NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEWWrap-up of Peoples and cultures of the Plains

What was the number 1 subsistence resource in the Plains region? How many different uses were there for this particular animal resource? Buffalo At least 100 different uses

Mobility modes; which three Plains tribes were NOT nomadic? Semi-sedentary and semi-nomadic in North Dakota and the Great Lakes1. Mandan2. Hidatsa3. Arikara

Which tribes on the Plains practiced horticulture? Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara in North Dakota Most tribes of the southern Plains and south of the Great Lakes

Karl Bodmers paintings recorded Plains culture and people about 30 years before they were ever photographed

True or False: all native men of the Plains always wore their hair in two braidsFALSE???

Four of the most important spiritual and ceremonial traditions on the Plains were and are:1. Vision quest2. Sun dance3. Sweat lodge4. Pipe bundle ceremonies

Each sweat lodge has a guardian spirit and a human caretaker, or else you might as well just be having a sauna

Intro to History Unit-European cultures, cosmology and class division at time of early colonialism in America; Native American/European culture differences at time of first contact; Motivations of Colonial-Era Europeans for going to America, and how they varied by social class

What are the two primary types or categories of difference between traditional Native American cultures and European cultures? Spiritual and economic

????Understand the key concepts of Dominion Theology and the Great Chain of Being. God ordained social and natural hierarchies (higher and lower beings with greater and lesser rights and privileges) Humans created in the image of God and the higher-ranked humans direct Gods will on Earth and bring everything into proper subjection These beliefs justify the policies and deeds of European colonialism and the establishing of their dominion in America

What sort of rights regarding the use of natural resources did the people who believed in that cosmology assume? How did the cosmology affect their attitudes toward and relationships with people who were not Christians or differed from them in beliefs and culture? They thought they were superior to the earth itself. All life on earth were under the rightful subjection of king and head of the church under this dominion theology and great chain of being. They could do what they want as far as taking the resources of the earth. Basic assumption that people who are not of your type or country or religion were considered lesser than (inferior), they only had value when they were more like the Europeans

Identify the 3 basic social classes in Europe at the time of first contact1. The peasants or serfs2. The royals (aka, nobles, including the sub-royals)3. The merchants and skilled tradesmen

Which class of Europeans in that era believed most strongly in the Dominion Theology/Great Chain of Being cosmology? Which class of Europeans was also oppressed by that cosmology? Believers = Ruling Class, Alliance of church and state and their peers Oppressed = serfs, peasants

Be sure to read Coursepack articles #20, 21, 22

Which class was the largest and from which class did most of the immigrants to America come? Peasant Class

Motivations of the peasant class for going to America to be freed from the oppressive dominion of the royals to own land and have access to natural resources to become somewhat like the royals

What is an indentured servant? Someone who works for someone else to pay off debt and later gain their freedom

Main motivations of the royals of Europe for sending people to America dominion natural resources wealth for state and church

Differences in Cultural Values and Beliefs (Coursepack #20); understand the key differences that we underlined; differences in religion, economics and resource use

The three stages of early European/Native American Interaction during the Colonial Era

Be able to identify the three stages of European/Native American interaction in the order which they normally occurred (chronological sequence) Friendly and Reciprocal Demographic Shift and Conflicts Establishment of Dominion

What was Spains Requerimiento? (Coursepack #22) How did the Spanish approach to acquiring dominion differ from the English? The document that required Indians to acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and Superior of the whole world, the Pope as high priest, and the king and queen of Spain as lords of their lands. The Spanish usually skipped the friendly/reciprocal and demographic shift conflict changes and went right away to the establishment of Dominion.

What did the Europeans get of value from the early stages of intercultural trade compared to the Indians? Interpreters Guides Knowledge about the natural resources of America (foods, medicines, wildlife, etc.) Knowledge about land and people

Identify a few of the epidemic diseases that were the most devastating to Native American tribes during the colonial era Smallpox Bubonic plague Cholera Measles Tuberculosis

Differences in dependency on each others trade goods at the different stages Beginning Stage: Europeans had much to gain and were quite dependent on the American Indian People Middle Stage: Depended on each other equally??? Final Stage: Native people now dependent on Europeans and their economic institutions, systems; Euros much less dependent on Natives, since they have the land

European land acquisition: buying, stealing, or something else? (Discussion of Coursepack articles 23a and 23b)

What were the cultural misunderstandings between Europeans and Indians about land ownership and Native American leadership?

