Exam tips• Pen (spare)• Pencil• Sharpener / rubber

SpellingsEnvironmentVolcano / VolcanoesErosionDesertDeciduous

Don’t forgetLook out for questions without lines to write – you may have to draw on maps /graphs!

Examiners cannot take marks off you – always answer the Q!!

GEOGRAPHY

UNIT 1• Restless Earth• Living World• Water On the Land

UNIT 2• Population Change• Changing Urban

Environments• Tourism

Three questions!

• Restless Earth • Living World• Water on the land

Destructive? Constructive? Conservative?

Describe the distribution of Volcanoes

Convection currents in the mantle drive the plates to move!!

DESTRUCTIVE CONSTRUCTIVE CONSERVATIVE

Oceanic plate moves towards continental plate

Oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate (as it is denser and more flexible). An ocean trench is formed.

Friction builds up between the two plates and causes earthquakes.

The oceanic plate melts in the mantle and pressure increases. This is released as a volcanic eruption (composite volcano)

Two oceanic plates separate

The two plates separate leaving a gap between them.

Magma rises from the mantle and makes its way between the plates.

This comes out as lava as is runny so forms a wide volcanic cone (constructive)

Two plates move besides each other (opposite direction or one faster than the other.

Pressure builds up between the two plates as they attempt to move.

Eventually the plates jolt forwards as they move and the friction between the plates is released as a strong seismic wave (earthquake).

Destructive

• Convection currents

• Move together• Subducted• Friction =

earthquake• Melted plate =

pressure = volcano

Constructive

• Convection currents• Plates move apart• Magma rises• Lava spreads out at

surface• Creates a shield

volcano

Conservative

• Convection currents• Plates move

alongside each other• Friction causes

pressure to build up• As plates jolt

pressure is released as seismic waves = earthquake

Volcanoes

Mt St HelensLocation / causes

The oceanic Juan de Fuca plate subducts beneath the continental North American plate. (DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN)

Size 8:32am 18 May 1980: an earthquake caused a landslide which released the pressure inside the volcano.

Effects 57 people died (one of them a volcanologist) Airports were closed.Emergency treatment was given in nearby towns to the people rescued. 185 miles of roads, 15 miles of railway and 27 bridges were destroyed.Tourism increased to the area (3 million per year)

Responses Emergency treatment was given in nearby towns to the people rescued.Helicopters were used to search for and rescue people close to the eruption.Forest in the area began to be replanted.The area became a National Park in 1982 and now attracts 3 million visitors per year.

Monitoring and Predicting Volcanoes

• Tiltmeters• Gas Sensors• GPS• Seismographs• Thermometers (ground and water

temperatures)• Animal behaviour

Think about how you know you have a tummy

upset!

Formation of a supervolcano

Think of a big spot!

Supervolcano – Yellowstone, USA

Size / Shape• 1000km3

• The magma chamber beneath Yellowstone is believed to be 80km long, 40km wide and 8km deep

• Caldera – large depression surrounded by a raised rim

EffectsAn eruption today would have a catastrophic effect. It is potentially five times the minimum size for a supervolcanic eruption by the size of the magma chamber.

• An eruption is likely to destroy 10,000 km2 of land and kill 87000 people. 1 in 3 people will be killed within 1000km of an eruption. 15cm of ash would cover buildings within this area and make them collapse. This ash would ground planes and make road transport difficult. Livestock would die as they would choke in the hot ash.

• UK would see the arrival of the ash about 5 days later. This ash will circle the Earth, changing the climate. Temperatures will fall by over 10 degrees which will make it difficult to grow food in many areas. 40% of the population could face starvation. Certain parts of northern Europe will be snow covered for 3 years, so no food will be able to be grown.

Fold Mountains

Fold MountainsChallenges:

Steep Relief – Use of chairlifts to travel up slopes and get fresh produce (milk) from farms down to market. Use of steep slopes for tourism e.g.

skiing.Poor Soils – Use of fertilisers and farming on flat valley floor

Limited Communications – New roads, railway lines (on flat valley floors) and tunnels e.g. Mont Blanc and St. Bernard tunnels.

UsesHEP – generates energy for local villages (ideal snow melt in summer

provides water, easy to build dam across valley)

Farming - Transhumance farming

Tourism – Winter (skiing) Summer (mountain biking / hiking)

Industries – saw mills (wood), electrochemical, mining

Geosyncline

Sedimentary rock – sandstone

Compressed to form fold mountains e.g. Alps

Describing the distribution of ocean trenches and fold mountains

Edge of oceans – Pacific OceanWhere continental and oceanic plates meetFold mountains – west coast of North and South America** use names

Earthquakes

Keywords:

Focus

Epicentre

Seismic wave

How we measure earthquakes

What are the differences?

