Everybody Dance!: Zumba and its Effects onCardiovascular, Immunological, and Cognitive Function

Item Type text; Electronic Thesis

Authors Daas, Zinnia

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.

Download date 02/01/2021 18:41:32

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/297534

Abstract:

Zumba is a dance fitness program (created by Alberto “Beto” Perez in the 1990s),

with classes tailored for different groups of people (children, adults, and seniors). The

purpose of this thesis is to provide the general public with information regarding the

cardiovascular, immunological, and cognitive systems as well as describe the

cardiovascular, immunological and cognitive effects of aerobic activity such as Zumba,

both in an acute manner (during the class) and chronically (if Zumba is used as part of a

long term training program). Hopes are that if enough emphasis is put on the correlation

between exercise and health benefits, individuals will make their health a priority, and

prevent illnesses associated with these physiological systems.

 

Table of Contents:

Introduction Page 1 Cardiovascular System Pages 2-6 Summary of Cardiovascular System Pages 7-8 Immunological System Pages 9-14 Summary of Immune System Pages 15 Cognitive System Pages 16-20 Summary of Cognitive System Pages 20-21 What is Zumba? Pages 22-23 Acute Effects of Exercise on the Cardiovascular System Pages 23-25 Chronic Effects of Exercise on the Cardiovascular System Pages 25-27 Summary of the Effects of Exercise on the Cardiovascular System Pages 28-29 Acute Effects of Short Duration Exercise on the Immune System Pages 29-31 Acute Effects of Long Duration Exercise on the Immune System Page 31 Chronic Effects of Exercise on the Immune System Pages 32 Summary of the Effects of Exercise on the Immune System Pages 33-35 Acute Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Systems Pages 35-37 Chronic Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Systems Pages 37-38 Summary of the Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Systems Pages 39-40 Conclusion Pages 41 References Pages 42-45 Appendix A Page 46

Daas1

In the United this past year, about 600,000 individuals died from heart disease (Center

for Disease Control); there were one billion reported common colds (“Common Cold”), twenty-

one millions individuals were affected by depression (“ RankingAmerica'sMentalHealth:An

AnalysisofDepressionAcrosstheStates);"and these illnesses can also cause an individual to

have difficulties with memory recollection. (“Coping with Memory Loss”). Many of these health

issues are acquired during an individual’s life. Our cardiovascular, immunological, and cognitive

systems are resilient and can protect our bodies to a certain extent, but are susceptible to damage

if we do not take proper care of ourselves. Some illnesses that occur in these systems can be

prevented through exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, which can essentially help us

strengthen these physiological systems. The duration and intensity of the exercise has the ability

to bring about positive acute and chronic effects in our cardiovascular, immunological, and

cognitive systems. Fitness programs such as Zumba, a dance aerobics based program, is an

example of a type of exercise that has many emotional and physical benefits and can elicit

positive changes in our physiological systems. The purpose of this thesis is to provide the general

public with information regarding the cardiovascular, immunological, and cognitive systems and

then discuss how exercise elicits acute and chronic benefits in these physiological systems.

Hopes are that if enough emphasis is put on the correlation between exercise and health benefits,

individuals will make their health a priority, prevent illnesses associated with these systems, and

as a result, change the aforementioned statistics in a positive way so that there are there less

suffering from illness every year.

Daas2

Cardiovascular:

The heart is a muscular organ that acts as a pump in order to facilitate the circulation of

blood flow throughout the body. It consists of the following three layers: the epicardium, (the

outer layer); the myocardium, (the middle layer); and the endocardium, (the inner layer). The

heart is a hollow organ is divided into the following four chambers: the right atrium, right

ventricle, left atrium, and the left ventricle. There are three circulations that are involved in the

circulatory system. The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart

to the lungs and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. The systemic circulation carries

oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the

heart. The coronary circulation, also known as the “end circulation” is responsible for delivering

blood to the myocardium, the heart tissue itself (“Body Systems”). Oxygenated blood is pumped

from the left ventricle and into the aorta. This is where it enters the right and left main coronary

arteries, subsequently branches to feed the myocardial tissue of all four chambers of the heart.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic veins and the left atrium

receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins. The ventricles are thick walled chambers

that pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs and the left

ventricle pumps blood throughout the entire body. The heart needs valves in order to keep fluid

moving in one direction.

There are two classes of valves: the atrioventricular valves (AV) and the semilunar valves

(SV). The atrioventricular valves are between the atria and the ventricles. During systole

(contraction), they prevent blood flowing from the ventricles back into the atria while allowing

blood to move from the atria to ventricles. The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve

and the left atrioventricular valve is the biscuspid valve, also known as the mitral valve. The

Daas3

semilunar valves are found at the base of the pulmonary artery and the aorta. Their primary

function is to allow blood to enter the arteries, but also prevent backflow of blood from the

arteries into the ventricles.

The pulmonary semilunar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.

The aortic semilunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta. When the ventricles

contract, the AV valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When the

ventricles relax, the semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the

ventricles. The following is the pathway of blood: right atrium, right ventricle, lungs to receive

oxygen (pulmonary circulation), left atrium, left ventricle, and then the systemic circulation

where blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.

The blood vessels form a network throughout the body in order to permit blood to flow from

the heart to every cell in the body and then allow it to return it to the heart. The walls of certain

blood vessels serve as the site where materials are exchanged between blood and body tissues.

The main types of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries, and veins. Arteries have thick, elastic

walls and are used to carry blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. The arteries are

primarily responsible for blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force that is exerted when blood

flows against the walls of the vessels. Systolic blood pressure is the value given to the pressure

(“ChambersandValvesofheHeart”)

Daas4

that is exerted when the heart is contracting. The average value is 120 mm Hg (“Understanding

Blood Pressure Readings”). Because this surge of pressure can be measured as a pulse, we can

measure heart rate. The pressure that occurs between heartbeats when the heart is at rest is called

diastolic (relaxation) pressure. The average diastolic pressure value is 80 mm Hg

(“Understanding Blood Pressure Readings”). Capillaries serve as the site where exchange of

nutrients takes place. Veins have much thinner walls than the arteries and their role is to carry

blood towards the heart. When the heart fills with blood, the blood vessels help regulate the rate

of circulation of the blood. While blood flow is constant, the pumping of blood occurs during

intervals so the heart can fill with blood between pumps.

Since blood is a specialized tissue that exists in fluid form, it serves as a transport medium.

The components of blood are blood cells and plasma. The types of blood cells are red blood

cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The primary function of red blood cells is to transport

oxygen to the cells of the body (“Blood”). Hemoglobin within the red blood cells allows the

transport of oxygen. Hemoglobin combines with oxygen in the lungs, where the oxygen level is

high, and then easily releases it in the surrounding tissues, where the oxygen level is low. Each

molecule of hemoglobin contains four iron atoms, and each iron atom can bind with one

molecule of oxygen (O2), making a total of four oxygen molecules (“Blood”). As blood passes

through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As blood passes through the

tissues of the body, hemoglobin releases oxygen to the cells. Red blood cells also help remove

carbon dioxide from the body. Carbon dioxide enters the blood in the capillaries, is brought to

the lungs, releases there, and is then exhaled when we breathe. White blood cells play a

prominent role in defending the body against foreign materials; and will therefore be discussed in

depth in the immune system section. Platelets are used to maintain balance, (homeostasis) in the

Daas5

body by assisting with the formation of blood clots. Plasma is the fluid portion of blood that

consists of water and proteins. The heart plays a vital role in the function of the cardiovascular

system because it distributes blood throughout the human body.

The conduction system generates the automatic, rhythmic beat of the heart. This system

consists of cardiac muscle cells and conducting fibers that initiate impulses that are conducted

throughout the heart. In a healthy heart, the heartbeat is initiated at the sinoatrial node, which

establishes the basic rhythm of the heartbeat at 70-80 beats/minute. For this reason, the sinoatrial

node also called the heart’s natural pacemaker (“ The Sinoatrial Node: The Body's Natural

Pacemaker"). The other components of the conduction system that follow the sinoatrial node are

the atrioventrular node, the atrioventricular bundle, the Bundle of His, and the Purkinje fibers.

The components of the conduction system work together to initiate the cardiac cycle as well as

coordinate the contraction and the relaxation of the heart chambers. Through the pulmonary and

systemic circulations, blood perfusion is able to occur. Factors such as emotions, ion

concentrations, and body temperature effect the sinoatrial node and elicits changes in the heart

rate (“The Sinoatrial Node: The Body's Natural Pacemaker"). Many of these factors are

mediated through the cardiac center in the medulla oblongata of the brain. The cardiac center has

both sympathetic and parasympathetic components that adjust the heart rate according to the

needs of the body.