Coursepack #23, Economic and Cultural Impact of Early Contact with Europeans; identify the 6 items in bold printwhich item of impact was the most significant?1. Epidemic Diseases2. New Technology (European trade goods)3. Loss of Homelands4. Loss of Time5. Warfare to New Extremes6. Devaluation of Culture

Native Americans and the New Republic; Thomas Jeffersons Indian Policies; The Doctrine of Discovery (Utter, pp. 10-20); the Indian Removal Act of 1830; Treaties and Reservations

Overview of Coursepack article #28, common elements of wars involving intertribal armies defending their world against the colonialists and the U.S. Intertribal armies form when its too late; give people the benefit of the doubt and when they find out these people are incorrigible, its too late, too main invaders Ultimately fail; some temporary victories where they drive people out, but they come back

What were Jeffersons three different attitudes and policies toward Indians (Plan A, B, and C)? Come and Join Us Get Out of Our Way Resistance is Punishable by Death

Which plan did Jefferson express when talking directly to Indians? Plan A

Which plan resembles our modern credit system to some degree? Plan B

Was Jefferson opposed to using violence to remove Indian nations from their lands? NOPE

What was the purpose of the Indian Removal Act of 1830? to acquire the Indian lands east of the Mississippi for the expanding industrial economy to expand the production of cotton, which by 1820 had become the most profitable agricultural crop in U.S. history (32% of export revenue) (The main focus of the Removal became the tribes of the deep south)What was Indian Territory and where was it located? How many tribes were sent there between 1830 and 1889? The place which all or any American Indian nations were placed after being removed by force from their homelands in the U.S. Located in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska 67 tribes sent there

Was there only one Trail of Tears? No, there were many trails of tears

Why did the Removal process focus mostly on the tribal nations of the Deep South? What did the rapid expansion of the cotton industry have to do with it? To expand the production of cotton, which by 1820 had become the most profitable agricultural crop in U.S. history (32% of export revenue)

Identify a few impacts of the Removal on the tribes involved. What issues did they have to deal with and what sorts of adjustments did they have to make after they arrived there? Between to 1/3 of the deported Native Americans died on the way to Indian Territory Major adjustment to new ecosystems, new world in Indian Territory: poverty, economic dependency, sickness, more loss of lives Conflicts with the tribal nations who were already there Internal conflicts and divisions within the tribes

Definition for Treaty A binding legal agreement between two or more sovereign nations

Definition of a reservation A small remnant of a tribal nations original homeland, reserved by the U.S. government by treaty for the exclusive use of the tribe, or tribes, named in the treaty, after the U.S. took the rest of their homeland.

What are the two main legal precedents which establish tribal sovereignty? The sovereignty of Native American tribal nations is affirmed by the U.S. Constitution, Article 1, sections 8 and 10 several Supreme Court rulings, as well as by the treaties themselves.

Identify the main provisions of Articles 1, 2, 3, and 5 of the treaties1. Describes the geographic boundaries of the Indian land to be taken by the U.S.2. Reserves a little of the Indian land for the original owners (although the native people thought of themselves more as caretakers of the land)defines the boundaries of the reservations3. Preserves some Indian subsistence rights (hunting, fishing, and plant food gathering)5. establishes Native economic dependency on the U.S. and U.S. economic responsibility for the welfare of Indian people, based on economic promises that the U.S. devised and made in this article (not asked for by the Indians)

Which 2 treaty articles had the most to do with creating economic dependency for Indians on reservations? Article 1 Article 5What percentage of their original homelands were the Salish and Kootenai tribes left with after the creation of the Flathead Indian Reservation? 5.7% of the original land base

3 purposes of U.S./Indian treaties1. to take Indian lands for the expansion of the United States2. to keep Indians out of the way of U.S. expansion by confining them to reservations3. to preserve peace and prevent Indian retaliation4. to avoid the costs of war