Monitoring and Predicting Earthquakes

• Three Ps

Prediction – attempts to forecast when it will happen

Protection – construction of buildings so they are safe and will not collapse

Preparation – organising activities and drills so people know what to do in the event of and earthquake

MEDC LEDC

Location Kobe Earthquake 1995 Sichuan Earthquake, China 2008

Effects ImmediateDeaths = 6500Injuries = 40,000 Roads were at gridlock, delaying emergency services.Houses completely destroyed = 180,000. Homeless = 300,000Industries like Mitsubishi and Panasonic were forced to close.Long-termFires raged for days destroying 7500 houses (many of them woodenHanshin expressway and bridges collapsed.High speed bullet trains were derailed as the rails buckled

ImmediateDeath toll was 69 000 two months after the earthquake. * 900 students trapped in collapsed school. Parents angry about the cheap building materials used.* At least 374 000 were injured. Chemical plants collapsed, killing hundreds and spilling toxic ammonia.Long-term* 80% of buildings collapsed in rural Beichuan which was near the epicentre.* Communications were cut – no land or mobile phones worked in Wenchuan.• Rivers were blocked by landslides and there was fear they

may flood. • At least 5 million (some say 11 million) were made

homeless

Responses Immediate

Motorola maintained telephone connections for free.Major retailers like 7-Eleven helped provide essentials.Friends and neighbours searched through the rubble, joined by emergency services when access was possible.Evacuate people into temporary shelters because they were still at risk from many fires and unstable buildings.

Long-term• Rescue services are specially trained and the whole country practices

responding to an earthquake on 12th January, the anniversary of the Kobe earthquake, in an Earthquake Preparation Day.

• High rise buildings had to have flexible steel frames.• Increase in the number of seismic instruments use to record earth

movements.• New buildings were built further apart to prevent the domino effect.

Immediate

20 helicopters used for relief and rescue operations. One million temporary small homes to be built to house those made homeless. Troops were parachuted in to assess the situation while others hiked in on foot. Long-term

The Chinese government pledged $10 million for rebuilding.

Areas of land flattened to make room for the 3.3 million tents used for emergency shelter.

Tsunami

Tsunami

• The Indo Australian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate causing an earthquake.

• The earthquake displaces the column of water above it upwards.

• The water that has gone up comes down and splits into two waves. One wave travels out to sea and the other wave travels towards the coastal areas of south-east Asia.

• The wave reaches the shoreline and gains height before it crashes onto the land.Primary cause = the earthquakeSecondary cause = the Tsunami wave

Tsunami – Indian Ocean, Boxing Day, 2004

Tsunami

Immediate Effects Deaths: 220 000Serious injuries: 650 0004500 fishing boats destroyed in IndiaFresh water reservoirs unusable for drinking water.Bodies littered the streetsInjured people wounds became infected

Long-term Effects 2 million homeless

1500 homes in Banda Aceh (city in Indonesia) completely destroyed. Only one mosque left standing.

Loss of tourism and fishing economies in Indonesia, Thailand and India.

Immediate Responses Food, sheeting and tents sent by MEDCs.Fresh water and water purification tablets sent from the international community.Medical teams sent from MEDCs.Mass graves had to be set up

Long-term Responses Rebuilding of homes and businesses, especially in tourist resorts like Phuket in Thailand.

Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System set up in 2006 so people have warning and know how to respond if it happens again.

Living World

Ecosystem

• A community of living (animals and vegetation) and non living components (soil and climate) and the relationships that exist between them

Climate

SoilAnimals

Vegetation

Producer – organisms that obtain their energy from a primary source such as the sun

Consumer – organisms that obtain their energy by eating other organisms

Food Chain – a line of links between producers and consumers

Food Web – a diagram showing the complex links between producers and consumers

Do you know the difference?

Decomposer• Organisms such as bacteria that break down

plant and animal material.

ScavengerOrganisms that consume dead animals or plants

Biome

• Micro• Meso• Macro• Biome – global scale ecosystem dominated by

climate e.g. Tropical Rainforest.

Location /Distribution

• Tropical Rainforests – along the equator (Between the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn)

• Deserts – 15-30 degrees North and South• Temperate Deciduous Forests 40-60 degrees North and south

Biome Case studiesTropical Rainforest

Rich Desert Poor Desert Deciduous Woodland

Name Borneo, Malaysia

Sonoran Desert, USA

That Desert,India

Epping Forest, Essex, UK

Climates and SoilsBiome Tropical Rainforest Desert Deciduous Forest

Temperature Average daily temp of 28 degrees C (never goes below 20)

Daytime temperatures can be above 40 degrees CCan be very cold at night

Summers warm – winters cool

Precipitation (rain) 2000mm of rain per yearHumid No real seasons

Very dry (arid) Less than 250mm of rain per year Continental Interior(torrential downpour)

Throughout the year

Soils LatosolFertile Humus layerLeachingRed/Iron Rich

Rocky and SandyThin – can have a crust Salts deposited near the surface

Brown EarthFertility comes from leaves which fall in the winter rotting

Climate graphs

If you have to describe them include numbers!• Highest• Lowest• Seasons

Stratified • Vegetation growing in layers

Tropical Rainforest Deciduous Woodland

Vegetation AdaptationsAdaptation feature Explanation of how it helps the vegetation to cope with the climate

RAINFORESTS:

Buttress roots

Drip tips

Thin, smooth bark

Lianas

Epiphytes

Leaves with flexible bases

DESERTS:

Thick waxy skin

Spikes

Fleshy stem

Long shallow roots

Slow growing plants

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS:

Losing leaves in Autumn

Bluebells flowering in early Spring

Tropical Rainforest

Causes and impacts of deforestionCause of deforestation in Malaysia

Detail about the cause An impact of this cause of deforestation

Economic, social or environmental impact?

