for:P

LAN

NIN

G InterpretationAnd

Visitor

Experience

PLANNING FOR INTERPRETATION

AND

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Prepared by the

Division of Interpretive Planning

Harpers Ferry Center

Harpers Ferry , West Virginia

1998

Good planning ensures that interpretive facilities, media, and programs worktogether.

Well-planned developments can protect resources and serve visitors.

Interpretive planningvisitor experience planningidentifies what experiencesshould be accessible to visitors.

Interpretive planning can recommend strategies for promoting positive visitorinteractions with wildlife.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW.................................................................................................................... 1

WHAT IS IT?.................................................................................................................. 2

WHY DO INTERPRETIVE PLANNING? ................................................................... 4

WHO DOES IT?............................................................................................................. 5

WHAT SHOULD AN INTERPRETIVE PLAN INCLUDE? ...................................... 6

Goal-Driven Planning .......................................................................................... 8Purpose.................................................................................................................. 9Significance ..........................................................................................................11Interpretive Themes ............................................................................................13Visitor Experience................................................................................................16Goals and Objectives ...........................................................................................20Visitors..................................................................................................................23Resources..............................................................................................................26Subject Matter Knowledge..................................................................................30Recommendations ...............................................................................................33

Interpretive Media ......................................................................................33Facilities .......................................................................................................40Landscapes ..................................................................................................45

Evaluation ............................................................................................................47

ANSWERS TO FREQUENTLY-ASKED QUESTIONS..............................................49

APPENDICES...............................................................................................................53

Appendix A: Harpers Ferry Center Services.....................................................53Appendix B: References ......................................................................................61

1OVERVIEWThis document describes current perspectives andapproaches in interpretive planning by the HarpersFerry Center, National Park Service. It discussesapproaches, criteria, options, and philosophy. It is not a"how-to" manual or directive.

Interpretive planning comprises a spectrum from short-range through long-range planning. This documentaddresses mostly long-range planning.

Intended Audience

Although much is written from a National Park Serviceperspective, it is designed to be relevant for otheragencies and organizations. It was written with severalaudiences in mind:

> staff on planning teams considering visitor-relatedissues

> interpretive planners

> interpreters

> planning and design professionals such as architects,landscape architects, and media designers andproducers

> other partnersincluding the private sectorin theplanning process

Goals

A reader will be able to:

be a productivemember of aninterpretive planningteam, representinghis/her specialty andcontributing to thequality of the processand the products

describe a generaloutline of goal-driveninterpretive planning,and modify that outlineto best suit a specificproject

discuss the generalcapabilities andlimitations of differentinterpretive media,programs, and facilities

2WHAT IS IT?

Interpretive planning is aprocess that identifies anddescribes significant visitorexperiences in a park, forest,zoo or other resource-basedrecreation area; andrecommends ways to provide,encourage, sustain, facil-itateor otherwise assist thoseexperiences.

"The Experience" is what visitorstake from a park. Providingopportunities for visitors tointeract with park resources in amanner that is both safe forvisitors and leaves the resourceun-impairedwhat has beentermed "visitor experienceplanning"is the core of parkplanning and development.

Dave Dame

Everything that visitors do, think, sense, and feel ina park constitutes their park experience.Interpretive planning describes desired experiences(outcomes) and recommends ways to encouragethem. Some of these recommendations involveinterpretive media or activities; some experiencesare facilitated through facility design or by justgetting out of the way.

Interpretive planning is nearly synonymous withvisitor experience planning. To simplify, well usethe term interpretive planning to include visitorexperience planning.

Interpretive planning teams seek to answer manyquestions, which include:

Why is this area set aside and made accessibleto the public?

What are the likely and desired visitorexperiences? (What will visitors want to do,feel, learn, experience; and what does theagency hope they will do, learn, etc.?)

What are current conditions affecting visitorexperience and interpretation? What are theessential stories and experiences to makeavailable to area visitors and neighbors? Whatare the laws, mandates, policies or guidelinesthat affect this project? What information andresources are available, and what are needed?

What are significant relationships betweenresources and visitors? What are key issues?

How can the agency make desirableexperiences more accessible to more visitors?(What are impediments to visitor enjoyment ofsignificant area resources and values? Shouldthe agency match or redirect visitor'smotivations and expectations? How can theagency serve diverse audiences?)

How can the agency discourage activities thatare detrimental to resources or other visitors'

3experiences, and promote activities that enhanceresource protection and visitor enjoyment?

How can the agency meet visitor experience goals inthe most cost-effective manner, considering long-term costs and sustainable values?

Most interpretive planning teams go through someversion of the following steps.

1. Prepare for planning: read or review legislation,other plans and guidelines, and key resource andaudience information; solicit input from others whowont be in the planning group.

2. Identify and achieve consensus on the scope of theplan, and on overall goals and issues; include visitorexperience, themes, resource, and management goalsand issues.

3. Collect information and assess current conditions;include information on visitors, cultural and naturalenvironment, media, programs and other visitoractivities, issues, goals, other plans, etc.

4. Determine the best ways to achieve goals andprovide desired experiences through interpretivemedia, facilities, activities, and contact withresources.

These phases may overlap, change, multiply or divide.Planning is both sequential and cyclic: a project has abeginning and an end, but earlier phases will often berevisited.

4WHY DO INTERPRETIVE PLANNING?

Good interpretive planningensures that essential parkvalues and experiences areaccessible to visitors, and thatfacilities and media aredesigned to accomplish visitoruse and resource preservationgoals.

Interpretive planning will help park staff:

> develop consensus on a long-range vision forinterpretation and visitor experience

> provide key visitor experiences whileprotecting resources and enhancingstewardship

> develop the most cost-effective and sustainablesolutions to visitor and resource issues

> effectively use interpretation and education tomeet management goals (outputs andoutcomes)

> fulfill mandates to serve the public ANDprotect resources

Good interpretive planning ensures that essentialpark values and experiences are accessible tovisitors, and that facilities and media are designedto accomplish visitor use and resource preservationgoals.

Planning should be a dynamic, continuingprocess not only tied to development or solvingthe issue of the day, but a continuum that supportsdaily operations in the context of realizing a long-range vision for visitors and resources. On theother hand, planning is not an end in itself; goodplanning directs us to do smart, effective things,and helps us avoid doing ineffective or damagingthings. Interpretive planning is needed becausevisitor enjoyment is part of the NPS mission,because there cannot be parks without visitors, andbecause resource preservation requires publicunderstanding and support.

5WHO DOES IT?There are many ways to structure an effectiveinterpretive planning team; it is doubtful that any oneapproach will prove superior in every situation. Teammembers should have the experience, knowledge, andtime to do their assigned tasks.

The following groups may be involved to varyingdegrees in the planning effort:

> park staff (preferably including management, fieldstaff, various disciplines and divisions; considerincluding staff from another park)

> an experienced interpretive planner as team captain,leader, and/or facilitatior

> media, facility, or landscape design specialists

> current and potential partners (especially NativeAmericans and/or other ethnic groups related to thepark story)

> representatives of affected audiences, including parkvisitors and advocacy groups

> subject matter experts

> publication specialists (e.g., graphics, editing)

It may be wise to try to involve everyone who will play arole in designing or implementing therecommendations. The final call on involvement usuallyrests with the park superintendent.

Team captains must balance the values of including awide variety of expertise with constraints of time,money and group dynamics. It is helpful to decide onthe roster for the planning team and consultants early inthe planning process; this may be recorded in a scope ofwork that is agreed to by all major participants.

While short-term savings may result from a parkproviding their own planning, quality (and long-termsavings) usually will be enhanced by including outsideperspectives and guidance from experiencedinterpretive planners. Such planners work at HarpersFerry Center, many regional offices, some parks, otheragencies, and in the private sector.

While short-term savingsmay result from a parkproviding their ownplanning, quality (andlong-term savings) usuallywill be enhanced byincluding outsideperspectives and guidancefrom ex-periencedplanners.

6WHAT SHOULDAN INTERPRETIVE PLAN INCLUDE?

Interpretive planning fallswithin a spectrum fromgeneral management plan-ning through facility andmedia design. A plan shouldemphasize which-ever parts ofthat spectrum that it needs to.Care should be taken to makesure that recommendations atthe design end are based onsound, relevant and agreed-upon conclusions at theplanning end.