Why did the U.S. senate reject all of the treaties with the Indian tribes of California in 1852? The mining interests did not want to have any potential gold or silver mines inaccessible due to being on reservations

U.S. Grants Peace Policy of 1871 recognize 2 things that it did No treaties, no new reservations Turn over the education promise (build schools)

How many treaties were made and broken? 370 treaties were made 370 were broken

What did the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 do to Indian Territory? Took away the northern 2/3 of Indian Territory

Main impacts of treaties and reservations (Coursepack #33, especially bold print headings and key comments from lecture) Loss of homeland and resource base Tribes restricted to reservation lands Subjected to the authority of agents of the U.S. government Economic dependency on the U.S. government Missionaries had a captive audience and were given the authority to start boarding schools The chiefs gradually lost authority and respect among their people The effect of all of the above was frequent periods of starvation, various other hardships and health problems related to poverty, cultural devaluation and loss of culture.

Boarding Schools and their Impacts on Native American People

Motivations for the boarding school and allotment ideas

In what ways were the people behind these ideas both benevolent and paternalistic? benevolent (well-meaning), but also ethnocentric (belief that ones own culture is the standard by which all others should be measured) and paternalistic (treating others like children)

Names of the first Indian boarding school and its founder School: Carlisle Indian Industrial School Founder: Colonel Richard Pratt

Purpose of the boarding schools To train Native American children in the industrial arts, so they could be accepted in U.S. society

How many off-reservation boarding schools were there in the U.S. by 1899? 25 off-reservation boarding schools (in 13 different states)

8 impacts of boarding schools on Native American people and tribes described in lecture1. alienated children from their families and tribes2. caused loss of language and culture3. created low self-esteem and negative self-images in the students (internalized racism)4. gave the Indian students a distorted view of Euro-Americans (both negative and positive distortions)5. provided the Native American students with some basic literacy and some marketable industrial skills6. created some people who could not fit well into either the Euro-American world or the world they came from7. gave some Indians a distrust of and aversion towards Euro-American formal education8. disrupted and degraded Native American child-raising traditions and nurturing processes

How did the boarding schools effect Indian cultural continuity, including parenting and nurturing practices? Deliberate attack on the Indian culture, only way to save them from Genesi or being wiped out is to convert and transform them to live like European Americans The methods they used to achieve the deculturalization of many people did the most harm to parenting and nurturing. Removing kids from the nurturing environment from their home community Physical abuse (not only beating as punishment, but rape)

What was often the first thing that the schools forbade and punished students for when they first arrived at the schools? The speaking of their language

The Allotment Act and its Impact on Native American Tribes and People

Carl Schurz and Henry Dawes began designing the Allotment Act one year after what major event which created an increased anti-Indian sentiment in America? Why did it take ten years of very difficult compromise to get the law passed? Custers defeat (much hostility against Indians, nationwide) Took ten years because there was so much resistance to it from the anti-Indian industrialists and politicians

Refer to Coursepack #38, 2 parts: part 1, main points of the Allotment Act, and part 2, impacts of the Allotment Act

Part 11. Indians must end common (or group) ownership of tribal land. - divided reservation lands into 160 acre lots, to be claimed by each individual head of household (males only, unless a woman was a widow) - single heads of households could get 80 acres.2. There would be a 25 year patent on each lot, held "in trust" by the U.S. government, so that Indians couldn't sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their allotments without govt. permission. (The Act was amended in1891 to allow leasing of allotments) (Roots of the federal trust responsibility and the Cobell case.)3. Each Indian head of household was given four years to select an allotment, or the government would select one for them. 4. All unclaimed lots could be declared surplus lands and "assigned" (or given by the government) to non-Indians. This was the primary reason that Congress passed the Act.5. Any Indians who would choose to abandon tribal ties and allegiances could become citizens of the United States.