("ConductionSystemoftheHeart.")

Daas6

An individual’s heart rate is a value that is recorded as beats per minute. While the heart rate

and pulse give us a similar value, there are minor differences. Heart rate refers to the number of

contractions of the lower chambers of the heart, the ventricles. (Laskowski). Your pulse refers to

the rhythmic expansion and contraction of an artery as blood is forced through by the regular

contractions of the heart. Your pulse can be felt at areas where the artery is close to the skin such

as your wrist (radial pulse), neck, groin, or the top of the foot. The radial artery is found close to

the inside part of your wrist near your thumb. You can determine your radial pulse by using the

following steps: Bend your elbow with your arm at your side; the palm of your hand should be

up. Then use your middle and index fingers to feel for the radial artery inside the wrist. The

thumb should not be used to determine the radial pulse because the thumb has a pulse of its own.

Count your radial pulse for a full minute (60 seconds); this value is given in beats/minute. For

the ease of measuring your pulse, you can count for six seconds and then simply add a zero to

that value (Laskowski). A normal resting heart rate for an adult is approximately 70 beats per

minute. (Laskiwski). Factors such as activity levels, fitness levels, air temperature, body

positions, emotions, body size, and medication can influence heart rate values.

Daas7

Summary of the Cardiovascular System:

Table 1: Chambers of the Heart Chamber: Function:

Right Atrium Receives oxygen deficient blood that is returning from the body

Right Ventricle Pumps oxygen deficient blood through the pulmonary valve and into your lungs

Left Atrium Collects oxygen-rich blood that is returning from your lungs.

Left Ventricle Pumps oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve and to the rest of the body

Table 2: Valves of the Heart

Valve: Type of Valve: Function: Tricuspid Valve Atrioventricular Prevents the back flow of

blood as it is pumped from the right atrium to the right ventricle.

Mitral Valve Atrioventricular Prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium.

Pulmonary Valve Semilunar Prevents the back flow of blood as it is pumped from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery.

Aortic Valve Semilunar Prevents the black flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular diastole and allows blood flow during cardiac output.

Table 3: Blood Vessels of the Heart Blood Vessel: Function:

Arteries Carry blood away from the heart Capillaries Enable the exchange of water, oxygen,

carbon dioxide, and other nutrients between blood and surrounding tissues

Veins Carry blood towards the heart

Daas8

Table 4: Circulations

Table 5: Types of Blood Cells

TypeofBloodCell FunctionRedBloodCell - Transports oxygen to the cells of

the body - Alsohelpsremovecarbondioxide

fromthebody,WhiteBloodCell - Defendthebodyagainstforeign

matter

Platelet - Usedtomaintainbalanceinthebodybyassistingwiththeformationofbloodclots

TypeofCirculation FunctionPulmonaryCirculation - Carries deoxygenated blood away

from the heart to the lungs - Returns oxygenated blood back to

the heart. SystemicCirculation - Carries oxygenated blood away

from the heart to the body - Returns deoxygenated blood back

to the heartCoronaryCirculation - Delivers blood to the myocardium,

the heart tissue itself. - Oxygenated blood is pumped from

the left ventricle and into the aorta- Blood is able to enter the right and

left main coronary arteries, subsequently branching to feed the

myocardial tissue of all four chambers of the heart.

Daas9

Immune System:

The human body tries to protect itself from foreign pathogens as well as damaged cells and

the immune system is the body’s way of defending itself. There are two types of immunity that

protect the body: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is what we are born

with; it is non-specific and does not require prior knowledge of pathogens to protect the body

and to stop many infections. Adaptive immunity is what we acquire throughout our life and it

involves the activation of T cells and B cells in order to respond to an antigen (in the last draft,

you told me to define antigen. I do define it, but later when I talk about the T cell response.

Would you like me to move it up to this section?)

Parts of the innate immune system that include the primary lines of defense are epithelial

barriers, which consists of skin and mucous membrane barriers. Our skin is thick and difficult to

penetrate unless there is an opening such as a scratch, cut, or wound. The respiratory tract has a

mechanical barrier through cilia, tiny hairs that move in an upward motion and remove particles.

Coughing and sneezing help remove foreign particles from the respiratory tract. The flushing

action of tears protects the eyes; mucus collects foreign particles and protects the nasal tract; and

saliva protects the mouth. Salvia, tears, and nasal secretions contain lysozyme, an enzyme that

destroys gram-positive bacterial walls, by causing cell lysis (“Lysozyme”). The stomach secretes

a biochemical barrier, hydrochloric acid, which has a very low pH. This biochemical barrier

eliminates unwanted pathogens and bacterial growth. Innate immunity is relatively fast acting,

but not very sensitive. As a result, it does not provide long lasting protective immunity to the

host. Innate immunity can recognize the following: pathogen associated molecular patterns; cells

that express stressed or damaged indicators; and the absence of self- markers (Cohen, “Innate

Immunity”). Another aspect of the innate immune system is inflammation. Inflammation occurs

Daas10

immediately after injury and results in increased blood vessel diameter in order to increase blood

flow as well as a form of leakiness that allows immune cells, white blood cells, to get to the area

of infection. Inflammation causes the redness and swelling we see in areas of infection. Acute

inflammation has classical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function and is the

body’s attempt to remove the pathogen and initiate the healing process.

The white blood cells associated with the innate immune system include granulocytes and

phagocytes. Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells that have granules in the cytoplasm.

The types of granulocytes that are found in our immune system are neutrophils, basophils, and

eosinophils. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell found in the body.

During the acute phase of inflammation, neutrophils are the first type of the immune cell to

migrate to the site of inflammation. The act of moving toward the site of infection is known as

chemotaxis (“Chemotaxsis”). During an infection, there is generally pus, which consists of

mostly neutrophils. Basophils are found in tissues where allergic reactions are occurring and

probably contribute to the severity of these reactions. Eosinophils are anti-helminthes, meaning

they are predominantly responsible for removing parasites and worms from the body

(“Eosinophils”). Eosinophils destroy parasitic worms by releasing specific chemicals. While

granulocytes can bring about phagocytic properties, the main type of phagocyte is a macrophage;

it looks for debris and foreign cells in order to eliminate them from the body. They are also

involved in the activation of the adaptive immune system.

(Dugdale)

Daas11

If the innate immune system is unable to eliminate the problem, the adaptive immune system

begins its work. While it takes longer to initiate the adaptive response, the effects are larger and

last longer. By initiating an immune response, the immune system attacks organisms and

substances that have invaded the different systems and have the potential to cause disease. The

cells that are involved are phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes circulate in the blood and

look for foreign substances in the foreign body. When they find these foreign substances, they

engulf and destroy them. Lymphocytes are used to direct the immune system whether it is

through Natural Killer Cells, B cells, or T cells. They are located in many different organs in the

body: the thymus, spleen, and bone marrow, the lymph nodes, blood, and tissues, which are

collectively known as lymphoid organs.

While phagocytes are specialized for eating those particles and eliminating them,

lymphocytes recognize and mark foreign particles. Lymphocytes consist of B cells, T cells, and

natural killer cells. B cells are involved in humoral mediated immunity and T cells are involved

in cell-mediated immunity. Lymphocytes develop in the bone marrow and remain there and

mature into B cells or they migrate to the thymus gland where they mature into T cells. To

understand B cells and T cells, certain terms need to be identified: antibody, antigen, and

immunogen. Antibodies are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily

fluids and are used by the immune system to identify or neutralize extracellular foreign objects,

such as bacteria and viruses (Mandal). An antigen is something that can be recognized by the

immune system (Mayer). It may be a foreign substance found in the environment such as

bacteria or substance that causes your immune system to produce an immune response.

B cells are involved in humoral immunity. There are two types of mature B cells: plasma

cells and memory cells. Plasma cells are B cells that have been exposed to an immunogen and as

Daas12

a result, are producing antibodies (Mandal). There are five different classes of antibodies: IgG,

IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD. IgG is the most abundant antibody found in the serum. It is produced in

greater amounts during a secondary exposure. In addition, it is the only antibody that can cross

the placenta. IgM, the second most abundant antibody in the body is produced first following the

body’s first exposure to an antigen. IgA is found in areas of secretions such as saliva, tears, and

mucus. IgE is predominantly involved in responses to parasites. Finally, IgD acts as the B cell

receptor; it is not seen in the serum. Antibodies assist the immune system in destroying the

pathogen, whether it is by marking them as targets for phagocytes or the complement system.

