Exam I Notes

7/27/2019 Exam I Notes

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Juhi Ramchandani

Lab Exam IBiol 251

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6 am TAs = Elizavetha & Pete

Systemic circulation Pulmonary circulation = circulation of the lungs Heart

o Receiving chamber = atria Receive blood from Veins (Vena Cava or Pulmonary) ***PULMONARY VEIN = Only vein that has OXYGENATED

blood to the heart

All other veins carry deoxygenated blood to the hearto Dispersing chamber = ventricle

Send blood away via Arteries ***PULMONARY ARTERY = Only artery that carries

DEOXYGENATED blood away from the heart

o Right Atrium Receives blood from Superior and Inferior Vena Cava Sends blood to Right Ventricle

o Right ventricle Sends blood from Right atrium to lungs

o Lungs Blood comes back via pulmonary circulation to Left Atria thru

pulmonary veins Left = Oxygenated

o Left Atria Receives oxygenated blood from lungs (pulmonary veins)

o Left ventricle Receives blood from atria Pumps blood to body Thicker b/c of greater resistance Systemic circulation Goes to Aorta (biggest)

Valveso Atriaventricular Valve

Right = Tricuspid Valve Left = Bicuspid Valve (Mitral Valve) Try before you buy LAB RAT

Left Atria Bicuspid Right Atria Tricuspid

o Semilunar valves A.k.a. Aortic or Pulmonary valve Closed when Heart is RELAXING In arteries, prevent blood backflow into heart


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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o If AV valve is OPEN, Semilunar valve is CLOSED When we need to fill the ventricles When we need to disperse blood from the heart

o Cuspids Chordae tendinae

oPapillary muscles Attached at chords that control the leaflets of the valves Pull on leaflets of valves Prevents blood flow of blood to atria Cardiac muscles When they contract, they pull on chords, which pull on leaflets,

which inhibits blood flow from atria to ventricle

o These two Prevent Backflow! Pericardium

o 2 layerso

Space in between layers = pericardial cavity Somewhat lubricated to prevent damage due to friction Pericardial fluid or Blood (diseases)

o Pericardial Tamponade Filled with blood = constricts heart (muscle doesnt stretch

properly, not very well compressible)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Heart Modelo Female = 300 g, Male = 350 go Auricles

Ears of the heart Extension of the atria

Appendages of upper chambers of heart Sometimes we need extra space, when heart does not require as

much pumping

Storage of blood Used under extraneous activity conditions (not used normally

under daily conditions)

o Base of the heart (back) = flattero Kidney

Renal artery Originally much branched, but collects usually into 2 (L &

R)

oSmaller you are, the higher your heart rate

o Infant doesnt have a developed circularity system, so heart just keepsworking (without a lot of resistance) Dont freak out unless infant heart rate is >200 bpm

o Apex Pointed edge of heart @ bottom

Cardiac Muscleo Intermediate between skeletal & smooth muscleo Can receive impulses from nervous system & can create its own impulses

Specialized cells that discharge signal Concentrated in SA (sinoatrial) node

Depolarize and disperse signal thru Right Atria, which causes it tocontract and dump blood into RV Signal travels to the AV (Atriaventricular) Node Signal dispersed to bundle of branches to bulbs of ventricle This causes ventricles to contract

Septumo Walls between the R & L sideso Between ventricles = Interventricular Septum

Heart Stimulationo SA Node = Pacemaker of the heart (stimulate signal to cause heart to

contract) Once pacemaker potential reached, stimulates action potential,

which travels down to the AV node and subsequently Purkinjefibers (neurons)

o SA Node AV Node Purkinje fibers (located in ventricular portion)o Myogenic activity

Activity originates in the muscle of the heart SA Node can receive impulses from CNS


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Juhi Ramchandani

Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Heart contraction

o Atria contracted simultaneouslyo 0.1 s later, Ventricles contracto Valves propel blood to ventricles from atriao When heart contracts, blood pushes against valves and creates a sound

(heard using a stethoscope) 1st sound = AV valve (louder)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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When blood reaches ventricles, valves close. Ventriclescontract and the blood pushes against the valves, creating a

loud sound

Blood exits via arteries (Aorta or Pulmonary) When blood going to Aorta or Pulmonary Arteries, semilunar

valves are closed (when heart relaxes) Relaxes so blood in arteries does not return back to the

heart 2nd sound = Blood against semilunar valve (softer)

