EVOLUTION OF WORLDWIDE VISUALLY BASED REPRESENTATIONAL STANDARDS AND TECHNIQUES IN GEOLOGIC MAPPING AND FIELD METHODS SINCE 1817

Brian Campbell, Dept. of Geological, Environmental, & Marine Sciences (GEMS), Elizabeth City State University, Elizabeth City, NC, USA

Lloyd Mitchell, Ph.D., M.P.H., R.S., Dept. of Geological, Environmental, & Marine Sciences (GEMS), Elizabeth City State University, Elizabeth City, NC, USA

ABSTRACT This study explores historical and contemporary evolution of geologic mapping standards and techniques. The hypothesis presented for this study was that the methods used for field data collection and the standards (colors and symbols) used for the recording and representation of geologic data have not changed since the creation of the first set of standards one hundred-fifty years ago. Geologic mapping literature was collected spanning eras throughout the history of geology from the inception of the first mapping standards in 1817 through 2005. Twenty-eight maps (map n=28) and sixteen field journals (journal n= 16) were obtained from geological and historical websites and dated reference material obtained from personal collections held at Elizabeth City State University. Qualitative data analysis was performed in four parts: 1) side by side visual comparison of historical and contemporary maps, 2) review of written accounts describing geologic field methods, 3) infusion of emerging technologies, 4) introduction of new geologic disciplines using emerging technologies. Results of the data analysis indicate, 1) the standards that govern geological mapping products have remained constant in all maps( 28/28, 100%) throughout the past 150 years except for minor variation in color scheme and the introduction of additional geologic symbols, 2) field techniques of geological mapping have remained consistent since mapping standardization except for the introduction of more precise technically based tools and procedures, 3) the introduction of emerging technologies have allowed for long range mapping and monitoring of remote areas and landforms, 4) new fields of study, such as planetary geology and GIS imaging, have emerged in association with advancing technologies. As a result of this consistency in method and product, a comprehensive world wide approach to geology has emerged, with a dynamic system of standards that continues to adapt as new technologies and disciplines emerge. Recommendation for further study include: classifications of variations of field mapping techniques throughout differing cultural regions before the excepted standards of the 1800’s, review of geologic mapping standards using examples from multilingual sources to establish common historical practices, examination of terrestrial mapping standards on Earth versus those for mapping terrain in planetary geology, funding for analysis of satellite images of heavenly bodies to determine common geologic processes.

METHODOLOGY

Qualitative data analysis was performed in four parts: 1) side by side visual comparison of historical and contemporary maps, focusing on visual standards and

degree of usefulness. 2) written accounts describing geologic field methods, were sampled through out the given time frame to trace changes in field method. 3) standards for representation of data were to determine how the infusion of emerging technologies has

effected the overall product. 4) research was done into the introduction of new scientific disciplines using emerging technologies

LITERATURE SEARCH

Historical references and diagrams were obtained from sources found in Elizabeth City State University’s Geological, Environmental, and Marine Sciences (GEMS) Department and from private collections belonging to GEMS professors. Additional information was collected from sources on the internet and from personal interviews with geologists. Maps and diagrams were reviewed for historical significance and use of contemporary data collection technique. Comparisons were made based on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the individual works. Literature search results indicated: 1.) The introduction of standardized methods in field data collection broadened the range of useful information that could be extracted from each map, 2.) The standards that govern geological mapping products have remained constant in all maps( 28/28, 100%) throughout the past 150 years except for minor variation in color scheme and the introduction of additional geologic symbols, 3.) Field techniques of geological mapping have remained consistent since mapping standardization except for the introduction of more precise technically based tools and procedures, 4.) The introduction of emerging technologies have allowed for long range mapping and monitoring of remote areas and landforms, 5.) New fields of study, such as planetary geology and GIS imaging, have emerged in association with advancing technologies

REFERENCES

1) Compton, R. (1985). Geology in the Field. New York, New York, USA:John Wiley and Sons Inc ISBN:0-471-82902-1

2) Thomas, W. (2004). Meeting Challenges with Geologic Maps. American Geological Institute. Alexandria, Virginia, USA ISBN: 0-922152-70-5

3) Winchester, S. (2001). The Map That Changed The World : William Smith and the Birth of Modern Geology. HarperCollins ISBN: 00-601-9361-1

4) Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1961). Springfield, Massachusetts, USA: G. & C. Merriam Company

5) Ethical Atheist ( September, 14 2001) William Smith, On the Legend Of The Geologic Hero Valiant Fight Against The Forces Of Religious Dogma http://www.ethicalatheist.com Accessed 25 January 05

6) Dr. Ian West Geology of Great Britain (2003). http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/Geology-Britain.htm Accessed 24 February 05

7) A Guide For Writing Research Papers Based On Styles Recommended By The American Psychological Association http://www.webster.commnet.edu/apa/ Accessed 24 February 05

8) Mike Tuke (1991) Volcano In The Lab A Wax Volcano In Action: Teachers Notes http://www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/jesei/volcano/home.htm Accessed February 5 2005

HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT

The methods used for field data collection and the standards (colors and symbols) used for the recording and representation of geologic data have not changed since the creation of the first set of standards one hundred-fifty years ago.

CONCLUSION The earliest geologists used primarily written records derived from handwritten field notes and drawn diagrams. This resulted in difficulties with communication due to indecipherability of hand writing and language barriers among scholars. Diagrams were artistically and quantitatively inconsistent due to the varying talents of the individual scientist. With the standardization of the artistic aspects, field data collection became more universal, thus crossing communication barriers, allowing a full range of qualitative and quantitative information to be included in the process of geologic mapping. The data collection techniques used by individual scientists while in the field today remains the same as in the past with the exception of the introduction of more technically based tools and procedures, which have emerged with advances in technology. With the introduction of computer technologies, it has become increasingly important for the current geologist to develop the ability to discern artistically based patterns due to the range and quantity of data available.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThomas Rossbach Ph.D. Dept. of Geological, Environmental, & Marine Sciences (GEMS), Elizabeth

City State University, Elizabeth City, NC, USA Elizabeth Noble, Dept. of Geological, Environmental, & Marine Sciences (GEMS), Elizabeth City State

University, Elizabeth City, NC, USA Paulette V. Campbell, Edenton, NC, USA

Often referred to as “The Map that Changed the World” developed in 1817 by William Smith, was the first map to show classifications of surface strata indicated by colour and pattern. This map took nearly two decades to compile.

Geologic maps made in 1904 (left), through the efforts of several scientist, and 2000 (right), created with GIS by a single scientist, were found to have little variation from Smith’s map. Though the color key is different each still shows the same patterns of surface strata and area of similar mineral deposits.

PURPOSE OF STUDY

The purpose of this study is to trace the growth and evolution of geologic mapping standards since the creation of the first geologic map in 1817 by comparing historical maps which were hand drawn and hand coloured with contemporary geologic maps which were produced utilizing higher standards of coloration, pattern printing technologies, and advance data gathering techniques.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

RESULTS

1.) Geologic standards associated with patterns used to designate rock and mineral types have remained constant since their inception. 2.) Colour standards used to depict strata have varied over the course of time.3.) New standards in geologic mapping have emerged and accepted by the academic community with the introduction of modern technologies. 4.) Planetary geology has lead to the creation of new standards in geologic mapping.

RECOMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

Variations of field mapping techniques throughout differing cultural regions. Review of geologic mapping standards using examples from multilingual sources to establish common historical practices. Examination of terrestrial mapping standards on Earth versus those for mapping terrain in planetary geology. Funding for analysis of satellite images of heavenly bodies to determine common geologic processes.