Memory B cells are formed after the immune response has occurred. As a result, the memory B

cells can respond quickly to the second exposure of the same antigen. Each B cell recognizes a

specific antigen.

Antibodies can act in different ways to prevent the foreign substance from causing further

damage or it can activate complement and remove the foreign substance completely. In

neutralization, the antibody will bind to the virus, toxin, or bacteria and block its activity. When

the antibody binds to its specific target, it activates the complement cascade, and as a result, it

allows for destruction of the bacterium. The purpose of the complement cascade is make bacteria

more susceptible to phagocytosis; it produces chemotactic substances that enable the bacterium

to lyse; and it promotes mass cell degranulation, which increases vascular permeability (Cohen,

“Antibody Function and Complement”). The classical pathway, the lectin pathway, or the

alternative pathway can activate the complement cascade. The classical pathway is activated

when C1q binds to IgM or IgG and forms a complex with the antigens. In contrast to the

classical complement pathway, the lectin pathway does not recognize antibody bound to its

target. The lectin pathway starts with mannose-binding lectin or binding to certain sugars. The

Daas13

lectin pathway is mediated by circulating proteins called mannan-binding protein or MBP. The

MBP is equivalent to C1q in the classical complement pathway. It is able to bind to

carbohydrates on the surface of a wide range of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa)

where it can activate the complement system or act directly as an opsonin. On the other hand, the

alternative pathway can be antibody dependent or independent. All complexes anchor on the

surface of the target so the membrane attack complex (MAC) can form, poke a hole in the cell

wall, and cause cell lyses.

T cells are major immune regulatory cells that mature in the thymus. The following are

the types of T cells: Helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells (CTL), and T follicular cells. The T cell has

a molecule on its surface called the T- cell receptor, which facilitates the interaction of the T cell

with molecules called MHC (major histocompatability complex) (“Major Histocompatibility

Complex”). When a virus infects a cell, a MHC (class I) molecule binds to the antigen and

displays an antigenic peptide (protein) on the cell's surface. Antigen presenting cells (class II) are

cells that are able to display an antigen on MHC class II. These cells include macrophages,

dendritic cells, and B cells. Each MHC molecule that displays an antigen is recognized by a

compatible T-cell receptor so that the T cell can respond to the foreign antigen on the

corresponding MHC class. MHC class I is found on all nucleated cells and MHC Class II is

("C3:ComplementOpsinogenandInflammatoryMediator”)

Daas14

found on all antigen-presenting cells. Helper T cells recognize MHC class II molecules and

Cytotoxic T cells recognize MHC class I molecules. A T cell responds to the interaction between

the T cell receptor and the MHC and antigen by secreting cytokines or chemokines. Cytokines

are proteins that may cause surrounding immune cells to become activated, grow, or die.

Chemokines are small cytokine molecules that attract cells of the immune system. Helper T cells

regulate the adaptive immune response. They stimulate the activity of macrophages, B cells, and

other T cells. Cytotoxic T cells kill cells that are infected with pathogen or are damaged and

dysfunctional. When an activated cytotoxic T cell (CTL) comes in contact with the antigen and

its corresponding receptor, it releases substances such as perforin, which is able to poke holes in

the cell’s membrane. This allows granules to be released and the cell undergoes apoptosis. CTLs

are very specific cytolytic cells that ensure that the virus in unable to replicate. Tfollicular cells

are a type of T cells that allow B cells to switch antibody classes so they can make the

appropriate type of antibody and target the particular antigen.

Daas15

Summary of Immune System:

Table 6: Granulocytes

Granulocyte: Function: Neutrophil Involved in phagocytosis- Basophil Release histamine and contribute to the

inflammatory response in order to help fight invading organisms.

Eosinophil Kill parasites and worms

Table 7: B Cells

B Cell: Function: Plasma Cell Secrete antibodies Memory Cell Respond quickly to the second exposure to

an antigen

Table 8: T Cells T Cell: Function:

Helper T Cell:

• Memory T Cell

• T Follicular Cell

• Regulatory T Cell

Activation of Cytotoxic T cells Secrete cytokine to assist with the immune response Can become effector T cells quickly upon re-exposure to the antigen. Maturation of B cells into plasma and memory B cells. Prevent the T cell-mediated immunity toward the end of an immune reaction and suppress self-reactive T cells

Cytotoxic T cell Destroys virally infected cells by releasing cytokines perforin and granzyme and makes the cells undergo apoptosis (cell death).

Natural Killer T Cell Are able to recognize lipids and glycolipds rather than peptide- MHC complexes. It then initiates cell death.

Daas16

Cognitive System:

Cognition refers to processes such as memory, attention, language, problem solving, and

planning (Moczynski). Before we try to understand the cognitive system and its influence on

emotions and memory, we need to understand the overall structure of the brain. It is one of the

most complex organs in the human body because the brain performs various functions such as

controlling body temperature, blood pressure, breathing, and heart rate. It also handles physical

movement, thoughts, and emotions. The brain itself consists of many different structures. The

cortex consists of the outermost layer of brain cells and it is where thinking and voluntary

movements are initiated. (“The Brain From Top to Bottom”). The brain stem is found between

the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. It consists of the medulla (an enlarged portion of the

upper spinal cord), pons, and midbrain. The brain stem is responsible for controlling reflexes,

heart rate, blood pressure, and functions such as digestion and urination. The cerebellum

integrates information from the vestibular system, a sensory system that is responsible for

integrating information to maintain coordination and balance. The hypothalamus and pituitary

gland are responsible for regulating body temperature and behavioral responses such as feeding,

drinking, aggression, and pleasure. The cerebrum (also called the cerebral cortex) is the largest

part of the brain and consists of the cortex, the corpus has large fiber tracts (corpus callosum) and

deeper structures (basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus) (“Anatomy of the Brain”). The

basal ganglia are a cluster of structures located in the center of brain. They coordinate messages

between multiple areas of brain. The amygdala is a mass of nuclei involved in responses

associated with fear, emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory. Adjacent to the

amygdala is the hippocampus. The hippocampus stores memories, forms emotional responses,

Daas17

navigates, and helps us have awareness of spatial orientation. Overall, the cerebrum is associated

with higher brain function such as thought and action.

The brain can be divided into 6 main lobes. The frontal lobe is responsible for forming

conscious thoughts such as reasoning, planning, problem solving, and motor function. The

parietal lobe plays an important role in integrating sensory information and responds to stimuli

that are concerned with pain, pressure, temperature, and touch. The temporal lobe is responsible

for audio and visual perception, long-term memory, speech, and emotional responses. The

occipital lobes contain the brain’s visual processing system. The limbic lobe plays a prominent

role in managing emotions and memory and the insular cortex manages pain.

Memory is the ability to recover information about past events or knowledge (“Coping

with Memory Loss”). Brain structures that have been linked to memory are the hippocampus, the

amygdala, the thalamus, and the cerebellum. More specifically, the hippocampus is involved

with spatial memory because it is involved with making cognitive mental maps that allow an

individual to combine spatial aspects and context information in order to form explicit memories

that are more complex. The amygdala is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible forming

memories associated with emotional stimuli such as fear. It is involved in memory consolidation,

("Brain(HumanAnatomy):Picture,Function,Parts,Conditions,andMore”)

Daas18

the process of transferring information that is part of current short-term memory into long-term

memory (“The Brain From Top to Bottom”). During the process of encoding information, the

amygdala enhances the emotional aspect of the information that is being received and as a result,

it ensures that the memory is processed at a deeper level so the individual is more likely to store

it as a long-term memory. The more emotional the experience is, the stronger the memory will be

for the individual. The thalamus is located near the center of the brain and it is essential for the

retrieval of memory. It sends the necessary signals to the cerebral cortex and it also serves as a

relay station where information can be retrieved later on. Finally, the cerebellum is involved with

memory that is involved for the performance of particular types of action such as skills required

for coordination and motor control (“The Brain From Top to Bottom”).

Memories can be divided into the following two categories: short term memories and

long-term memories. Short-term memories consist of recollection of something after a short

period of time without formal learning, practicing, or rehearsing. An example of employing

short-term memory is when you remember someone’s phone number. You cluster the numbers

together to enhance your chance of remembering the number. This newly acquired information

will degrade unless the individual puts continuous effort to rehearse this information so it isn’t

lost. On the other hand, long-term memories refer to memories that may have occurred over a

long period of time from days to years (Moczynski). Examples of these types of memories

include birthday parties from your childhood, holidays with your family, and experiences you

may have had that you learned from.