Need blood to leave heart Semilunar valves prevent blood backflow into heart Semilunar valves close as blood exits via arteries While Heart relaxes, blood pushes back against the

Semilunar valves, creating a sound

o Semilunar valves = located in arteries CLOSED during RELAXATION OPEN during CONTRACTION Blood Arteries

o AV Valves CLOSED during CONTRACTION OPEN during RELAXATION Blood: Atria Ventricles

Heart contractiono During filling, need to relax the hearto Once filled, heart needs to contracto AV valve closes, Semilunar valve openso Blood goes to arteries

Coronary Circulationo Provides blood supply (oxygenation) to heart & Removes deoxygenated

blood

o Coronary arteries Provides oxygenated blood to heart Aorta L & R Coronary arteries Myocardium

o Coronary Veins Coronary Arteries Capillaries Coronary Veins

Arterieo Branch to form arterioles

Have a smaller lumen (hole)o Arterioles branch to Capillaries

Gas & nutrient exchange Endpoint where O2 and nutrients dumped & collect CO2 & waste

o Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins Veins


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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o Have valves that open only 1 wayo When blood from capillaries are collected by venules, blood collected in

veins

o Skeletal muscle contraction assists with blood flow back to heart Why pregnant women have leg swelling (edema)

Lymphatic system

o Collects excess interstitial fluid & dumps extra fluid back to circulatoryfluid (to prevent edema)

o Acts vs. proteins & fluids that leak out of capillarieso Elephantitis = blockage of lymphatic system

Artery vs. Veino 70% blood on venous side (reservoir)o Due to the thinner wallo Arteries thicker than veins?

Aorta Right & Left Coronary arteries Anterior Interventricular artery

o Between R & L ventricleso Branch of Left Coronary

Circumflex Arteryo Semicircle at the top of the heart (superior heart)

Marginal arteryo Branch off Right Coronary

Posterior Interventricular Arteryo Posterior/dorsal hearto Runs in between ventricleso Off of Right Coronary artery

Openings in semilunar valve area = openings to coronary arterieso Sinuses of Valsalva

Small depressions on the walls, making the wall/lumen of the aortalarger

On the inside part (inner lining) of the aorta itself, not at the site ofthe aortic valve (semilunar valve)

Great Cardiac Veino Next to Anterior Interventricular arteryo Drains into Coronary sinus

Middle Cardiac veino Drains into Coronary sinuso Follows Posterior Interventricular artery


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Fetal Circulation

Lungs & liver dont operate yet, so rely on placenta Placenta used for oxygenation of blood

o Takes oxygen from blood of moms circulationo Blood never meets (unless tear/accidental exposure due to injury)o Baby sends blood to placenta and oxygen from moms blood

Higher affinity for oxygen than adult blood Fetus

o Umbilical cord plugged into baby (***Newborn if not plugged in!!!) Circulation

o Since lungs not functional yet, must bypass lung Once blood drained into Right Atria, there is a hole in the wall

between R & L Atria

Foramen Ovale = Hole between Atrias Since the pressure of R Atria higher than L, Blood goes

thru hole in the wallo ****Switches when baby is born!

Most blood in R Atria goes straight thru Foramen Ovale L Atria

Newborn:o Foramen Ovale (hole) Fossa Ovalis (depression)

AV valve not shut down on R side; this allows blood to travel to RVentricle & to Pulmonary artery

Must bypass blood from Pulmonary Artery Aorta 2nd shunt located between these 2 areas

o Ductus Arteriosis Bypasses Pulmonary Circulation (to lungs) & shunts blood

to Ascending Aorta

Newborn:o Ductus Arteriosis Ligamenum Arteriosis

Blood still leaking to the lungs, enough to nourish the lungs Umbilical Veins

***Bring oxygenated blood to fetus (Opposite from adults!) *RED! One vein

Umbilical Arteries ***Collect deoxygenated fetal blood and bring it to

placenta

Blood oxygenated in placenta via Mothers circulation *BLUE! 2 Arteries Newborn:

o Lateral Umbilical Ligaments


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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o Placental Liver function Blood must bypass liver