There are several important general criteria for theform and content of interpretive plans. Aninterpretive plan should be the best possiblerepresentation of that particular planning process,that unique set of resources and visitors, that set ofgoals and recommendations, those contemporaryconditions, and those assumptions about thefuture. An interpretive plan should also reflectrelevant agency policies and guidelines.

More specifically, an interpretive plan should meetmost of the following criteria:

> represent an accurate and useful version of boththe consensus and the diverse perspectives thatemerged during the planning process

> express significant, understandable, achievable,and appropriate goals

> involve major stakeholders, including subjectmatter experts, those who will implement theplan, and those who will be affected by theactions recommended in the plan

> recommend cost-effective, creative, sustainable,and achievable actions that meet visitorexperience and resource protection goals, andconform to agency mission and park purposeand goals

> provide understandable and useful guidance toprogram, media, and facility planners anddesigners

> identify relationships and influences amongrelated planning and management actions

> describe and picture significant resources andexperiences sufficiently for readers who maynot be familiar with the area

> convey major messages to various readers,including those who skim, those interested onlyin the major points, and those looking for adetailed analysis

7> convey a sense of importance, significance, andpassion for the resources, stories, and experiences

> help move the planning process to the next stages(design and production)

> be interesting, readable, and understandable

Depending on the needs of each project, sections inaddition to those discussed in this document may beuseful for an interpretive plan. These include costestimates, implementation schedules andresponsibilities, resource and activity inventories,staffing, partnerships, study collections, preliminarydesigns, value analysis, and research needs and results.

Interpretive planning falls within a spectrum fromgeneral management planning through facility andmedia design. A plan should emphasize whichever partsof that spectrum that it needs to. Care should be taken tomake sure that recommendations at the design end arebased on sound, relevant and agreed-upon conclusionsat the planning end.

There are guidelines from which planners and parks canchoose the best way to handle each project. The NationalPark Service has issued guidelines (NPS-6, Chapter 3,amended 1995) for comprehensive interpretive planning,which include a long-range interpretive plan that is arevision of the NPS Interpretive Prospectus.

In the balance of this chapter we introduce most of theelements commonly included in goal-driven interpretiveplans. The overall goalsfrom mission through themesand objectivesare frequently defined in generalmanagement plans and strategic plans, and can beincorporated in the interpretive plan.

8GOAL-DRIVEN PLANNING

One purpose of workingwithin a goal-driven frame-work is to make sure thatconsensus has been reachedon the results to be achieved.Then discussion can focus onthe best ways to achieve thoseresults. This approach helpsavoid the trap of automaticallydesigning one's favoritemedium or program with-outconsidering desired outcomes.

Interpretive plans are goal-driven. They start withidentifying the broadest goals relevant to theproject or area. Within these broad guidelines,more specific goals and/or objectives arecomposed. The number and specificity of goal orobjective statements will vary with each project.Relevant issues (problems) and assumptions(givens) are considered. Action elements may beassociated with goals or issues.

One purpose of working within a goal-drivenframework is to make sure that consensus has beenreached on the results to be achieved. Thendiscussion can focus on the best ways to achievethose results. This approach helps avoid the trap ofautomatically designing one's favorite medium orprogram without considering desired outcomes.

Goal-driven planning matches approaches used bythe Park Service to comply with the GovernmentPerformance and Results Act (GPRA), whichrequires setting goals and reporting results. Someterminology may differ (this document uses goalsmore than GPRA outcomes), and interpretiveplanning has less stringent requirements forreporting quantitative results. However, goals andrecommendations developed in interpretiveplanning workshops will be compatible with parkstrategic plans developed under GPRA guidelines.

9PURPOSEPurpose statements describe why an area was set aside,and what are the purposes of the area today. Legislation,legislative history, public participation, articles ofincorporation, and agency rulemaking can provide thebasis for purpose statements. From these, the planningteam derives clear, concise, and relevant purposestatements.

Purposes may have been developed for a generalmanagement or strategic plan; these may then beincorporated.

ExamplesPark Purposes: Petroglyph National Monument

Preserve the integrity of the cultural and naturalresources in the context that gives them meaning.

Provide opportunities for diverse groups tounderstand, appreciate, and experience the monumentin ways that are compatible with the monument'ssignificance.

Cooperate with affected American Indians and landgrant heirs in perpetuation of their heritage.

Function as a focal point for collection, analysis, anddissemination of information relating to Rio Grandestyle and other forms of petroglyphs and pictographs.

The first two statements above elaborate on thetraditional purposes of preservation and enjoyment. Thethird recognizes the necessity of involving the creatorsof the petroglyphs, their ancestors, and other traditionalusers of the area. The fourth expresses language in theenabling legislation.

It is important to note that additional purposes mayhave emerged since an area was originally set aside.Cabrillo National Monument is one example: theoriginal purpose for the park was to commemorate theexplorations of Cabrillo. Note the additional purposestatements below.

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Park Purposes: Cabrillo National Monument

Protect an opportunity for visitors to experience,feel, and understand the complex andinspirational human and environmentalinterrelationships visible from Point Loma.

Commemorate Cabrillo as a representative ofEuropean exploration of the California coast.

Preserve a remnant of the southern Californiacoastal environmental processes.

The first and third purposes were derived from theaddition of lands and activities after the monumentwas created. These statements confirm that theseresources and experiences are central to the currentreason for the park to exist.

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SIGNIFICANCESignificance statements describe the importance ordistinctiveness of the area. These statements are basedon resource inventories, but are more than an inventory.Significance statements may exist in area legislation,legislative histories, scientific and historical studies, orgeneral management or strategic plans; the planningteam needs to revisit these and update or clarify them ifnecessary.

ExamplesPark Significance: Petroglyph National Monument

The monument contains one of the largestconcentrations of petroglyphs in North America andrepresents an extensive record of peoples for whom wehave few written records.

The monument has outstanding research potentialbecause the petroglyphs are numerous, have retainedtheir integrity, are an outstanding example of RioGrande style, and are close to other associatedarcheological resources.

Places in the monument have traditional and culturalimportance to American Indians and Atrisco landgrant heirs.

The Piedras Marcadas pueblo ruin is one of the largestpueblos of its time period in the Rio Grande valley.

The monument's natural and cultural landscape(escarpment, volcanic cones, and surrounding openspace) and long vistas are major elements that defineAlbuquerque's western horizon and provideopportunities to experience contrasts with a growingurban environment.

Park Significance: Cabrillo National Monument

The park contains one of the very few accessibleexamples of intertidal communities and chaparralcommunities representative of the southern Californiacoastal environment.

The views from the park contain natural and culturalresources in juxtaposition (military operations,wildlife, San Diego, landforms, remnant naturalcommunities, harbor, and shipping)

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that illustrate human and environmentalinterrelationships.

The park is located within view of the area where thefirst European landfall occurred on the California coast.

Note that significance statements resembleinterpretive themes, but may be larger in scope.Significance statements can lead directly to themes.

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INTERPRETIVE THEMESThemes are often described as the key stories orconcepts that visitors should understand after visiting apark. Themes provide the foundation for all interpretiveprograms and media developed in the park. They tellinterpreters and designers what are the most importantideas or stories. They do not include everything we maywish to interpret, but they do cover those ideas that arecritical to visitors= understanding of a park=ssignificance.

There are many approaches to the mechanics of writinginterpretive themes. Since visitors are seldom exposed tothe themes exactly as written, it matters less whichmethods are used than whether they work. The goal is toproduce themes that are understandable, concise, andcomplete thoughts, that are the most important ideasfor that area. Equally knowledgeable readers ought toget roughly the same impressions from reading thethemes (this standard is important when consideringhow much detail to provide). It is important that there isgeneral consensus about the content and form of thethemeswhether they be one sentence or oneparagraph, or if they are hierarchical (themes andsubthemes) or prioritized.

Themes can help organize media, facility, and visitorexperience discussions by considering the question,"Where and how will we interpret these themes?@ Sincepark visitors are usually engaged in recreationalpursuits, interpretation of themes is most successfulwhen supported by appropriate and enjoyable activitiesand settings.

Themes should be complete thoughts; it is helpful towrite them in complete sentences. Their emotional orevocative content can vary. However, to be effective,themes need not be Agrabbers@. Themes tell us what tointerpret, not how. It is more the task of interpreters andmedia designers to make them compelling.

Many planners have adopted Acompelling stories@ assubstitutes or supplements to themes. For more on usingcompelling stories, see An Introduction to CompellingStories (National Park Service, 1995).