“BrainFromToptoBottom”

Daas19

The brain, specifically the hormones and neurotransmitters that the neurons release are

responsible for our various moods and emotions. The limbic system itself controls our emotional

responses; it marks important events; it stores emotional memories; it modulates motivation; and

it controls appetite and sleep cycles. The limbic system is located near the center of the brain

beneath the cerebral cortex and consists of parts such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the

hypothalamus (“Anatomy of the Brain”). The hippocampus is known as the “memory center”;

the amygdala is known as the fear center; and the hypothalamus serves as the master gland that

releases hormones. The hypothalamus has many hormone receptors that help organize the way

the brain functions during puberty, adult sexual behavior, as well as the frequency and intensity

of emotions are regulated. Hormones stimulate, regulate, and control the function of various

tissues and organs. Neurotransmitters directly or indirectly control virtually every system in the

body. Various neurotransmitters are involved with maintaining proper, balanced levels of

hormones. If neurotransmitter levels are no longer balanced because of stress, poor diet, and

genetic predisposition, the body is unable maintain proper levels of key hormones.

Neurotransmitter imbalance leads to or exacerbates hormone imbalance and this can lead to

mood swings. Neurotransmitter imbalances can be corrected by increasing the communication

between the brain and the hormone producing glands. A neurotransmitter that plays an important

role in regulating moods is serotonin. Serotonin levels demonstrate how efficiently neurons are

communicating with each other and thereby affecting a neuron’s response to the signal. This is

why serotonin levels can dramatically alter our behavior. Extremely high levels of serotonin can

lead to sedation like state and drastically low levels can leads to psychiatric conditions. In terms

of regulating moods, low serotonin levels are present in more depressed states and higher

serotonin levels lead to a more positive mood. Other hormones that are directly involved with

Daas20

mood regulation are estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen levels can affects one’s mood because

it encourages the formation of new synapses in the brain and it maintains serotonin levels.

Fluctuation of estrogen levels may lead to mood swings, depression, and anxiety. For women,

these fluctuations occur during menopause and can lead to severe mood swings. It is a common

misconception that estrogen levels only affect women; it also affects males as well. Due to

weight gain, a male can have increased estrogen levels. Since testosterone is a derived from

estrogen, high estrogen levels can lead to low testosterone levels, and this can lead to alterations

in a male’s mood and can increase irritability. Another hormone that plays a role in regulating

moods is progesterone. While progesterone plays a key role in reproduction, it counterbalances

the effects of estrogen. While estrogen has an excitatory effect, progesterone has a calming

effect. When present in normal levels, it has a relaxing effect on one’s overall system. When

progesterone levels start to decline, it can lead to hormone imbalance and elevate estrogen levels,

which can impact one’s mood.

Table 9: Summary of the Cognitive System

Part of the Brain: Composed of: Function: Cortex Outermost layer of

brain cell Where thinking and voluntary

movements are initiated Brain stem (found between the spinal cord and the rest of the

brain)

- Medulla (enlarged

portion of the upper spinal

cord) - Pons

- Midbrain

Controls: - Reflexes - Heart rate

- Blood pressure - Digestion - Urination

Cerebellum - Integrates information from the vestibular system, a sensory system that is

responsible for integrating information maintain coordination and balance

Hypothalamus Pituitary gland

- Regulate body temperature

- Regulate behavioral

Daas21

responses (feeding, drinking, aggression,

and pleasure. Cerebrum (cerebral cortex) -Cortex

- Corpus callosum - Basal ganglia

-Amygdala -Hippocampus

- Higher brain function such as thought and action

Basal Ganglia (cluster of structures located in the center

of the brain)

- Coordinate messages between multiple areas of the

brain Amygdala (mass of nuclei) - Involved in responses

associated with: - Fear

- Emotional responses - Hormonal secretions

- Memory Hippocampus - Stores memories

- Forms emotional responses

- Navigation - Awareness for spatial

orientation

Table 10: Lobes of the Brain

Lobe: Function:

Frontal Lobe - Forms conscious thoughts such as: - Reasoning - Planning

- Problem solving - Motor function

Parietal Lobe - Integrates sensory information - Responds to stimuli that are concerned

with: pain, pressure, temperature, and touch.

Temporal Lobe - Audio and visual perception - Long-term memory

- Speech - Emotional responses

Occipital Lobes - Visual processing system Limbic Lobe - Manages emotions and memory

- Insular cortex manages pain

Daas22

We have now learned about the main and essential aspects of the cardiovascular system,

the immune system, and now the cognitive system. Before diving in the specifics of how aerobic

exercise in general effects these systems, let’s take the time to describe what Zumba is for those

who have not had a Zumba class experience. Dancer and choreographer Alberto “Beto” Perez

created this fitness program in the 1990s (“History and Types of Classes”). Zumba fitness

combines aerobics with dance. This Latin-inspired dance program blends various types of

current music; it alternates between fast and slow rhythms. Zumba dance routines incorporate

interval training and resistance training (“History and Types of Classes”). The moderate intensity

and the one-hour duration of a Zumba class ensure positive results on one’s health. The best part

about Zumba is that anyone can participate. There are various types of Zumba programs that

cater to different audiences. Zumbatomic is a dance program where the routines are kid friendly.

It aims to increase self-confidence, boost metabolism, enhance coordination, and keep children

active. The Zumba Gold program makes it accessible for seniors, beginners, or others needing

modifications in their exercise routine to be able to have the Zumba experience. Zumba Toning

uses toning sticks and weights to create a strength training class that implements body-sculpting

exercises. Aqua Zumba takes the dance party to the water where it focuses on core conditioning

and body-toning. There really is a program out there for everyone.

A typical Zumba class consists of about fifteen to sixteen songs. A class would start with

a warm up, progress into more cardio intensive songs, and eventually end with a cool down song

to relax and stretch the muscles. The warm up generally consists of a few songs because you do

not want your body to go from at rest to 100% in a matter of a few minutes. You want to increase

the heart rate gradually and make sure all the muscles in the body have had the chance to warm

up. With the cardio intensive portion of the class, each song can be catered to a specific portion

Daas23

of the body whether you are belly dancing to work out your core and your arms or if you are

dancing to a Latin based rhythm such as salsa and merengue in order to focus on your legs.

Choreography can also focus on the abdominal region by including crunches in the movements.

Any aerobic position that you would normally be able to do such as a lunge or a bicep curl can

be incorporated into a Zumba dance routine. The cool down portion also consists of a few songs

because you want to make sure that you get a chance to stretch all the muscles that you worked

really hard in class. The cool down portion also allows you to focus on your breathing. Once this

last part is completed, you have officially completed a Zumba class. Like with any other

exercise, if a certain movement or position causes you discomfort, you can modify the dance step

or routine so it does not become detrimental to your overall health.

The reason Zumba has become so popular is because people enjoy the different Latin

based rhythms, the fun and easy-to-follow routines, and most of all; they really enjoy the party-

like atmosphere. A person can do many forms of aerobic and endurance exercise to strengthen

their physiological systems. The important thing about exercise is that it should not be

temporary; it should become a part of one’s lifestyle. For this to happen, a person needs to really

enjoy the exercise for it to make a difference in their life and on their health. You do no have to

choose whether to exercise or to have fun; with Zumba, you can do both at the same time. If you

have not had the opportunity of taking a Zumba class, it is a great time to start and hopefully, it

becomes a large part of your life like that it has in mine.

Exercise and the Cardiovascular System:

A sedentary, inactive lifestyle is one of the main factors that can lead to cardiovascular

disease. Regular exercise, especially aerobic exercise such as Zumba can provide many benefits

to your cardiovascular system. These benefits may be acute and will occur during Zumba or they

Daas24

may be chronic benefits, as a result of training. An acute change that occurs is the ability to

increase your heart rate. Chronic effects include a lower blood pressure, lower resting heart rate,

and vascular remodeling that strengthens the heart. In addition, with training, you can improve

your circulation so that you are able to utilize and distribute oxygen throughout your body.

Acute:

As mentioned before, one of the acute effects of exercise is that there is an increase in

heart rate. With the “anticipatory response,” the brain releases adrenaline in order to prepare your

body for physical exertion (Kosinski). As a result, your heart rate increases before you even

exercise. When you start exercising and dancing in Zumba, the sympathetic nervous system is

stimulated. This increases the frequency of sinoatrial (SA) node depolarizations and as a result,

your heart rate increases. Our heart rate increases so that the heart is able to deliver a sufficient

amount of oxygenated blood to the working muscles. Our heart rate gives a more objective look

at the intensity of the exercise we are participating in. As the intensity of the exercise increases,

your heart rate will increase proportionally until you reach a consistent level of performance,

then your heart rate will level off. This explains the process of acquiring a steady state heart rate

(Lakowski). This increase in heart rate helps the body burns off extra calories.