Ductus Venosus Oxygenated blood from Umbilical vein Inferior Vena Cava Newborn:

Ligamentum Vennosumo Umbilical Vein Ductus Venosus Inferior Vena Cava R Atria LAtria & R Ventricle Pulmonary Artery Ductus ArteriosisAscending Aorta

***Cat circulation: 8 QUESTIONS!!!

Hepatic Portal System

Originates at capillaries of Gastrointestinal system Ends at capillaries of Liver NO ARTERIES! (just veins) Stomach

o Gastric veins in stomach absorb nutrients Alcohol absorbed in stomach, along with aspirin Nutrients drained by R & L Gastric Veins

Small Intestineo Superior Mesenteric vein drains most of thiso Yellow veinso Drains most of the nutrients, toxins, etc.

Large Intestineo Most drained by Inferior Mesenteric vein

Hepatic Portal Veino Superior Mesenteric vein joins splenic vein to form thiso Located at the bottom of the livero Drains gastric veins, mesenteric veins, and cystic veino Where veins convergeo ***Brings nutrients TO THE LIVER!!!o Connects at the bottom of the liver

Hepatic Veino Superior portion of livero ***Transports nutrients AWAY FROM THE LIVER!!!o Dumps products in Inferior Vena Cava

Cystic veino Located in liver, where gall bladder is


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Blood

Plasma (55%)o Most proteins produced by liver (albumins, globulins, & fibrinogens

Albumins = maintain Osmotic Pressure (important regulators ofwater movement)

Globulins = Most for immune system (Ig), transport othermolecules (lipids)

Fibrinogens = clot formation (serum = plasma w/o clotting factors) Formed Elements (45%)

o Cells found in suspension:o Leukocytesphagocytic and produce antibodies

Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells anddebris

Have nucleus, mitochondria

Movements Ameboid Diapedesis Chemotaxis (chemical attraction of phagocytes)

Agranulocyteso Lymphocytes

Important Immune system roles T & B cells

o Monocytes Somewhat larger Become macrophages In response to immune system Migrate to skin tissue during scrape Specific name depending on tissue allocated Ex. peripheral tissue of skin = macrophages Migrate to tissue & differentiate Phagocytize antigen Microglia in CNS

Granulocytes (contain granules in cytoplasm) Neutrophils (somewhat neutral stain)

o Somewhat neutral (blue)o *Most abundant granulocyteso Small phagycytic cellso Release heparino Very short-livedo Multi-lobulate (nucleus consists of many lobes)o Can tell gender by looking at this

Extra extension off drumstick in Femalessticks out of one of the lobes of nucleus

Eosinophils (eosin acidic stain)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Blood groupso Vary depending on antigenso Antigens (agglutinogens) present on RBC surface specify blood typeo Antibodies (agglutinins) can bind to RBC antigens, resulting in

agglutination (clumping) or hemolysis (rupture) of RBCso Major antigen group is ABO system

A has only A antigens B has only B antigens AB has both A & B antigens O has neither A nor B antigens

o Rh factor (+) Have Rh (D) antigens present on surface of RBCs (-) Do not have these antigens present

Granulocytes:o Neutrophils

Rush in to eliminate invading microbe Alkaline phosphatase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, myelopero xidase,

NADPH oxidase Multi-lobed nuclei

o Eosinophils Parasitic infections (trypanasoma) Bi-lobular nuclei

o Basophil

Induce inflammation Heparin, histamine (not directly cytotoxic) Granules cover nuclei, so mostly granules visible (dark spots)

o Innate Immune Response (non-specific) Agranulocyte

o Lymphocyte Adaptive Immune Response B/T cells Nucleus takes up nearly entirety of cell (sliver of cytoplasm

visible)

Homogenous nucleus

As large as a RBC (7.98.1 u)o Monocytes

Innate Immune Response In Blood (circulate) Once they leave blood (i.e. in tissues)Macrophages

In liver = cuffer cells In lungs = dust cells In CNS = Microglia


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Function = Phagocytosis Name based on location Horseshoe-shaped nucleus (U) About the size of 2 RBCs (15 u)