Part 2 1. More loss of land: through non-Indian seizures of unclaimed lots and reductions in size of the reservations, 2/3 (two thirds) of the reservation lands were lost by 1934. (Burke Act of 1906 ended 25-year trust) - 138 million acres reduced to 48million acres (20 million of which was desert or poor" land) 2. Further breakdown of tribal unity. (Conflicts between those who resisted Allotment and those who submitted to it.) 3. Environmental destruction by mining, logging and ranching outfits (and others) who took the unclaimed lots. 4. Increased close contact with white society, domination by whites and influences of white culture. (including blood quantum, race concept) 5. Increased assimilation to white culture, by Indians, and loss of Indian culture (beginnings of Indian cowboy culture) 6. Increased economic dependency on white Americans, including the conversion from subsistence to the cash economy

number of acres allotted to individuals; why were lots held in trust by the government; meanings of surplus land, blood quantum 160 acres held in trust so that Indians couldnt sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their allotments without govt. permission surplus lands=all unclaimed lots that can and would be assigned by the government to non-Indians blood quantum= the fraction of a persons genes that are allegedly inherited from Native American ancestors

How much reservation land was lost due to the Allotment Act? 2/3

Two reasons for cowboy culture among some Native Americans increased assimilation to white culture, by Indians loss of Indian culture

Early 20th Century Developments in American Indian History; Indian reorganization Act of 1934: WWII and changes in Indian Policy

After oil was discovered in Oklahoma, what % of Indian allotments were lost? 90%

What was the purpose of the Curtis Act of 1898? To deny the validity of the governments of tribal nations

In what year were all Native Americans granted U.S. citizenship? 1924

What four areas of Indian life did the Merriam Commission study?1. Health2. Housing3. Employment, cash income4. Education

How was John Collier different in attitude towards Indian culture than most of the previous B.I.A personnel? Collier actually liked Native American cultures and thought that they should be protected and restored

What was the new agenda that Collier brought to the B.I.A, and how did that reflect the Merriam Report and treaty obligations? Wanted to preserve Indian cultures as much as possible. Succeeded to a small degree

Coursepack #43-the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934; know the four main points; What form of government was imposed on the tribes (if they agreed to accept it)?1. Ended the Allotment Act policies2. Created Federal Programs for Indian Economic Assistance3. Restored the Right of Indian Tribes to Have Tribal Governments4. Tribal Acceptance of the I.R.A. was optional Govt imposed= traditional tribal governments (created layers of bureaucracy?)

Number of Native Americans who served in WWII 45,000 (25,000 from Reservations, 20,000 off reservations)

Four U.S. government goals (policies) concerning Indians and their lands after WWII1. more natural resources needed for the cold war against the Soviet Union and international communism2. reservation lands have natural resources so the U.S. seeks to acquire more of those lands3. many in Congress hope to escape from economic obligations to treaty tribes4. assimilating Indians more into the urban mainstream as another racial minority group rather than as members of sovereign nations seen as the best way to accomplish the above goals

What motivations did those policies have in common?

3 new Indian Programs (1946, 1952, 1953)identify the programs, purposes 1946, the Indian Claims Commission official purpose: to settle monetary debts the U.S. owed to Native American nations for lands taken during the treaty period unofficial purpose: to convince Native Americans with reservations to accept more money for the rest of their lands 1952, the Voluntary Relocation Program to encourage Indians to leave their reservations and relocate to the American cities for their own economic benefit to further assimilate Native Americans into U.S. society and culture 1953, the Termination Resolutions (an Act of Congress) to terminate the status of Indian tribal sovereign nations, and thus end U.S. treaty obligations, trust responsibilities, and the existence of Indian reservations

Programs of the 50s and 60s, cont.: Native American Activism in the 20th century; The Indian Claims Commission and its effect on the Western Shoshones (excerpt from the film, Broken Treaty at Battle Mountain)

What did it mean for a tribe to be terminated by the federal government?

How many tribes were officially terminated by 1962? 61

Identify the National Congress of Americans Indianswho are they and what do they do? Tribal nations uniting to work together for their common interests (lobbying Congress, etc.) Main Goals: to keep their remaining lands and their sovereignty; improve economic conditions and opportunities, including education and job training; promote healing

The American Indian Movement (AIM), know their goals and their significance Indian youth-led organization working for similar goals as the NCAI, but in their own special way; started by mostly college-educated, urban Indians, then some reservations GOALS: Get Americas immediate attention and spread awareness of Native American issues and concerns Fight for Native American treaty rights, civil rights, and against racism and discrimination in cities as well as on the reservations Protect tribal sovereignty and traditional cultures Learn and teach their tribal cultures and history Teach the true history of America

What did AIM accomplish through their radical media presence? They would occupy areas and made a statement for all Indians.