With exercise, heart rate increases and the heart contracts more forcefully as well. During

exercise, the heart contracts more powerfully, increasing the stroke volume, the blood that is

pumped from the left ventricle of the heart to the systemic circulation with each beat in order to

meet the body’s demands for increased blood flow. This increases your cardiac output value in

order to increase the amount of blood that gets pumped and distributed throughout the body. This

allows the heart to pump more blood with less effort. Typically, an individual’s cardiac output is

Daas25

around 5 liters per minute, but with aerobic exercise, the heart can pump up to 40 liters per

minute (“The Cardiovascular System”). Exercise allows the heart to pump blood throughout the

body much more efficiently.

When you exercise, vasodilation occurs within the rest of the muscles, but sympathetic

stimulation causes a powerful vasoconstriction throughout the body. This in fact, increases your

systolic blood pressure. Normally, resting systolic blood pressure varies between 110 and 140

mm Hg, but during exercise, systolic blood pressure increases 60-80 mm Hg ("Exercise: A Drug-

free Approach to Lowering High Blood Pressure”). While systolic blood pressure tends to

increase during exercise, diastolic blood pressure tends to decrease because blood vessels dilate

during exercise.

Chronic:

There are numerous chronic effects that come with routine exercise and training.

If an individual exercises regularly, he or she will have a lower resting heart rate because since

the heart becomes used to the demands that exercise requires, it does not need to beat as quickly

to supply the body with blood while it is at rest during the diastolic state. A lower resting heart

rate is also due to the increased stroke volume. As previously mentioned, an average person’s

resting heart rate is around 70 bpm and if a person begins to train aerobically with Zumba, they

can alter their resting heart rate by decreasing by 20-30 beats per minute (Kosinski). With

aerobic training, our resting heart rate decreases because the heart itself becomes more efficient

at pumping blood throughout the body and does not need to work as hard. With aerobic training,

the heart is able to deliver oxygenated blood to the muscles as quickly as possible because blood

volume increases and the body produces a greater number of red blood cells in order to ensure

Daas26

that oxygen is being supplied to the muscles during exercise and is able to remove extra carbon

dioxide.

The combined effects of elevating your heart rate and arterial systolic blood pressure

helps increase oxygen supply that your body demands during exercise. With aerobic training, the

heart begins to work less to pump blood throughout the body, but the overall force on your

arteries decreases as well, which results in a lowered blood pressure. More specifically, routine

training can lead to a lower systolic blood pressure by about 4 to 9 millimeters of mercury (mm

Hg) ("Exercise: A Drug-free Approach to Lowering High Blood Pressure”). In addition, training

helps maintain a healthy weight for your age and height, which is another way you are able to

acquire a lower blood pressure. This controlled blood pressure helps your body conserve energy,

but in order to maintain a lower blood pressure, your body needs routine exercise because the

shelf life of this cardiovascular benefit is correlated to routine exercise. It takes about one to

three months for regular exercise to have an impact on your blood pressure (“American Heart

Association Recommendations for Physical Activity in Adults”).

A major chronic effect of exercise is its ability to strengthen the heart in general through

vascular remodeling. It is able to make a significant impact on the morphology of vessels

through angiogenesis and arteriogenesis, which eventually leads to improved blood flow.

Angiogenesis is used to describe a process where the capillary network expands and forms new

blood vessels while arteriogenesis describes a process where existing vessels enlarge by

increasing the diameter of the arteries (Heil, “Arteriogenesis versus Angiogenesis: Similarities

and Differences."). In general, angiogenesis can help prevent ischemia in cardiovascular tissue

and prevent plaque buildup. A larger heart is able to not only pump more oxygenated blood with

each heartbeat, but it also does so without pumping quickly (Kosinski). In addition, training

Daas27

enables the venous system to undergo vascularization, or an increase in the amount of veins and

the size of capillaries. This facilitates the development of strength and endurance and decreases

muscle fatigue. Larger veins allow for amplified venous return and an increase in the number of

capillaries establishes new paths for oxygen-depleted blood to travel back to the heart.

As the body adapts to routine exercise and training, arterial blood flow and venous return

gain efficiency because conditioning the heart makes it stronger and more efficient by decreasing

the heart rate and increasing the stoke volume. This allows the heart to pump more blood with

less effort. Routine training helps the heart hypertrophy, grow in a positive way. The American

Heart association recommends that an individual should get at least 30 minutes of moderate

intensity aerobic exercise five times a week in order to experience overall benefits to the heart

(“American Heart Association Recommendations for Physical Activity in Adults”).

("EvenIfYouAren’tLosingWeightWhileExercising,You’reMakingYourHeartStronger")

Daas28

Summary of Effects of Exercise on the Cardiovascular System:

Table11:AcuteEffectsofExercise

Table 12: Chronic Effects

Cause: Effect: Reason: -Lower resting heart rate - the heart becomes used to

the demands that exercise requires. - it does not need to beat as quickly to supply the body with blood while at rest (diastolic state)

- While vasodilation occurs in the muscles, sympathetic stimulation vasoconstriction - blood vessels dilate

- Increases your systolic blood pressure. - diastolic blood pressure decreases

- Combination of elevating your heart rate and arterial systolic blood pressure helps increase the oxygen supply that your body demands.

With aerobic training, the heart begins to work less to pump blood throughout the body. - - Maintaining a healthy weight can also help with controlling blood pressure.

- Overall lowered blood pressure

- Overall force on your arteries decrease - controlled blood pressure helps your body conserve energy. - timespan for this to occur: 3 months

Cause Effect Reason‐Anticipatoryresponse‐

brainreleasesadrenalinetopreparebody

‐Withexercise,sympatheticnervoussystemisstimulatedincreasesthefrequencyof

sinoatrial(SA)nodedepolarizations.

‐Increaseinheartrate

‐Heartrateincreasessothattheheartisabletoto

deliverasufficientamountofoxygenatedbloodtotheworking

muscles

‐Heartcontractsmoreoften. ‐Increasesstrokevolume

‐Increaseincardiacoutput

‐Theamountofbloodthatispumpedtothesystemiccirculationwitheachheartbeatincreasesinordertomeetthebody’sdemandsforincreased

bloodflow.‐heartcanpumpblood

moreefficiently.

Daas29

- Angiogenesis- expansion in capillary network and formation of new blood vessels - Arteriogenesis- process where existing vessels enlarge by increasing the diameter of the arteries.

- Vascular remodeling - Prevent ischemia in cardiovascular tissue - Prevent plaque buildup - A larger heart can pump more oxygenated blood with each heartbeat without pumping too quickly.

- Venous system undergoes vascularization (an increase in the number of veins and the size of the capillaries)

- Development of strength and endurance

- Decreases muscle fatigue

- larger veins increase venous return.

- An increase in the number of capillaries establishes new paths for oxygen depleted blood to travel back to the heart.

- efficiency in arterial blood flow and venous return - increase in stroke volume - heart is able to pump more blood with less effort.

- Hypertrophy of the heart (+)

- Allows the heart to pump more blood with less effort

Exercise and the Immune System:

The manner in which exercise affects the immune system is that it is able to protect and

even enhance the immune response. Acute effects of exercise depend on the duration of exercise

as well. Short duration exercise is able increase neutrophil concentrations, decrease T

lymphocyte numbers, increase the number of natural killer cells, and enhance the antibody

response. On the other hand, long duration exercise is known to decrease neutrophil

concentrations, decrease the total lymphocyte concentration, and decrease the number of natural

killers. Prolonged high intensity exercise can actually decrease salivary IgA, which offers us less

mucosal protection. A known chronic effect of exercise on the immune system is the fact that

training beings about anti-inflammatory like effects on the immune system. The cause for this is

not really well understood, but as with most systems, exercise strengthens the immune system.

Daas30

Acute:

Short Duration Exercise:

Acute effects on exercise affect the amount and the activity of various types of cells that

play major roles in the immune response. Primarily, neutrophil concentrations increase during

and after exercise. As a result, moderate exercise is able to augment neutrophil functions,

including chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and oxidative burst activity. On the other hand, lymphocyte

concentrations increase during exercise and falls below normal values after long duration

exercise. While acute, intensive exercise is associated with increasing numbers of all lymphocyte

subtypes, the percentage of CD4+ cells, the T lymphocytes, decreases (Gleeson). This is due to

the increase in the NK cell numbers. If measured immediately after or during both moderate and

intense exercise for a short period of time, NK cell activity appears to have increased. The

increase in the number of NK cells is the result of the intensity of the exercise and not due to the

duration of the particular exercise. NK cells are able to strengthen the first line of defense against

acute and chronic viral infections, recognition of tumor cells, and prevention of the spread of

tumor cells. Exercise also enhances the defenses of the immune system by strengthening the

antibody response. During and after exercise, your heart rate rises and your blood circulates more

rapidly. As a result, antibodies are carried in your bloodstream and the delivery of the antibodies

to their desired location more quickly than when blood circulation is slower (McGonigal).