Themes are oftendescribed as the keystories or con-cepts thatvisitors shouldunderstand aftervisiting a park. Themesprovide the foundationfor all inter-pretiveprograms and mediadeveloped in the park.

The goal is to producethemes that are under-standable, concise, andcomplete thoughts, thatare the most importantideas for that area.

Themes can helporganize media, facility,and visitor experiencediscussions byconsidering thequestion, "Where andhow will we interpretthese themes?@

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Examples:Underground Railroad Special Resource Study(1995)

An escape from slavery on theUnderground Railroad was an individualeffort as well as a cooperative efforttranscending racial and culturalboundaries.

Zion National Park Interpretive Plan (1996)

Zion National Park: nowhere else onearth do the three processes of deposition,uplift, and erosion come together in suchintimate and scenic fashion.

Natchez National Historical Park InterpretivePlan (1994)

Based on a cotton economy and a slavelabor system, Natchez served as thesymbolic capital of the cotton kingdom.

The following example shows a hierarchicalapproach to themes.

Brown v. Board of Education NHS GMP/IP (1996)

The Effects

The 1955 Brown II decision, which directed statesto implement the Brown decision AAwith alldeliberate speed,@@ was met with varyingresponses throughout the country; althoughprogress has been made since then in many areas,racial inequality of educational opportunitycontinues today.

Racial segregation as an official policy at anylevel of American education was to have endedsoon after the Brown II decision, which in May1955 implemented the May 17, 1954, Brown Idecision.

Segregation did not end with the Brown IIdecision. Many states and localities, especially inthe South, either evaded or refused to complywith the Supreme Court edict.

De facto segregation in education continuestoday in many areas, influenced by factors such

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as economics, settlement patterns, and racial prejudice.Current issues include corrective measures such asmandatory busing and magnetschools, neighborhoodschools, the fairness of funding sources such asproperty taxes, the advisability of vouchers, and manyissues relating to curricula. Racial discrimination,with all attendant issues, perspectives, andramifications, also continues today.

Stories (Theme 2):

Reactions by public officials to the Brown decision;examples of delays and subversion of the intent of thedecision by public officials, mostly in the South (e.g., someschools in Virginia closed rather than integrate).

Some results of the implementation of desegregation were,in the short term, negative. Integration sometimes nega-tively affected discipline in schools and loweredexpectations of student performance.

Current educational issues including busing, bilingualeducation, magnet schools, prayer, vouchers, and de factosegregation.

Note that there are four levels to Brown v. Boardthemes: a topic (The Effects), a summary themestatement (The 1955 Brown II decision, ...), severalrelated subthemes (Racial segregation as an officialpolicy ...), and examples of interpretive stories.Topics help a reader get a quick idea of the scope ofthe themes. The theme statement summarizes theconcept. Subthemes zero in on specific aspects of thegeneral concept, and can add texture, explanation,perspective, and detail. Interpretive stories aresuggested for media designers and interpreters.

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VISITOR EXPERIENCE

few visitors come to parksjust to learn information. Visitorex-perience goals describeopportunities for visitors toderive meanings and valuesfrom park resources andexperiences.

Visitor Experience is a resource.

Noel Poe,Superintendent, Theodore

Roosevelt NM

Interpretive planning describes visitor experienceopportunities. We cannot require that visitorsengage in these activities, learn these facts, noticethese feelings, or marvel at this vista. But we doidentify the important experiences that should beavailable.

Important visitor experiences may deal withemotions, impressions, relationships, or othersubjective elements that may be difficult to expressin a linear or objective manner. They are nonethelessessential. Do not let perceived "fuzziness" or lack ofspecificity prevent you from describing importantvisitor experiences. But all experiences should relateto park purpose, significance, and desired outcomes.

There are many ways to describe key visitorexperiences; here are two.

Visitor Experience GoalsThe planning team lists the important experiencesthat should be available to visitors. Experiencesinclude knowledge, attitudes, behavior, and sensoryexperiences. The knowledge portion is covered byinterpretive themes. But don=t stop there; fewvisitors come to parks just to learn information.Visitor experience goals describe opportunities forvisitors to derive meanings and values from parkresources and experiences.

ExamplesBlue Ridge Music Center IP

The National Park Service will provide opportunities forvisitors to:

learn information and stories associated withmajor interpretive themes, and other relatedinformation, to the depth that they choose, andthrough a variety of media

listen to a wide variety of traditional music of theBlue Ridge, including pieces of their choice, andincluding both live and recorded music

become acquainted with musicians from the regionwhose backgrounds, life histories and artistry

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illustrate important themes in the history and/orperpetuation of music traditions in the Blue Ridge

participate in informal music and dance activities at thesite

learn about and attend musical and related activities inthe area

have an enjoyable recreational experience withoutimpairing the natural and cultural values of the site

be oriented to and participate in recreational activitiesalong the Blue Ridge Parkway.

Keweenaw NHP GMP/IP

Opportunities will be provided for visitors and area residents to

understand Keweenaw's natural, cultural, andindustrial history, and be able to relate it to the broaderscope of American experience

explore the diversity of Keweenaw's cultural resourcesand be inspired to participate in perpetuating the area'sheritage

obtain information necessary to safely, enjoyably, andeasily visit Keweenaw's cultural and natural features,visitor facilities, activities, and services

acknowledge Keweenaw National Historical Park as animportant national park area preserving andinterpreting nationally significant resources

understand the economic, environmental, and socialeffects of the Keweenaw copper industry and wisely use,develop, and preserve natural resources in the future

understand C&H's magnitude, complexity, andcreativity, and appreciate the corporation'scontributions to the community, the copper industry,and the nation

understand Quincy Mining Company's role as a typicalexample of the rural industrial setting of many coppercountry mines

experience current and historic lifestyles of the region tounderstand similarities and differences betweencontemporary and historic people

It is hard to see, however,how preservationists andenviron-mentalists canexpect to win the externalthreats battle withoutincluding visitor experienceas one of the most importantthreatened park values.

John Freemuth (1991)

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Goals lead directly tointerpretive media, activities orfacilities; they help plannersdecide among various optionsfor activities and media; andthey help designers craftspecific approaches to mediaand facilities.

participate in a diversity of activities appropriatefor audiences with differing levels of interest,understanding, and sophistication

receive current, accurate, and balancedinformation that presents all viewpoints andbeliefs regarding the area's people, technology andresources

understand that Keweenaw's cultural landscape isthe product of prehistoric, historic, and continuingchanges in natural and cultural environments

participate in an integrated interpretive programdeveloped cooperatively by the National ParkService and other visitor service providers to offera complete, balanced Keweenaw visitor experience

Goals lead directly to interpretive media, activitiesor facilities; they help planners decide amongvarious options for activities and media; and theyhelp designers craft specific approaches to mediaand facilities.

Visitor experience goals are similar to GPRA long-range goals; in some cases they may be the same.Visitor experience goals describe opportunities andtargets rather than achievement; they don=t have tobe measured to be useful.

Visitor Experience StatementAnother approach is to describe visitor experiencesin a narrative format. This may allow more attentionto shadings and nuances than the listing of goals asabove. It may not be as clear and concise, however.

Example

Lakota Tatanka Heritage Park (Concept Plan)

"The Experience" is what visitors take from apark. Lakota Tatanka offers a multifacetedexperience: cultural, educational and recreational.A cross-cultural experience awaits both nationaland international travelers. European, Asiatic,and American tourists will mingle and sharecultures with the Sioux Indians, in a forumdesigned to foster harmony and admirationbetween races and individuals. If you cannot knowa man until you have walked in his shoes, thenhere is where the path begins. Each visitor is allowed

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to seek his or her own level of intimacy with the prairieand the Lakota culture.

As the visitors travel through the park to the visitorcenter, they are exposed to the vastness of the prairiewith an occasional but exciting glimpse of the buffalo,an elk, or even perhaps a band of Lakota people crossingthe prairie. When they reach the visitor center, they areexposed to enjoyable learning experiences designed toenrich the minds of all age levels and culturalbackgrounds. These learning experiences focus on thethree elements that form the management objectives ofthe park. Viewed in their proper context, these threeelements are seen as the interdependent legs of afoundation that supports and is the reason for the park.First is the prairie which nurtures a vast array of plantsand animals. Second are the Sioux Indians, the Lakotapeople who lived and developed their culture as thebeneficiaries of this landscape. And last is the parkmanagement program itself, a program which re-enactsthe traditional Sioux culture and preserves the prairie,all as a self-sustaining natural, cultural, and economicsystem.