What did they call the march and gathering at Washington D.C. in 1972? Trail of Broken Treaties

Did the Indian Claims Commission offer to pay tribes the present-day market value for lands that were taken in the 19th century?NO!!Why did some Western Shoshones not accept the claims payment money, and why did some other Western Shoshones accept the money?Not Accept Didnt believe what the BIA officer was sayingAccept So poor, they had to support their family some how and took it

What were some positive results from Indian activism in the 1960s and 70s? Ended the termination and relocation policies Some terminated tribes restored to federal recognition Some stolen indian lands returned Major change in B.I.A. policy

Which U.S. president was the first to return some of the stolen lands to a Native American tribal nation? Nixon

Name two of the tribes whom the United States returned formerly-confiscated lands to between 1971 and 19801. Taos Pueblo2. Yakama3. Passamaquoddy4. Penobscot

Native American Activism in the 20th century, cont:; The Indian Self Determination Act of 1975; Cultural revival; Employment and Economic Development on Reservations Today; 21st Century Indigenous Activism

How did the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 change the role of the BIA? A shift from Bossing Indians Around to a new role for the B.I.A as accountants and auditors (but still bureaucrats) just making sure that tribes do what they said they would do with the money

How did that Act help with tribal cultural revival efforts, and with dealing with tribal health issues? A shift to tribal autonomy was not automatic and depended on tribes readiness and willingness to take over programs Allowed for many innovative, culturally-friendly alternative schools and programs to begin Increased cultural pride and renewal, increased participation in traditional cultural activities Steps toward healing the deep wounds of colonialism, health issues, etc.

How did it improve educational opportunities for Native Americans? Culturally friendly alternative schools and programs began Number of tribal community colleges increased rapidly (34 at present)

Unemployment on American Indian reservations averages around 50-60% (ranging from 2% to 90%) What do these statistics fail to take into account? Traditional subsistence---hunting, gathering, horticulture, the hidden, or underground economy

What conditions must exist for a tribal casino to be successful? About what percent of the Indian casinos actually are very successful?1. Location: must be near or accessible to major population centers2. Large amount of start-up capital: $2 million It takes money to make moneymay require outside investors, partners3. Expertise: capable, experienced managers, with the tribes best interests at heart4. Political savvy: must be willing and able to successfully negotiate with the state

Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988: What were the stated purposes of this Act, and what does the Act actually do to the tribes (esp., the threat to tribal sovereignty)? Requires any tribal nation that wants to operate a high states casino to negotiate an agreement with the state in which they reside regarding the types of gaming that they can operatewhich leads to states taking a cut of the profits Violation of Article 1, secs. 8 & 10 of the constitution, and a limitation on tribal sovereignty

Identify a few other economic development tools on present day reservations besides casinos Tourism-related businesses (museums, culture centers, hotels, restaurants, etc) Arts, traditional crafts, other small businesses, stores Large-scale manufacturing, industry Natural resource-extracting industries (logging, mining) tribal operations or leased out Education: tribal colleges, cultural workshops and camps, etc. Government jobs both tribal and B.I.A Ranching and farming

What are the federal criteria for recognition of Native American tribes?1. The tribe must have been identified as American Indian from historic times to the present2. A substantial portion of the tribe must live in a specific (geographic) area or in a distinctly American Indian tribal community. The members must also be descended from a tribe that historically inhabited a certain geographic area.3. The tribe must have maintained some sort of tribal government or council with authority or influence over its members, from historic times to present4. The tribe must have their own membership criteria and governmental procedures5. The tribal government must keep a list or roll of all current tribal members6. The tribes members can not be members of more than one tribe7. The tribe must not have been previously terminated by Congress or disqualified for recognition by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (B.I.A)

Who has the right to determine requirements for individual membership in Indian tribes? Each tribe has the right to set their own criteria for who can be an enrolled member of that tribe

How does modern criteria for tribal membership differ from the pre-European contact traditions for accepting new members into tribes? C ESSAY QUESTIONS#1 & #3