No other cell is that big Platelets

o Thrombocyteso Thrombosis = blood clottingo Origin = Bone marrow (megakaryocyte)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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HISTOLOGY

Blood

Erythrocytes

Thrombocytes (a.k.a. Platelets) Neutrophil

o 3 lobes; nuclei in lobes Monocyte

o Can see cytoplasm (large nucleus, cytoplasm on the side)o Only one

Lymphocyteo Cant see cytoplasm (dark purple)

In the field of view:o Agranulocyteo Connective Tissueo Cell shape characteristic of sickle cell


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Erythroblastosis Fetalis

Spiked RBCs Rh antibodies attach to fetal RBC Lymphocyte Know mechanism Monocyte Magnified 100x!!! Erythroblastosis Fetalis

o Hemolytic disease of the Newborn (HDN)o Can cause problems when Rh- mother has Rh+ babieso At birth, mother may be exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus

In later pregnancies, mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that crossplacenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs

o Steps Mother exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus (ex. during birth) Mom forms anti-Rh antibodies (immune system builds up) In second pregnancy, Rh antibodies from mom cross placenta and

combine with Rh+ antigens on fetal blood cells causing hemolysis

of fetal RBCs


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Sickle Cell

Looking for a crescent moon-shaped cello Not in high concentration, but presento Looks like clumped blood

NOT every RBC is affected Not uniform Decreased blood flow & decreased diffusion Clog capillaries Beneficial vs. Malaria (BB parasite) Can clog capillaries Affected by altitude Decrease storage of hemoglobin (decrease oxygen delivery) Only affects RBCs Carrier is still affected, just not to a large degree (point mutation, resulting in an

amino acid substitution)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Trypanosoma

Blood-borne parasite (looks like worms) Silent until you develop Chagas disease Kissing bug South America, but can still get in Southern US Can cause sleeping sickness


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Skeletal Muscle

Multinucleated, Peripheral Nuclei, Striated

Cardiac Muscle (monkey heart)

Artery RBCs Multinucleated (up to 2) Interwoven arrangement (gives heart specific strengths) Longitudinal cut Intercalated disc Smooth muscle (vessel)

Intercalated Discs

Atrial natriuretic peptidehormone made by heart to regulate blood volume(pushes Na+ out of system, water follows)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Vena Cava (Monkey)

Vein Stained blue-purple & pink (3 slides) 3 layers:

o (1) Tunica Intima: (A) Innermost Endothelium Simple Squamous Epithelium

(B) Sub-endothelium layer Dark Layer Veins are stretchier so will have more elastic fibers

(C) Internal elastic lamina Elastic fibers

o (2) Tunica Media Smooth Muscle ***Thinner in Veins! Fibroelastic connective tissue Reticular & collagen fibers

o (3) Tunica adventitia Outermost layer Collagens Elastic fibers Fibroblasts Loose connective tissue ***May see Blood Vessels in this layer (last pic)

Called vasa vassorum (also in aorta) Only in large veins or arteries Artery giving blood to a big vein (to keep vein alive and

working)

40X


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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(dark line = tunica intimaelastic fibers)


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Arteries

Tunica Intimao Slightly thicker than artery (not one distinguisng layer)o Sub-endothelium layero

Internal elastic lamina

o Curly elastic fiber layer Tunica Media

o Much thicker layer (more pressurized) Systolic pressure (Vein = Diastolic pressure) Elasticity prevent popping artery Constant pumping of high pressure blood stretches arteries a little

bit

Artery vs. Veino L = Arteryo R = Veino Top = Nerve (no empty lumen)


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Capillaries

Only 1 layer No Smooth muscle


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Bone Marrow

Where blood is made In the field of view:

o Hematopoiesis (makes RBCs & WBCs)o Leukopoiesiso Erythropoiesis (makes RBCs)o White bulb = fat cello A lot of stages of maturation of cellso RBC with a nuclei (prior to erythropoiesis)

Proerythroblasto Megakaryocyte

Large cell that sheds platelets Red spots = RBC

o Nucleatedo Nucleus ejected in last step of differentiation


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Lab Exam IBiol 251

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Exam I Notes