Combining the two approaches may be an effective wayto describe desired visitor experiences in ways that areboth specific and evocative.

Whatever approach is chosen, it is vital that aninterpretive plan describe the visitor experienceopportunities that should be provided. It is then the job ofthe planning team to recommend generally how andwhere those opportunities are to be provided.

... it is vital that aninterpretive plan describethe visitor experience op-portunities that should beprovided. It is then thejob of the planning teamto recommend generallyhow and where thoseoppor-tunities are to beprovided.

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GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

There are many methods andcriteria for writing objectives;pick the ap-proach that is mostuseful for identifying andachieving desirable out-comes.

An important criterion formeasurability is specificity: wecan measure the achievement ofalmost any goal or objective thatis described in enough detail.

It may be helpful to firstconsider what are desiredoutcomes, then consider how toassess their achievement. Thatway, important outcomeswould not be left out due to thedifficulty of measurement. If, onthe other hand, themeasurability criterion is usedearly as a "screen-out factor" forobjectives, one can end up withobjectives that are measurablebut not too important.

Planners will find many uses for goals andobjectives in addition to the visitor experience goalspreviously described. In this document goals areseen as long-range and general descriptions ofdesired outcomes, while objectives are more shortrange, measurable, and specific outcomes.Objectives are often useful when discussing desiredoutcomes for specific media, facilities, or programs.There are many methods and criteria for writingobjectives; pick the approach that is most useful foridentifying and achieving desirable outcomes.

You may have considered these questions:

When should I write goals, and when to useobjectives?

Generally, objectives are nested within goals.Planning teams should be able to articulate bothgoals and objectives. For example, the rehabilitationof an exhibit room may require consideration ofoverall interpretation and visitor experience goalsfor the park and for the visitor center. More specificgoals could be prepared for the exhibits. Specificobjectives would describe desired outcomes for eachexhibit element.

Should they be measurable?

Objectives, sure. If you=re writing GPRA goals, theyhad better be measurable. For visitor experiencegoals, assessing achievement may use lessquantitative means (judgement, observation,impressions, examples) since the goals themselvesare more general and long-term. Assessingachievement costs in time, money, and attention;more statistically rigorous methods tend to costmore. Benefits and costs of alternative assessmentstrategies should be weighed.

An important criterion for measurability isspecificity: we can measure the achievement ofalmost any goal or objective that is described inenough detail.

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It may be helpful to first consider what are desiredoutcomes, then consider how to assess their achievement.That way, important outcomes would not be left out dueto the difficulty of measurement. If, on the other hand,the measurability criterion is used early as a "screen-outfactor" for objectives, one can end up with objectives thatare measurable but not too important.

There are several methods for writing objectives; whichis the best?

Once again, the best way is the one that works. To work,the writer and the team must be comfortable with themethod, and the audiences (e.g., designers, park staff,partners, central office personnel) must understand whatthe writer means.

You can specify percentages (e.g., 50% of the visitors whodrive to an overlook will get out of their cars and look at awayside exhibit), follow GPRA specifications, orotherwise indicate expected achievement (e.g., most willstay to the end of the video program; vandalism will berare). It may be useful to identify more specific amountsor degrees of achievement after having worked with aprogram, issue, or interpretive medium for awhile. Forexample a visitor center goal may start as "most visitorswill go into the exhibit room," and become "at least 60% ofvisitors will spend at least five minutes in the exhibitroom" as data is collected and baselines and patternsestablished.

What are some examples of goals and objectives?

Seldom Seen Mine Special Study

After a trip to Seldom Seen Mine, visitors will be able todescribe the differences and similarities between a family-runoperation and a large-scale, corporate operation and to describethe physical characteristics of surface and underground mining.

Rocky Mountain NP SFI (1995)

Interpretive Goals

Visitors have the opportunity throughout the year to becomeoriented to park facilities, services, and resources.

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... the best way is the one thatworks.

Visitors have available a spectrum of programs, facilities,and media that collectively:

represent all park themes through the "compellingstory"

meet the interest and educational level of allsegments of the visiting public.

Interpretive Objectives

Of the adult visitors leaving the park, 80% willconfirm they received adequate information topermit safe, efficient, and enjoyable visits.

Of the adult visitors leaving the park, 75% canname three management measures used to reduceimpacts to park resources.

Hopewell Culture LRIP (1997)

Visitor Experience Objectives Exhibits

Interpret those stories best told with exhibits

Provide access to representative and significant types ofartifacts, while protecting the integrity of the artifacts

Help visitors imagine, understand, and wonder aboutHopewell life

Provide experiences that are interesting and accessible fordiverse audiences, including children, visitors withdisabilities, elderly, and international visitors

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VISITORSPlanning for visitors includes identifying audiencesegments, considering motivations and expectations, andprojecting and predicting trends. Visitors are individuals;but describing major visitor groups yields potentiallyuseful approximations. Targeting groups such aselementary school students, family vacationers, interstatetravelers, backcountry users, or beach users enablesplanners to better identify and serve primary audiences.

It is also important to identify those who aren=t coming tothe park, and ask if there are issues of access oropportunity. The planning team may consider ways toreach out to previously uninvolved audiences.

Planning has moved beyond constructing an averageprofile and labeling him "the visitor". Real park visitorsdiffer in many ways: age, gender, ethnic backgrounds,expectations, types of groups, frequency of visits,socioeconomic status, education, and knowledge. Not alldifferences are significant. Time, money, and patienceusually prevent audience analysis in exhaustive detail,but the major segments and relevant differences shouldbe described. Planners and designers should try to matchvisitor diversity with experiences suited to the majorgroups represented (as well as matching experiences toresource conditions, fragility, and accessibility).

Think about addressing the following questions aboutvisitors in your interpretive plan:

How many people visit the area? in what patterns(daily, weekly, seasonally, yearly, ...)? How longdo they stay?

Where do they come from?

Why do they come? What are they interested in?What do they expect from their visit? What dothey know about your area, resources, stories,regulations, opportunities, etc.?

How accessible is your area to differentpopulations of potential visitors? How do

Planning has movedbeyond constructing anaverage profile andlabeling him "the visitor."

We know more about thebison in Yellowstone thanwe do about its visitors.

Participant in an NPSplanning workshop.

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Research costs are often directlyproportionate to the confidencelevel of the results, so managersand planning teams need todecide how much accuracy youare willing to pay for.

different groups feel about visiting your area?Who is not coming, and why?

How do visitors feel and what do they think aboutyour resources, experiences, facilities, and staff?

There are many practical considerations regardinginformation about visitors. For each interpretiveplan, you need to decide:

What information do we need about visitors (seelist above)? Which information is the mostimportant? Why do we need it (how will it beused)?

How accurate does it need to be?

How will we get that information?

The second questionhow accurate should theinformation beshould be addressed beforedetermining how you will get that information. Auseful concept here is the confidence level: theprobability that the conclusions represent reality.A university researcher submitting a thesis or apaper to a professional journal might choose a 95%confidence level, whereas an agency decision makermight settle for somewhat less. Research costs areoften directly proportionate to the confidence levelof the results, so managers and planning teams needto decide how much accuracy you are willing to payfor.

We can often get valuable information about andfrom visitors at very little cost. Watch them. Counthow long people look at an exhibit. Count howmany go in the auditorium or stop at a waysideexhibit. Record license plates. Plot attendancepatterns. Talk to visitors.

Approval by the Office of Management and Budget(OMB) may be required for federal agencies to useappropriated funds to formally interview or surveyvisitors. Approval generally will be granted forlegitimate research that has some thought behind itand is intended for specific purposes.

Most discussions with visitors do not require OMBapproval. You canAND SHOULDtalk to yourvisitors. Asking "which exhibits did you like thebest?" and "what was it that appealed to you?" can

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reveal patterns and indicate effectiveness, while being anenjoyable conversation for visitors and not requiringapproval. Perspectives on visitors by front-line staff areespecially important to the planning process.

Federal agency planning teams should check with agencyresearchers for procedures and regulations governingvisitor interviews and surveys. Social scientists can givevaluable advice on setting up an area's researchprograms. OMB approval is not required if federal fundsare not used in the survey; some parks have gotten goodinformation in surveys conducted by cooperatingassociations or friends groups.