Exercise increases the immune system’s sensitivity to a foreign pathogen any substance that may

cause the body harm. Specifically, the level of IgA antibodies, which reside in mucosal fluids,

increase and are able to increase the body’s defense against upper respiratory tract infections

(McGonical). In addition, an increased rate of blood circulation helps release hormones that

signal the immune cells of intruding bacteria or viral infections. Because physical activity helps

Daas31

flush bacteria from your lungs, you have a decreased chance of obtaining a cold, the flu, or an

airborne illness.

Long Duration Exercise:

During long-duration physical exercise, neutrophil concentrations decrease, thereby

reducing its phagocytosis abilities. This will decrease the immune system’s ability to engulf

bacteria and destroy it. If the intensity of the exercises increases and the duration of the particular

exercise increases as well, the total lymphocyte concentration declines and there is a decrease in

natural killer cell count as well as activity (Gleeson). It was previously mentioned that IgA

antibodies increase with exercise, but high intensity exercise for a prolonged amount of time

actually decreases salivary IgA levels. Strenuous exercise decreases mucosal protection and

increases the chances of acquiring respiratory infections. These elements that contribute to a

depressed immune system after large periods of intense exercise is known as post-exercise

immunosuppression (PEIS) (Pederson). This is associated with an increase incidence of upper

respiratory tract infections, a decrease in lymphocyte numbers in the blood, and impaired

function of natural killer cells and B cells. These effects have been the consequences of the

combination of an increase in the stress hormones, adrenaline and cortisol, which are known to

depress immune function and increases the body’s susceptibility to infection. This is mainly due

(MayoClinic)

Daas32

to the fact that the body’s vulnerability to infection may be the greatest during the incubation

period of an infection, which may worsen the disease outcome.

Chronic:

While exercise and training influence the concentration of cells of the immune system,

the distribution of various lymphocyte subpopulations, and the overall function of the cells

acutely, chronic effects of intense exercise and training have various, opposing effects.

Biomarkers of inflammation that are usually associated with chronic diseases are significantly

reduced in individuals who exercise regularly than those who live a sedentary lifestyle. It is

believed that these anti-inflammatory responses stem from the increase in natural killer cells in

the circulation as well as increased cytolytic action in trained individuals. Researchers are trying

to develop a better understanding of the chronic effect of exercise on trained individuals. As of

right now, the most well known effect of exercise and training is its anti-inflammatory effects.

In contrast to cardiovascular training, the intensity and duration of exercise needed to

support the immune system is much less. While exercise is beneficial to the immune system,

chronic long-term exercise such as running a marathon can actually decrease the number of

white blood cells circulating through the body as well as an increase in the presence of stress-

related hormones, which can contribute and lead to an illness. With chronic periods of heavy

training, several aspects of both the innate and adaptive immunity are often depressed. In

general, while the immune system is body’s natural defender, enhancement or reduction of key

players of the immune response depends on the intensity of the exercise as well as the duration

of the exercise.

Daas33

Summary of the Effects of Exercise on the Immune System:

Table 13: Acute Effects of Short Duration Exercise

Cause: Effect: Reason: - Exercise augments neutrophil function

- Moderate exercise increases chemotaxsis, phagocytosis, and oxidative burst activity.

- Neutrophil concentrations increase during and after exercise

- Due to the intensity of the exercise and not the duration of the exercise

- NK cells are able to strengthen the first line of defense against acute and chronic viral infections, recognition of tumor cells, and prevention of the spread of tumor cells.

- Increase in natural killer cell numbers

- An increase in the number of lymphocyte subtypes, but the % of CD4+ cells (T lymphocytes) decreases)

- Lymphocyte concentrations increase during exercise and falls below normal values

- Increase in natural killer cell numbers

- antibodies are carried in your bloodstream and the delivery of the antibodies to their desired location more quickly than when blood circulation is slower - the level of IgA antibodies, which reside in mucosal fluids, increase and are able to increase the body’s defense against upper respiratory tract infections

- Exercise enhances the defenses of the immune system.

- Physical activity helps you flush bacteria from your lungs.

- you have a decreased chance of obtaining a cold, the flu, or an airborne illness.

- An increased rate of blood circulation helps release hormones that signal the immune cells of intruding bacteria or viral infections.

Daas34

NK cells are able to strengthen the first line of defense against acute and chronic viral infections, recognition of tumor cells, and prevention of the spread of tumor cells.

Increase in Number of Natural Killer Cells:

Table 14: Acute Effects of Long Duration Exercise

Cause Effect Reason

- Long-duration physical exercise

- Reduction in phagocytosis abilities

- Decrease in the immune systems’s

ability to engulf bacteria and destroy it.

- Neutrophil concentrations decrease

- Increase in the intensity and duration of exercise

- Total lymphocyte concentration declines - There is a decrease in natural killer cell

count as well as activity.

- High intensity exercise for a prolonged amount of time

- Decrease in mucosal protection

- Increase in chance of acquiring respiratory

infections.

- Impaired function of plasma B cells a

decrease in salivary IgA levels

- Overall: a depressed immune system after large periods of intense exercise

(post-exercise immunosuppression)

Decrease in number of Natural Killer Cells

- The body’s vulnerability to infection may be the greatest

during the incubation period of infection worsens disease

outcome.

- Depresses immune system function

- Increase the body’s susceptibility to

infections

- Increase in the concentration of stress

hormones (adrenaline and cortisol)

Daas35

- Chronic long-term exercise (i.e running a marathon)

- Contributes and leads to illness

- A decrease in the number of white blood cells circulating the body

- Increase in the presence of stress-related hormones

Table 15: Chronic Effects Cause Effect Reason Biomarkers of

inflammation that are associated with chronic diseases are significantly reduced in individuals who exercise regularly than those who live a sedentary lifestyle.

Immune System is able to provide additional protection with habitual exercise and training.

Cognitive System:

At this point, we know that exercise has positive acute and chronic effects on the

cardiovascular and immune system. Now we will see how endurance exercise like Zumba affects

our cognitive system, particularly by elevating out mood and strengthening our memory. Most of

the observed changes in the brain that are the result of acute and chronic exercise involve

neurogenesis (new nerve cell generation), neurotransmitters (chemical substances that transmits

nerve impulses across a synapse, the tiny communication gap between the neurons in the brain,

and vascular (new blood vessel) adaptations (an increase in neurogenesis has been demonstrated

to improve cognition (Hitti).

Acute:

An acute effect of exercise is that it is able to elevate one’s mood through chemical and

behavioral mechanisms. The basis of the numerous mental benefits of aerobic exercise is

Daas36

neurochemical. Firstly, exercise reduces levels of the body’s stress hormones, such as adrenaline

and cortisol. The adrenal gland releases cortisol in response to stressful situations. As a result,

ability to retrieve long-term memories may be impaired. This is because cortisol is known to

have negative influence on the hippocampus, a part of the brain where memory storage occurs.

In addition, the brain manufactures endorphins, which are released in response to chemicals

known as neurotransmitters. Endorphins act as analgesics, meaning they are able to reduce the

perception of pain by interacting with receptors in the brain. Endorphins are known as the body’s

natural pain relievers and elevators of mood ("Ranking America's Mental Health: An Analysis of

Depression Across the States “). Exercise can be used as a preventative measure for depression

as well as treatment options for a mild form. Another effect of exercise is that increases body

temperature, which in fact has calming effects.

Aerobic exercise also increases the flow of oxygen to the brain and induces rapid delivery

of nutrients to the brain. In order for your brain to retain information, it needs to have a sufficient

amount of oxygen and nutrients. If oxygen levels become too low, your ability to concentrate

decreases as well. If you are unable to concentrate, it becomes difficult to recall information and

learn new information (Moczynski). In addition, with exercise, there is an increase in the

(“TheBrainFromToptoBottom”)

Daas37

baseline levels of glycogen, which really helps maintain and improve the learning and memory

formation portion of the brain, particularly the cortex and the hippocampus (Hitti). With

increased oxygen levels and nutrient levels as well as increased blood circulation in the brain

leads to improved brain performance.

