang regiondiffers from some large cities in Asia such as Beijingand Tokyo, whose spreading trends were along radialcorridors, such as major traffic lines, from the center ofthe cities (Liu et al., 2000; Sorensen, 2000), and alsodiffers from the situation in Shenzhen, China, whoseurban expansion shows a high correlation with the ge-omorphologic factor (e.g., slope) and the distance tothe Central Business District or major traffic lines (Shiet al., 2000). The urban expansion of Shijiazhuang cityshows an areal spreading trend around fringes of the ur-banized territory. This is a very common phenomenonin the urban development of most cities in China. Oneexplanation is that the traffic-industrial status deter-mines this kind of urban growth pattern. Owing in partto lack of efficient public commuting systems, espe-cially rail-commuting systems, most of the inhabitantscommute by bicycle. As a result, both the working andhousing places are close each other. The urban devel-opment of most cities in China follows a similar wayas shown by Shijiazhuang. In this sense, the pattern ofurbanization is determined by technical revolution.


Acknowledgements

This study was supported by a Hebei Natural Scien-tific Fund Grant (No. 403163) and one of the authors(Y. Shen) would like to acknowledge the support fromthe research project of Core Research for EvolutionalScience and Technology (CREST) of Japan Scienceand Technology Agency and the Key Project of Chi-nese Academy of Sciences (KZCX2-SW-317/CX10G-E01-08). The authors gratefully thank two anonymousreviewers for their valuable advice in improving thefirst manuscript.

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Evaluating urban expansion and land use change in Shijiazhuang