It is tempting for a planner or manager to makeassumptions about visitors based on his/her personalityand outlook. But managers, planners, and other resourceprofessionals may be demographically (andpsychographically: attitudes, beliefs, values, preferences,etc.) different from most Americans in several ways. Weshould learn about visitors by observing and conversingwith them. We should study the social science researchthat has already been done. We should apply what welearn to planning decisions. Important questions shouldbe addressed by professional researchers.

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RESOURCES

Humans impact natural andcultural resources in many waysboth positive and negative.Influencing visitor behaviorrequires more attention toattitude and behavior changethan do more traditionalinterpretive efforts.

Most interpretive plans describe significant parkresources, ways of experiencing those resources,and associated interpretive stories. The degree ofdetail will vary. Too little detail can lead toambiguity and misinterpretation by readers; toomuch detail might obscure the main points of theplan and discourage some readers.

Resource descriptions should usually includeassessments. These can summarize what weknow about the health of park and regionalecosystems, habitats, species, and cultural, social,and recreational resources. Resource conditionscan then be related to visitor experiences.

There are three aspects of resources that areespecially important for interpretive planningteams:

> What are the primary resourcesand thestories and values associated with themthatwe want to interpret, provide access to, andprotect? What are the characteristics,conditions, changes, influences, andrelationships?

> What are desired future resource conditions?

> What are the visitor behaviors that affect theseresources, how do they affect them, and howcan we influence behavior to help meet ourmission and achieve our goals?

The first aspect stresses the importance of theplanning team obtaining sufficient knowledge ofthe present state of important area resources.The planning team should know the resourcesthat make the area significant and attractive.These resources include visitors; visitor safetyshould be a concern for every interpretiveprogram.

It is important for the planning team to know thesecond aspect of resources in an interpretiveplan the desired resource conditions. Thesemay come from other sources, such as resourcemanagement plans, or consulting with resourcespecialists. The team needs to describe howvisitors can be involved in meeting those resourcegoals.

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The third aspect, resource-related visitor behavior,describes how interpretation and visitor experience areinvolved in getting from the first aspect (present resourceconditions) to the second aspect (future desiredconditions). All three aspects of resource planning arebecoming more important as populations grow,participation in recreational activities grows, habitats andcorridors shrink, public budgets are stretched, and manynatural and cultural resources become more rare. Becausethis involves some new approaches and skills, we shalldevote some attention to the subject of resource-relatedvisitor behavior.

Humans impact natural and cultural resources in manyways both positive and negative. Influencing visitorbehavior requires more attention to attitude and behaviorchange than do more traditional interpretive efforts.

Examples of resource-related behavior:

> hiking on or off trails

> wildlife viewing, studying, feeding, disturbing, orpoaching; plant viewing, studying, or collecting

> vandalism or respectful enjoyment of resources

> thoughtless and dangerous behavior, or careful andsafe behavior

> public involvement (social, political, and economic), orlack of interest about or opposition to resource goals

> sustainable or destructive visitor experiences

> land developments or habitat preservation outsideprotected areas

> compliance with or violations of regulations andpolicies

Influencing resource-related behaviors requiresmanagement and communication strategies that relate tothe ways that people form their attitudes and beliefs, howthose attitudes and beliefs relate to behaviors, and howdecisions about behavior are made. Traditionalinterpretive approaches can be enhanced byunderstanding the salient attitudes and beliefs thatsupport visitor behavior, employing

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Influencing resource-relatedbehaviors requires managementand com-munication strategiesthat relate to the ways thatpeople form their attitudes andbeliefs, how those attitudes andbeliefs relate to behaviors, andhow decisions about behaviorare made.

targeted communication strategies, and providingspecifically-designed recreational experiences.

Roggenbuck (in Manfredo, 1992) discusses threeoverlapping ways to manage resource impacts:

> Applied behavior analysis: overt visitorbehavior is linked with rewards or punishment;includes law enforcement, competitions andother incentives, area closures, activityrestrictions

> Central route to persuasion: changes in beliefs,attitudes, and behavior are brought aboutthrough interpretive programs and media,personal contacts, and publicity, where thepersuasive messages are direct and overt

> Peripheral route to persuasion: the recipient isconsciously unaware of the messages; whichmay be expressed through facility, media, andprogram design, social and environmentalsettings, and rhetorical devices such as cognitivedissonance or storytelling

Interpretive planning plays an essential role in allthree approaches. A goal-driven approachcommonly starts with developing, reviewing, orconfirming resource goals (depending on howcurrent and accurate they are). Then the planningteam identifies which behaviors significantly impactresourcesboth positively and negatively. This isan important point because most discussion ofvisitor impacts on resources has emphasizednegative impacts: walking off trails, feeding ordisturbing wildlife, stealing or defacing culturalresources, disturbing the experiences of othervisitors. However, positive impacts may be aspowerful in protecting resources. Examples includepolitical support, following regulations, volunteeractivities, habitat enhancement outside protectedareas, demonstrating safe and minimum-impactbehaviors, and telling your neighbor about what agreat time you had and how fragile are thepetroglyphs or whorled pogonias.

Once resource-related behaviors and experiences areidentified, the planning team can consideralternatives for encouraging or discouraging eachbehavior (you will not have time to deal with allbehaviors; just tackle the important ones). Each

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visitor-related resource protection issue may have at leasttwo associated behaviors: most visitors do the right thing(and we want to encourage more of that) and othervisitors do the wrong thing (and that we want tominimize). For example, walking off trails is an issue inmany natural and cultural resource areas. The behaviorwe want to encourage is staying on the trail; the one todiscourage is straying off the trail. Both deserve attention.

While addressing resource-related behavior issues, thereare several important points to consider:

> Management and communication approaches willwork better the more they are targeted to specificbehaviors by specific audiences.

> Treatments will often work best when placed at thetime and place where behavior options are firstconsidered. For trail shortcutting, that might mean asmall sign or wayside exhibit and a roving ranger atthe first shortcut. For wildlife feeding, that mightmean pre-visit publicity when the group first thinksabout bringing food to feed wildlife (which oftenmeans at home) and a wayside and roving ranger atthe first point where freeloading wildlife can be found.

> Since audiences are diverse, a variety of approachesare needed to deal with the most significant behaviors.

> Management and communication programs can work:common methods such as wayside exhibits, rovingrangers, area closures, and environmental educationhave shown positive results; skillful and targetedapproaches (based on research) will give even morepositive results than more general efforts.

> Attitude change works best as a long-range strategy,and is especially effective with 8-12 year old visitors instructured environmental education programs.

> Most visitors will comply with visitor use guidelinesand restrictions if they are clearly articulated andjustified, and if there are alternatives available thatmeet their objectives or motivations.

> Much more research is needed. We also need touse existing research and make it more accessible.

Management and com-munication approacheswill work better the morethey are targeted tospecific behaviors byspecific audiences.

Since audiences arediverse, a variety ofapproaches are needed todeal with the mostsignificant behaviors.

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SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE

Interpretation helps vis-itorsmove from tangible experiencesto under-standing systems,relation-ships, processes, andmeanings.

Insuring that our inter-pretationis relevant and contemporaryrequires frequent reevaluationof existing facts, identification ofnew sources, con-sideration fordifferent points of view, andreconsideration of past themes.

Planners work on a variety of projects which involvemany types of resources, stories, and subject matterareas. No one can be an expert in all areas; butplanners must be willing to learn what is importantfor each project. This involves learning not onlyimportant facts, but procedures, methodologies, andrules of evidence as well.

Resources can include: beams and bricks from anold Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls; geysers, hotsprings and fumeroles in Wyoming; an appleorchard in Zion Canyon; petroglyphs at Saguaro;tide pool denizens at Acadia; a Navajo rug and itscreator at Hubbell Trading Post; a tall grass prairiein Kansas; a cornfield at Antietam; solitude in theMojave desert; words to an old spiritual, "Follow theDrinking Gourd"; recollections of a brass banddrummer who played with Sidney Bechet in NewOrleans; and a cracked bell in Philadelphia.

Interpretation helps visitors move from tangibleexperiences to understanding systems, relationships,processes, and meanings. An interpretive plan maysuggest how history can be narrated to showmultiple perspectives and the relationships ofevents, and encourage visitors to derive personalmeanings. A plan may provide guidance on howscience is explained to allow visitors to understandcausal and functional relationships, alternativehypotheses, and the nature of evidence. Gainingthese insights involves research, critical examinationof evidence, selection of facts, and synthesis of thesefacts into meaningful interpretive narratives.