Chronic:

One of the chronic effects of exercise on mood is that it is able to reduce stress, boost

self-esteem, prevent feelings of anxiety and depression, and it can improve sleep (8). In addition,

exercise can help improve memory. It was previously mentioned that one of the acute effects of

exercise is decreased levels of stress hormone, cortisol. Cortisol is also accounted for in the

chronic effects of exercise. With training, the body’s threshold for cortisol release increases and

makes the body more resilient to the numerous effects of stress. An increase in physical activity

assists the body in dealing with physical and emotional stress. Training and daily exercise can

protect the hippocampus from atrophy and as a result, will be able to decrease levels of cortisol

in the bloodstream. Exercise has also been known to increase synapse communication capacity in

the brain by increasing growth factors that help create nerve cells that promote synaptic

plasticity. Brain plasticity facilitates the ability of the brain to develop new neuronal connections

(Hitti). Neurogenesis in the hypothalamus can help with learning and memory storage.

While the chemical mechanisms that reduce stress are acute effects of exercise, the

behavioral factors that contribute to the emotional benefits of exercise are chronic effects of

exercise. As you become more fit and increase your stamina and strength, it improves your self-

image. Exercise has many psychological and emotional benefits too. It can help you gain

confidence and help you feel better about your appearance because you attained it by following

Daas38

through with your fitness goals. Interactive exercises such as Zumba allow you to meet new

people and encourage you to socialize in a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere. The positive

behavioral effects of aerobic exercise will discipline you, but also help you achieve other goals

you have in life. Exercise helps you channel all your thoughts in a healthy and positive way.

Other coping mechanisms often lead to worse symptoms and conditions.

Inconclusion,wehaveexploredallaspectsofthecardiovascular,immunogical,and

cognitivesystems.Exercise,particularlyaerobicfitnessprogramssuchasZumbahelpelicit

numerousacuteandchronicbenefitsinthesesystems.Anincreaseinheartrate,adecrease

inrestingbloodpressure,andhealthyremodelingofthevasculatureoftheheartensuresa

strongcardiovascularsystemthathelpsuspumpoxygenatedbloodeffectivelythroughout

ourbody.Fitnessandtrainingensurethattheimmunesystemincreasesitsprotective

mechanismbyincreasingthattheconcentrationofnaturalkillercellsandneutrophils,

whichaidintheimmuneresponse.Themostbeneficialaspectofexerciseandtrainingon

theimmunesystemisthatantibodiesareabletocirculateinthebloodmorequicklywhen

theyareneeded,whichincreasesmucosalprotection,anddecreasesourchanceof

acquiringupperrespiratoryinfections.Ourcognitivesystemcanbeimpactedbyexercise

aswell.Ourmoodscanbeelevatedwiththepresenceofendorphinsandadecreasein

stressrelatedhormonessuchascortisol.Inaddition,ourabilitytoretrievememoriescan

9

Daas39

improvebecausethereisadecreasedchanceofatrophyofthehippocampus,whichis

responsibleformemoryrecollection.Exercisenotonlyprovidesemotional,psychological,

andphysiologicalbenefits,butitalsochangesthelifestyleoftheindividual.Withexercise

andtraining,anindividualisabletodecreasetheirriskofacquiringcardiovasculardisease,

upperrespiratoryinfections,mooddisorders,anddecreasesthechanceofmemoryloss.

WithZumba,allthesebenefitsareincluded,butinaddition,youaregenuinelyenjoying

yourselfinaparty‐likeatmospherewhilesocializingandmeetingnewpeople.Whileitis

easytogetcaughtupwithallyourresponsibilitiesandcommitments,itisimportantto

makesurethatyourhealthdoesnotdeteriorateduringtheprocess.Hopefullythisthesis

wasabletodemonstratethatanindividual’shealthneedstobeaprioritybecauseexercise

positivelycorrelateswithhealthbenefits.Thereisnobetterwaytodothisthandancing

yourwaytoahealthylifewithZumba.Everybodydance!

Daas40

SummaryoftheEffectsofExerciseonCognitveSystems:

Table 16: Acute Effects

Cause Effect Reason - Elevate one’s mood - Chemical and behavioral

mechanisms - Exercise reduces the body’s

stress hormones (adrenaline and cortisol)

- Improvement in memory (normally, cortisol has a (-) influence on the

hippocampus, which is responsible for memory storage)

-Response to chemicals known as neurotransmitters

- Brain manufactures endorphins (body’s natural pain relievers and

elevators of mood)

- Endorphins act as analgesics able to reduce the perception of

pain by interacting with receptors in the brain.

- Calming effects - Increase in body temperature - Increase in the flow of oxygen

to the brain - Induces rapid delivery of nutrients to

the brain. - In order for your brain to retain information, it needs a sufficient amount of oxygen and nutrients. - If O2 levels become too low

ability to concentrate decreases as well.

- Decreased ability to recall information and learn new

information - Increase in the baseline levels of

glycogens - Helps maintain and improve the

learning and memory function of the brain (cortex and the hippocampus)

- Because of increase O2 and nutrient levels increased blood

circulation improved brain performance

Table 17: Chronic Effects

Cause Effect Type of Effect Reason - Chronic effect of

exercise helps the body deal with emotional and physical stress

- The body’s threshold for cortisol release

increases and makes the body more resilient to the effects of stress.

Chemical - Training and daily exercise can protect the

hippocampus from atrophy decreases level of cortisol in the

bloodstream - Exercise helps increase synapse

- Brain plasticity facilitates the ability of

Chemical - Increases growth factors that help create nerve

Daas41

communication capacity in the brain

the brain to develop new neuronal connections

- Neurogenesis in the hypothalamus helps

with learning and memory storage

cells that promote synaptic plasticity.

- Comfortable atmosphere of a group fitness class such as

Zumba

- Improvement in self- image

- interacting and socializing with

others

Behavioral - You are becoming more fit and you are increasing your

stamina and strength

Daas42

References: "American Heart Association Recommendations for Physical Activity in Adults." American

Heart Association, 26 Mar. 2013. Web. "American Physiological SocietyJournal of Applied Physiology." Immune Function in

Sport and Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2013. "Anatomy of the Brain." Ohio State University: Wexner Medical Center, n.d. Web. 22 Apr.

2013. "Blood." : Red Cells. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Board, A.D.A.M. Editorial. Common Cold. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 18 Jan. 0001.

Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "Body Systems." Circulatory System. The Franklin Institute, n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2013. "Brain (Human Anatomy): Picture, Function, Parts, Conditions, and More." WebMD, n.d.

Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "C3: Complement Opsinogen and Inflammatory Mediator." Davidson College: WWW

Homepage Template for Biology Students. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "Chambers and Valves of the Heart." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education

and Research, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "Chemotaxis." The University of Edinburgh, 12 Nov. 2002. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Cohen, Zoe. "Antibody Function and Complement." Unit 1: Lecture 6. University of Arizona,

Tucson. 20 Sept. 2012. Lecture. Cohen, Zoe. "Innate Immunity." Unit 1: Lecture 3. University of Arizona, Tucson. 5 Sept.

2012. Lecture. "Conduction System of the Heart." Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionar,

2007. Web.

Dugdale, David. "Granulocyte." Scripps Health. American Accreditation HealthCare Commission, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013.

"Eosinophils." Eosinophils. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. "Even If You Aren’t Losing Weight While Exercising, You’re Making Your Heart Stronger."

Daas43

TheRUNiverse. N.p., 19 July 2012. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "Exercise Affects The Brain." Medical News Today. MediLexicon International, 23

May 2012. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. "For Consumers." Coping With Memory Loss. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. Fulton, Brian. "Exercise and Your Brain." Fulton Massage Therapy, 6 Feb. 2012. Web. 23

Apr. 2013. Gleeson, Michael. "American Physiological Society Journal of Applied Physiology."

Immune Function in Sport and Exercise. School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough University, n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.

"Heart Disease Facts." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, 19 Mar. 2013. Web. 24 Mar. 2013. Heil, M., I. Eltonmuller, and Rixen T. Schmitz. "Arteriogenesis versus Angiogenesis:

Similarities and Differences." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2006. Web. 23 Apr. 2013.

"History and Types of Classes." Zumba Fitness, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. <http://www.zumba.com/en-US/about/>. "Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) Health Center – WebMD." WebMD. WebMD, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013.

Hitti, Miranda. "Get Fit, Improve Memory?" WebMD. WebMD, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. Keith, George. "Cardiac Adaptation to Acute and Chronic Participation in Endurance

Sports." Medscape. N.p., 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. <http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/754986_2>.