Interpretation is not just a collection of static facts;rather it seeks to provide visitors with a betterappreciation and understanding of resources andexperiences. Insuring that our interpretation isrelevant and contemporary requires frequentreevaluation of existing facts, identification of newsources, consideration for different points of view,and reconsideration of past themes. Culturalresource specialists attempt to answer the classicalquestions of who, what, why, when, and how, byorganizing known facts into illuminating orprovocative patterns.

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Scientists ask questions about processes, relationships,causes, and effects. Through these examinations and theacquisition of new knowledge every generation hasrefined research methodology and subsequently changedthe interpretation of our natural and cultural resources.

Humans decide what is worth knowing about our worldand our past. One way to determine what is worthknowing is to follow Freeman Tilden's principle ofpresenting interpretation that relates to visitors'experiences. How did today's society develop? How did anatural landscape develop? What are the human roles inthe "natural" world? What in our past holds meaning forus individually? as children? as women? as men? asAmericans? as American Indians? as descendants ofimmigrants or of the enslaved? as laborers? as businessowners?

Many national park visitors hope to learn somethingabout themselves and the world they live in. Somevisitors seek to affirm or supplement what they learned inschool. Some are looking for confirmation of some part oftheir heritage or spirit. Equipped with accurate facts,subject matter experts, interpreters, and visitors canopenly discuss the significance and diverse meanings ofthe petroglyphs, tide pool denizens, log cabins, geysers,and words to the old spiritual. Good interpretation canexpand our collective sense of ourselves and our world byexploring the values of our cultural and natural resourcesfrom different perspectives.

In planning for the interpretation of our parks we mustchallenge ourselves to gain the knowledge of visitors andother resources that will allow us to facilitate links amongthem.

Sound research methodology can help planners:

> present accurate messages

> present balanced and complete messages

> present single objects (e.g., organism, place, person,event) within larger contexts (e.g., ecosystem,landscape, community, period)

Ideally, interpretation helpsus gain not just knowledgebut that rare and moreprecious commodity,wisdom. Interpretation doesnot just inform us butpushes us to a deeper andmore subtle under-standingof some aspect of the worldaround us.

- Kenneth Ames (1992)

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> provide an understanding for the evolution ofthought as it relates to a specific place, organism,object, or event

> present multiple perspectives, voices, andinterpretations

> select and analyze evidence

> deal with contradictory evidence

> deal with controversial issues and themes

> use different models or methodologies forinterpreting evidence

> identify connections among processes and events

> find original and secondary sources

Resource specialists, interpreters, and planners havevaluable roles to play in offering the public highquality interpretation through personal services andmedia. Interpreters and planners who develop andpresent messages with solid scholarship can beconfident of their ability to interpret our natural andcultural resources in all of their dynamic,enlightening, inspirational, liberating, contradictory,empowering, and humanizing forms.

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RECOMMENDATIONSInterpretive planning teams recommend ways to meetpark goals through interpretive media, facilities, andactivities, and through direct experiences with resources.These are not prescriptions; many recommendations arelikely to be modified in the design process. Allmodifications should meet the original goals. Goals maybe modified, but this should be a formal process andincorporate all stakeholders.

Recommendations should constitute the most costeffective means of achieving desired outcomes. Whetheror not a formal value analysis is conducted, alternativesshould be considered, choices should be based oncomparisons of benefits and costs, and decisions andrationales should be documented.

Interpretive MediaInterpretive media selection is as much art as science.There is rarely only one way to achieve a goal. Involvingspecialists in key media is highly recommended. Eachsituation has its own particular mix of factors to consider.Some of the most important elements in a media decisionare: message, audience, and resources.

Message

What is to be communicated affects the method ofcommunication, and vice-versa. Is the message simple orcomplex? Is it an abstract concept that can only bepresented verbally or are there graphic components? Doesthe concept require a specific sequence or chronology tobe understood? Is it helpful or necessary to involve manysenses? How can we make the messages attractive?compelling? relevant? What priority does this informationhave in relation to the overall interpretive program?Should the message be experienced in addition toorrather thanlearned didactically? What are the desiredoutcomes of this communication?

Audience

The audience must be able to access and comprehend theinformation. What knowledge and expectations are theylikely to have when they arrive at the site? How muchtime do they have? When would this

Recommendationsshould constitute themost cost effective meansof achieving desired out-comes.

What is to be com-municated affects themethod ofcommunication, and vice-versa.

The audience must beable to access andcomprehend theinformation. The moredetailed the audienceprofile, the easier it is toselect appropriate media.

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The quality and quantity ofresources available to supportmedia devel-opment will notonly affect the kind of mediaselected, but may determine thefeasibility and cost ofproduction.

information be most useful: before, during, or afterexperiencing the resource? What primarylanguages? literacy patterns? ages? group types?What are their motivations for coming to the site?Are there cultural differences to take into account?What physical abilities do they have? The moredetailed the audience profile, the easier it is to selectappropriate media.

ResourcesThe quality and quantity of resources available tosupport media development will not only affect thekind of media selected, but may determine thefeasibility and cost of production. Are therelandscape elements to support the message? Arethey accessible? How much information is availableon the selected subject? Has the accuracy of theinformation been certified? Are there additionalperspectives that should be interpreted? Are qualityphotographs and other graphic elements availableand can the proper use rights be obtained? Does themessage rely heavily on the use of artifacts and arethese artifacts extant and available? Can the artifactsbe adequately protected while on display? Whatkind of budget can be projected?

Common types of media used to deliver interpretivemessages include audiovisual products, museumexhibits, wayside exhibits, publications, andpersonal services. Each has qualities which make itmore or less suitable for a given application. Some ofthe recognized strengths and limitations of eachmedium are listed below. Note that these aregeneralizations; exceptions can usually be found.

Audiovisual MediaAdvantages> well suited to the presentation of chronological

and sequential material

> can capture realism and provide emotionalimpact

> provide opportunities for dramatization

> can be portable for off-site use

> provide views of places, animals, plants, andseasons otherwise unavailable or inaccessible

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> can create a mood or atmosphere

> can reach many visitors at one time

> can be adapted to serve physically impaired visitors

> can illustrate before and after effects

> can be produced in different languages

Limitations> cannot be used everywhere

> require back-up equipment, periodic maintenance,and regular monitoring

> may be perceived as sterile or impersonal

> may offer little opportunity for visitors to browse orstudy an item in depth or at their own pace

> repetitious sound tracks can annoy visitor center staff

> may be a visual or auditory intrusion

> production and maintenance costs can be expensive

> people usually have high expectations of audiovisualmedia; low-budget products can fall short ofexpectations

ExhibitsAdvantages> can be viewed at visitors' own paces

> can be designed in all shapes, sizes, colors, andtextures

> can display objects associated with the site

> can incorporate artifacts, artwork, or mixed media toproduce desired atmosphere and effects

> can transcend language and cultural barriers

> can promote the use of the senses to aid the perceptionof the able-bodied and handicapped visitor alike

> can promote visitor participation

> can be designed for both indoor and outdoor use

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> are well suited for ideas which can be illustratedgraphically

> permanent exhibits can be grouped withrotating, seasonal, or temporary displays toprovide a sense of change

> can provide experiences of varying complexity,allowing visitors to select the depth they choose

Limitations> are sensitive to agents of deterioration

> require security and maintenance

> must be housed in adequate facilities

> do not work well to tell largely verbal, complex,or sequential stories

> exhibit materials may have high commercialvalue, making them targets for theft

> can be very expensive

> inexpensive exhibits may look amateurish, andare usually less effective than higher-quality (andmore expensive) productions

> technology and materials can overwhelm themessage

Personal ServicesAdvantages> direct human to human communication is often

more enjoyable to visitors than communicationby impersonal media

> can easily be customized to meet visitor needs orchanging conditions

> can use group/visitor reactions to stimulateinterest

> can be interactive

> may be monitored and changed accordingly

> tap diverse skills of interpreters

> versatile, effective, and relatively easy toimplement

> can be cost effective, especially in the short term

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> can convey complex messages, and help visitorsconnect tangibles and intangibles to universalconcepts

Limitations> require well-trained interpreters

> may not give consistent messages

> require close supervision and management

> can be difficult and expensive to maintain year round

> high recurring costs

> can be difficult to critique properly

PublicationsAdvantages> are portable

> can treat a subject in-depth

> provide a source of detailed reference information

> can be produced in different languages

> suited to presenting sequential or complex material

> can be read at visitors' own pace

> can produce income

> can often be revised at a reasonable cost

> can be produced at various levels of detail

> have value as a souvenir, something to take home

> can be used before going to a site, during the visit, orafter returning home

> can be produced to treat the same subject for differentaudiences

> may be appropriate for stories lacking in artifacts orphotographs

Limitations> can discourage potential readers with lengthy and/or

complex texts

> can be a source of litter

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> require periodic revision to remain current andaccurate

> may require facilities and maintenance (such asbrochure dispensers)

Wayside ExhibitsAdvantages> can be available 24 hours a day

> use real objects and features in their own settingas objects of interpretation

> are relatively inexpensive

> can be designed to blend with site environment

> provide onsite interpretation of specific sites andstories

> can depict a place as it appeared many yearsbefore

> can show a feature from a view unattainable byvisitors

> can illustrate phenomena that are invisiblyaffecting a resource

> establish a park identity at remote, unstaffedlocations

> alert visitors to safety or resource managementissues at the point of danger, decision, orenvironmental impact

> can be replaced relatively quickly andinexpensively

Limitations> limited amount of text and graphics per panel

> don't work well for complicated subject matter

> focus attention on tangible resources; lesseffective with intangibles and universal concepts

> may intrude on a parks visual landscape

> may not be practical at sites with climatic orenvironmental extremes

> susceptible to vandalism

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> expensive site preparation may be needed at somelocation

These general attributes provide initial guidance in theselection of appropriate interpretive media and should beused only as a guideline to begin the discussion of whichmedia to select. With all media, resilience is an importantcriterion: a state-of-the-art interactive gizmo is worthlesswhen broken.

Newly-developed digital media such as CD-ROMs andthe Internet offer different advantages and limitations,which will become more apparent over the next fewyears. Advantages may include interactivity, ability tozero in on specific interests, greater graphic interest andAspecial effects,@ ability to relate to audiences such asteenagers, and ability to update information. Limitationsmay include high cost, low resilience of hardware and/orsoftware, need for trained or informed users, andotherwise limited audiences.

Media development in todays rapidly changingtechnological environment requires the involvement ofprofessional media planners and designers to ensuresolutions which efficiently use the available resources,respond to visitors' media expectations and provide aquality experience. The planning team should ensure thatobjectives for media and programs are careful described;park staff and other reviewers should ensure that mediaand program proposals are likely to meet the objectives.

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FACILITIES

Sound interpretive plan-ning isessential for visitor facilitiessuch as visitor centers, contactor information stations,environmental educationcenters or camps, trails, waysidekiosks, and scenic overlooks.

It is especially important toestablish the goals andfunctions, and the criteria forvariables such as location andappearance, before options orsolutions are considered.

Sound interpretive planning is essential for visitorfacilities such as visitor centers, contact orinformation stations, environmental educationcenters or camps, trails, wayside kiosks, and scenicoverlooks. Interpretive planners should beinvolved in planning and schematic phases offacility development, and work closely withdesigners and park staff in fitting facilities to theneeds of visitors and resources.

It is especially important to establish the goals andfunctions, and the criteria for variables such aslocation and appearance, before options orsolutions are considered.

Many questions can be asked:

What is the facility going to do? (generally andspecifically)

What is its role in visitor experience?

What functions, relationships, contiguities,messages are there? What activities need to benext to or close to each other?

What are expected audience patterns andvisitation? How many people should the facilityaccommodate?

What are expected staffing levels?

Do forms support functions?

How much money is available? What kinds ofother assistance? What are cost effectivenessrelationships?

How (and how well) do existing facilities work?

What support functions or spaces are needed?

Plans for new or renovated buildings mayincorporate assessments or evaluations of existingfacilities. These assessments at a minimum shouldshow how well goals are being met.

Answers to these and other questions become partof the building program. This does not meaninterpretive planners prescribe design solutions; itdoes mean that goals are agreed upon beforedesign solutions are worked out.

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There are many ways to describe goals and functions (oroutcomes) for interpretive facilities; the scope and detailwill vary as well. Examples below show some of thedifferent ways to describe facility goals, functions, andother criteria.

ExamplesNew Orleans Jazz National Historical Park; preliminarydrafts for general management planning

Visitor Center Functions

Orient visitors to park and area resources, services, andattractions

Interpret the park story, as described by interpretivethemes, providing an overview of the park story, andemphasizing those story elements that are best told byindoor interpretive media

Provide, along with other locations, jazz educationclasses, and programs

Provide needed visitor services, such as rest rooms,emergency services, and information

Provide a focus, point of contact, and spatial and visualidentity for New Orleans Jazz NHP.

Visitor Center Location Criteria

Visitor Access

Close to or within primary tourist activity areas

Easy to find

Accessible via public transportation

Accessible to people with disabilities

Structural soundness

Needed repairs are feasible

Needed repairs are affordable

Sufficient and suitable space

The right amount of space is available

The space is arranged in a desirable layout

Outdoor characteristics

Sufficient parking can be developed nearby

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The neighborhood is relatively safe

The appearance of the building, grounds, andneighborhood fits with the park theme and agencyidentity

Visitor experience

Visitor reactions to the built environment areconsistent with visitor experience goals

Sustainability, Cost

It would be cost effective to purchase/lease,renovate, operate, and maintain the buildingaccording to sustainability guidelines

Support other goals

This building would support other initiatives suchas historic preservation, neighborhoodrevitalization, partnerships

Hagerman Fossil Beds Research Center/Museum

The research center/museum will contributesignificantly to visitors' experiences for thefollowing reasons:

Due to the fragility of the resource, the researchcenter/museum will be a moderate drive from themonument itself. There will, however, be apanoramic view to the monument and the historicHorse Quarry from the center.

The center may be most or all of what the visitorremembers of Hagerman Fossil Beds;

Hagerman's resources include fragile, inaccessible,and often extremely small fossils which needinterpretation to be elevated to the level of interest,relevance, and significance to the visitor;

Paleontology, a science frequently involving tediousmeasurements and arcane terminology, also requiresinterpretation to become relevant and accessible tovisitors.

Building Goals

Museum:

Orient visitors to site significance, resources, andarea attractions

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Create an inviting mood, to encourage visitors to staylonger

Support the environmental significance of thepaleontological story, rather than fixing on isolatedspecimens

Provide visitor services (rest rooms, information,assistance)

Communicate interpretive stories

Protect resources through effective interpretation

Provide educational programs to schools

Provide visitor access to paleontology research

Research Center:

Prepare fossils

Store fossils

House and facilitate research by resident and visitingprofessionals, with important assistance by volunteers

Interpret work to public

Promote research and publications dealing withHagerman

Facilitate interaction with other paleontological andeducational institutions

Promote the protection of paleontological resources andinformation

Building Program

Research functions at the center would consist of fieldcollection, preparation, and curation of Hagermanspecimens; paleontological resource managementsupport; collections management; and support of otherresearch endeavors. Activities would include fossillocality inventory and clarification and documentation ofthe stratigraphic record.

The major components of the research center would be apreparation laboratory, a general purpose laboratory,curatorial storage, field specimen and equipment storage,casting room, library, collections management area, andlecture and meeting rooms. In addition, there would beoffice spaces for a staff

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paleontologist/curator, a collections manager, apreparator, and independent researchers.

Specimen collections from the monument would behoused in the research center/museum and wouldbe available for loan. Hagerman specimens inexisting collections would be sought as necessary asdonation, on a loan basis, or as castings. TheNational Park Service would not recall specimensfrom existing collections; however, a data base of allHagerman specimens would be compiled at theresearch center.

Research endeavors conducted by independentpaleontologists or volunteer support would bemanaged by a professional paleontologist on themonument staff.

Educational functions would consist of offeringeducational support activities at the center for allgrades, use of classrooms in conjunction withresearch and preparation lab activities, field trips tothe research center/museum and monument as partof the local school science curriculum and in supportof special events, college credit workshops andseminars for continuing education, and graduatelevel research projects and programs.