Kosinski, Robert. "The Effects of Exercise." Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise.

Clemson University, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. <http://biology.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/Lab/111/cardio.htm>.

Laskowski, Edward. "What's a Normal Resting Heart Rate?" Mayo Clinic. Mayo

Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 29 Sept. 2012. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 29 Sept. 2012. Web. 22 Oct. 2012.

"Lysozyme." Protein Data Bank, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Mandal, Ananya. "Antibody - What Is an Antibody?" Antibody - What Is an Antibody? N.p.,

n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013.

Daas44

"Major Histocompatibility Complex." EMBL European Bioinformatics Institute, n.d.

Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Mayer, Gene. "ANTIGENS." Microbiology and Immunology. University of South

Carolina-School of Medicine, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, n.d. Web. 22 Apr.

2013. McGonigal, Kelly. "Exercise and the Immune System: A Stress Lesson." Psychology

Today (2009): n. pag. 22 Oct. 2009. Web. Moczynski, Nancy P. "Cognitive Disorders." Lecture. Tufts University, 2007. Web. "New Releases." Benefits of Exercise–reduces Stress, Anxiety and Helps Fight

Depression. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 March. 2013. Pederson, Bente K., and Laurie H. Goetz. "Exercise and the Immune System:

Regulation, Integration, and Adaptation." 80.3 (2000): 1055-078. University of Waterloo. Web. 16 Feb. 2013.

"Ranking America's Mental Health: An Analysis of Depression Across the States."

Mental Health America:. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. "Research Alert: Weight Loss May Reverse Immune System Damage." ACE Fitness. N.p., n.d.

Web. 23 Apr. 2013. Staff, Mayo Clinic. "Depression and Anxiety: Exercise Eases Symptoms." Mayo Clinic. Mayo

Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 01 Oct. 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. Staff, Mayo Clinic. "Exercise: A Drug-free Approach to Lowering High Blood

Pressure." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 07 Dec. 2012. Web. 15 Feb. 2013.

Staff, Mayo Clinic. "Exercise: 7 Benefits of Regular Physical Activity." Mayo Clinic.

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 23 July 2011. Web. 2 January. 2013.

"The Cardiovascular System." BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/exercise/2_exercise_effectsoftraining_rev3.shtml>.

Daas45

"The Brain From Top To Bottom." N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. "The Sinoatrial Node: The Body's Natural Pacemaker." The Sinoatrial Node. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013. "Understanding Blood Pressure Readings." American Heart Association, n.d. Web. 23 Apr.

2013. "Upper Respiratory Infection (URI or Common Cold)." Johns Hopkins Medicine, Based

in Baltimore, Maryland. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2013.

Appendix A

Everybody Dance!: Zumba and it!s effects on cardiovascular,

immunological and cognitive function

Zinnia Daas and Zoe Cohen

Department of Physiology,

University of Arizona

Immune System:

Acute:

Short Duration Exercise:

Increase in Neutrophil Concentrations:

•!Moderate exercise is able to augment neutrophil function including chemotaxis,

phagocytosis, and oxidative burst activity.

T lymphocyte numbers:

•!Acute, intensive exercise is associated with increased numbers of all lymphocyte

subtypes, but the percentage of CD4+ cells, the T lymphocytes, decreases.

Increase in Number of Natural Killer Cells:

•!NK cells are able to strengthen the first line of defense against acute and chronic

viral infections, recognition of tumor cells, and prevention of the spread of tumor

cells.

Antibody Response:

•!During and after exercise, the delivery of the antibodies can get to their desired

location more quickly.

•!The level of IgA antibodies (in mucosal fluids) increases and is able to increase the

body!s defense against upper respiratory tract infections.

Long Duration Exercise:

Neutrophil concentrations:

•!Neutrophil concentrations decrease, reducing its phagocytosis abilities, and

decreasing the immune system!s ability to engulf bacteria and destroy it.

Lymphocyte Numbers:

•!If the intensity and the duration of the exercises increases, the total lymphocyte

concentration declines.

Decrease in Number of Natural Killer Cells

Antibody Response:

•!High intensity exercise for a prolonged amount of time decreases salivary IgA

levels, decreases mucosal protection, and increases the chances of acquiring

respiratory infections.

Chronic

•!Biomarkers of inflammation that are usually associated with chronic diseases are

significantly reduced in individuals who exercise regularly than those who live a

sedentary lifestyle.

.Cognitive System:

•!Cognition- processes such as memory, attention, language, problem solving, and

planning.

•!Brain- one of the most complex organs in the human body that controls body

temperature, blood pressure, breathing, and heart rate, physical movement,

thoughts, and emotions.

•!Memory- the ability to recover information about past events or knowledge.

•!Hormones stimulate, regulate, and control the function of various tissues and

organs.

•!Acute:

Decrease in the Levels of Stress Hormones: Effect on Memory

•Exercise reduces levels of the body!s stress hormones (adrenaline and cortisol)

and as result, the ability to retrieve long-term memories is improved.

Increase in Level of Endorphins: Effect on Mood

•Endorphins are able to reduce the perception of pain by interacting with receptors

in the brain.

Increase in Delivery of Nutrients ! Brain: Effect on Memory

•An increase in the flow of oxygen to the brain induces rapid delivery of nutrients

to the brain.

•In order for your brain to retain information, it needs to have a sufficient amount of

oxygen and nutrients.

•!Chronic:

Threshold for Stress Hormones Increases: Effect on Memory

•Training and daily exercise are able to decrease levels of cortisol in the

bloodstream and as a result, can protect the hippocampus from atrophy.

Increase in Synapse Communication: Effect on Memory

•Exercise has also been known to increase synapse communication capacity in

the brain by increasing growth factors that help create nerve cells that promote

synaptic plasticity.

•Effect: The brain can develop new neuronal connections (neurogenesis) in the

hypothalamus that can help with learning and memory storage.

Emotional Benefits:

•As you become more fit and increase your stamina and strength, it improves your

self-image.

•Interactive exercises such as Zumba allow you to meet new people and

encourage you to socialize in a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere.

Everybody Dance!: Zumba and it!s effects on cardiovascular,

immunological and cognitive function

Zinnia Daas and Zoe Cohen

Department of Physiology,

University of Arizona

Introduction

Zumba is a fitness program (created by Alberto "Beto# Perez in the

1990s), with classes tailored for different groups of people (children,

adults, and seniors).

The purpose of this thesis was to describe the cardiovascular,

immunological and cognitive effects of aerobic activity such as Zumba,

both in an acute manner (during the class) and chronically (if Zumba is

used as part of a long term training program).

Dance Your Way to a Healthier Life with Zumba!

Cardiovascular System:

Acute Changes:

Increase in Heart Rate:

•!Our heart rate increases so that the heart is able to deliver a

sufficient amount of oxygenated blood to the working muscles.

Heart contracts more forcefully:

•The heart contracts more powerfully, increasing the stroke

volume in order to increase the amount of blood that gets

pumped, and distributed throughout the body with less effort.

Together these increase Cardiac Output.

Blood Pressure:

•While systolic blood pressure tends to increase during

exercise, diastolic blood pressure tends to decrease because

blood vessels dilate during exercise.

Chronic Changes:

Lower Resting Heart Rate:

•Heart rate decreases because the heart itself becomes more

efficient at pumping blood throughout the body.

Increase in the Rate of Oxygen and Nutrient Delivery:

•Blood volume increases and the body produces a greater

number of red blood cells in order to ensure that oxygen is

being supplied to the muscles.

Angiogenesis and Arteriogenesis: Cardiovascular

Remodeling

• A larger heart is able to not only pump more oxygenated

blood with each heartbeat, but it also decreases muscle

fatigue.

References:

"Exercise Affects The Brain." Medical News Today. MediLexicon International, 23 May 2012. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

McGonigal, Kelly. "Exercise and the Immune System: A Stress Lesson." Psychology Today (2009): n. pag. 22 Oct. 2009. Web.

"New Releases." Benefits of Exercise–reduces Stress, Anxiety and Helps Fight Depression. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 March. 2013.

Pederson, Bente K., and Laurie H. Goetz. "Exercise and the Immune System: Regulation, Integration, and Adaptation." 80.3 (2000): 1055-078. University of Waterloo. Web. 16 Feb. 2013.

Staff, Mayo Clinic. "Exercise: A Drug-free Approach to Lowering High Blood Pressure." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 07 Dec. 2012. Web. 15 Feb. 2013.

Staff, Mayo Clinic. "Exercise: 7 Benefits of Regular Physical Activity." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 23 July 2011. Web. 2 January. 2013.

"The Effects of Exercise." Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2013.