Major components of the educational functionwould consist of paleontology exhibits, audiovisualprograms (shown in an auditorium, a video alcove,and throughout the exhibit area), a preparation labviewing area, and environmental educationclassrooms.

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LANDSCAPESThere are landscapes that are so recognized as havingspecial qualities that their mention conjures images in themind's eye: Maine's rugged coastline, cornfields in theMidwest, Florida's Everglades, the red rock country ofArizona and Utah. Other landscapes, associated withhistoric events or people, are just as recognizable: NewYork City's Central Park, the streets of Harlem, the plazain Santa Fe, New Orleans' Bourbon Street, the WhiteHouse south lawn.

What are the special qualities associated with theselandscapes? Why and how do we connect with certainlandscapes?

Landscapes, whether Yosemite Valley or theneighborhood where we played as children, havequalities that can be identified, documented, protected,and interpreted. The challenge for interpreters andplanners is to help visitors experience landscapes inbeneficial, enjoyable, and sustainable ways, and helpthem relate experiences to more intangible values,meanings, and traditions.

Historic preservation traditionally has focused onbuildings. A holistic approach to preservation, involvingboth cultural and natural resources, has been practicedonly recently. Cultural landscapes include: historic sites(associated with important events, activities, or persons),historic designed landscapes (deliberate creationsreflecting recognized styles), historic vernacularlandscapes (illustrating values and attitudes toward theland and reflecting patterns of settlement, use anddevelopment over time), and ethnographic landscapes(associated with contemporary groups and typically usedor valued in traditional ways). Landscapes illustratehuman adaptation and use of natural resources, andprovide a setting for past and present human activity.

A cultural landscape can be "read" on many levels: asnature, habitat, artifact, system, problem, wealth,ideology, history, place, and aesthetic. Few of us havelearned to recognize historic land use or settlementpatterns, or to identify constructed elements of alandscape, let alone realize that change is an importantaspect in considering landscape character. Interpretersand planners give visitors tools for

We all react, consciouslyand unconsciously, to theplaces where we live andwork, in ways we scarcelynotice or that are only nowbecoming known to us. . . .These places have an impacton our sense of self, oursense of safety, the kind ofwork we get done, the wayswe interact with otherpeople, even our ability tofunction as citizens in ademocracy. In short, theplaces where we spend ourtime affect the people we areand can become.

Tony Hiss (1990)

The challenge for inter-preters and planners is tohelp visitors experiencelandscapes in beneficial,enjoyable, andsustainable ways, andhelp them relateexperiences to moreintangible values, mean-ings, and traditions.

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Interpreters and plannersshould consider landscapeswhen addressing resourcesignificance, visitor ex-periencegoals, and interpretive themes.

appreciating landscapes by explaining broadhistorical, social, and physical contexts; bydescribing lost character-defining features; and byexplaining historic themes and associations.

Interpreters and planners should considerlandscapes when addressing resource significance,visitor experience goals, and interpretive themes.Interpretation can be linked to the landscape'sability to convey the past through its character anddefining features. The level of integrity (i.e., thedegree of visual change over time or the similarity toan earlier era) may affect the types of media chosento interpret the landscape. For example, waysideexhibits may intrude upon a high-integritylandscape, whereas they may work in landscapeswith lower integrity, in one with missing elements.

Decisions on how to best interpret culturallandscapes should be based upon careful planning,research, documentation of existing conditions andrelationships, preservation approaches (e.g.,preservation, rehabilitation, restoration,reconstruction), projected maintenance needs, andmanagement goals.

The social, recreational, and educational benefits canlead to understanding, as well as enhance anAexperience of place.@

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EVALUATIONEvaluation is an essential part of planning. Nearlyeveryone on planning teams has ideas about howdifferent media, programs, or facilities work, about howimportant are various visitor experiences; yet these aretoo seldom based on empirical research. The planningteam should ask questions such as "How well has thatworked in similar situations?" and "How do visitorsevaluate their experiences here?" and AHow well do weknow?@

Evaluation asks whether goals were met; it can alsoidentify and quantify both causes and results. Plannersthen recommend a certain location for a new contactstation because they know the present one does notcapture many visitors. Planners can recommend usingroving rangers and small signs or wayside exhibits to cutdown on trail shortcutting because evaluations showedthem to be more effective than other options. Planners canrecommend using color photographs rather than abstractdesigns in a marketing brochure, because evaluationsshow them to work better with the public.

Like most other aspects of planning, evaluation should bean ongoing process, the form of which is tailored to thetasks and questions to be answered. The planning teammay commission studies be done as part of the planningprocess; the team should be knowledgeable of previousresearch that relates to planning issues; it shouldrecommend further studies that are needed to tell us moreabout visitor experience, and interpretive themes, media,programs, and facilities.

Evaluations done during a process are called formative;evaluations performed at the end of a process are calledsummative. Summative evaluations have been morecommon in government agencies: performance ismeasured and assessed at the end of a fiscal year;achievement of media objectives is determined after themedia are installed for a period of time; achievement ofshort-term educational goals is measured at theconclusion of a program.

Formative evaluations are increasing in the Park Service,especially with the implementation of

Evaluation asks whethergoals were met; it canalso identify and quantifyboth causes and results.

Like most other aspectsof planning, evaluationshould be an ongoingprocess, the form ofwhich is tailored to thetasks and questions to beanswered.

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GPRA and value analysis. Benefits are seen as thedegree to which alternatives support long-range andmission goals; costs include long-term costs, and areestimated to the accuracy possible at each stage ofplanning or design. Cost effectiveness of projects isthen evaluated in various ways at major decisionpoints.

NPS evaluation programs include:

> Visitor Services Project, which assesses visitorbackgrounds, preferences, activities, andopinions through surveys; about ten parks a yearare studied; the program is coordinated by theCooperative Park Study Unit (CPSU) at theUniversity of Idaho.

> Many park-initiated evaluations are conductedor contracted by parks with assistance fromregional offices, service centers, and theWashington Office of Interpretation and VisitorServices. Funding frequently includes supportfrom partners, especially the private sector.

> Government Performance and Results Act(GPRA); which holds offices and areasaccountable for defining and assessing desiredoutcomes.

> The Value Analysis Program, which assesses thecost effectiveness of design/construction projectsin excess of $500,000.

> Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE); whichassesses the effectiveness of interpretive facilitiesand media largely through observation andinterviews; the program is coordinated by theDenver Service Center (DSC) and Harpers FerryCenter.

> Post Construction Evaluation; which looks at thequality of construction of facilities built by DSC;the program is coordinated by DSC.

Interpretive plans usually include evaluations ofpresent conditions; these may include narrative andgraphic descriptions, data, summaries of studies,and recommended actions to correct deficiencies.They may also recommend needed studies.

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ANSWERS TO FREQUENTLY-ASKED QUESTIONSWe're about to get $20,000 from a foundation to improvethe media in our visitor center. Our interpretive plan isobsolete. What should we do?

You'll need to do some planning. How much and whattypes depend on many things, including your budget,what you mean specifically by "obsolete," the state ofother planning (management, strategic, and resourcesplanning), how persuasive you are, how anxious yourdonors are to cut a ribbon, etc. Work to get matchingfunds, use creative financing, make calls. Do not letlimited funds preclude doing at least some planning.

Many grants require adequate planning and evaluation.We should plan and evaluate even if it is not required.

It may not be necessary to formally write a new long-range interpretive plan. An interim document can beproduced that may be a bit weak on backgroundinformation and production values, but developsconsensus on themes and goals, describes desired visitorexperiences, and analyzes choices for media, programs,and activities. But when you've finished those elements, itdoesn't take too much to produce a formal long-rangeplan.

Our interpretive plan is pretty outdated. We have noplans to make major changes in our interpretive mediaor visitor facilities, but would like to improve ourpersonal programs. Do we need a new interpretiveplan?

Again, it depends partly on what you mean by"outdated". You probably want to do some planning todecide the best niches for personal programs, assess theireffectiveness, describe audiences, review themes andgoals, etc. You may have higher immediate priorities thanproducing a formal plan, since media or facility changesare not likely.

You probably want some outside perspectives. These donot have to be packaged in a formal interpretive plan, butwhy not spend the extra effort? A formal plan can helpsolicit funding for needed improvements to yourprogram.

We should plan andevaluate even if it is notrequired

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To get consensus usuallyrequires agreement first ongoals. Disagreements fre-quently occur at the Ahow@level. By stepping back anddiscussing Awhy@ a