Commercial Logging

Clear felling was common in the 1980s. Deforestation threatens the survival of many species, including the orang-utan

A local Penan community protested against a logging company and were imprisoned.

Malaysia was the biggest exporter of tropical woods and so made a lot of money.

Energy $2bn Bakun Dam project flooded thousands of hectares of forest to provide hydroelectric power for new industries.

9000 Kenyah people have been forced to move from the flooded area. They are traditional subsistence farmers (farm enough to eat but not sell) but are being asked to pay to be rehoused. Many suffer from depression and alcoholism.

Mining For tin and drilling for oil and gas. Forest has been cleared for operations and construction of roads.

Land and rivers have been polluted by mining chemicals and affected local food chains.

Commercial plantations

Forest was cleared for rubber plantations and, in the 1970s, for oil palm. 10 year tax breaks for owners has led to more forest being converted to plantations.

Malaysia was the largest exporter of palm oil in the world and so made a lot of money.

Sustainable management in the Tropical Rainforest

Name of strategy International or national?

Selective Management System (SMS)

Tree is removed from forest by water buffalo rather than a lorry.Fully grown trees are selected.Arrows painted on trees to show which direction it should be felled (cut down)Replacement tree is planted.

Permanent Forest Estates Areas of forest are protected – no development or conversion to plantations is allowed.10% has special conservation status

Forest Stewardship Council Educates people to buy soft, fast growing wood like pine rather than hard, slow growing wood like mahogany.Educates manufacturers and consumers (buyers) to buy wood only from sustainable sources (all their products have the FSC label on)

Ecotourism Borneo – swiftlet nest caves (one used by swiftlets, one harvested for their nests to sell, one shown off to tourists) Borneo – turtles (used to eat them, now have a hatchery to show tourists who then set them free into the oceans)Tourism that focuses on protecting the environmentand the local way of life.

Debt relief LEDCs are paid money by MEDCs to make sure their rainforests are not cut down

Deciduous Woodland

Recreation – interpreting a map

• Use the key to suggest recreational activities that may take place in this ecosystem

Management strategy: What makes this management option sustainable? (How does it allow us to use the forest today whilst ensuring that future generations will also be able to benefit from the forest? )

Pollarding of over 1000 ancient trees.

Cutting trees at shoulder height (above the level of grazing animals). Trees reshoot new branches.

1600 ha of forest is a Site of Special Scientific Interest.

This offers protection under law to the forests large number of ancient trees which support a large number of animals and other vegetation.

Old trees. Are allowed to die and collapse naturally unless they are dangerous.

Recreation. Riding and mountain biking are restricted in places and

footpaths are maintained to a good standard.

Sustainable management in Deciduous Woodland (Epping Forest – Essex)

Deserts

Sonoran Desert, USA Economic opportunity (employment) Challenge (problems) Management (response)

Families migrated to the Phoenix and Tucson to work on the huge farms, mainly growing cotton which uses a

lot of water.

Farms grow wheat, barley, pecan nuts and durum wheat which is exported

to Italy to make pasta.

In 2007, Marana began hosting golf’s PGA Matchplay Championship

Retirement migration has meant lots of new housing complexes have had to be built for older migrants.

The open space and clean atmosphere are very attractive to

holidaymakers.

In the mid-19th century ranching and mining were the big industries.

Habitats that rely on rivers are disappearing as the rivers dry up.

The water table has dropped by nearly 3 metres in some places.

Water is being pumped out of aquifers (underground lakes) faster

than they can be refilled.

Lakes with water from Salt River are the main supply of water but can only provide enough for half of the city’s

demand.

The water table dropping has led to land the size of North Yorkshire subsiding (sinking) which causes

problems for buildings and roads.

The water table has dropped which means getting water from the ground has become more expensive and the water quality has dropped

Spare water from the CAP is being sent to refill aquifers (underground

lakes).

Conservation – farms are being shut down so water can be used in the

cities.

Central Arizona Project (CAP) is a network of canals that transports

water from the Colorado River to the cities of Phoenix and Tucson.

Waste water is being used for jobs that don’t need a high level of purity.

Endangered Species Act – used to prevent developers from building

more buildings which will need more water for its residents

A heritage park that celebrates the town’s agricultural past attracts

tourists throughout the year.

.

Economic opportunities, challenges and management MEDC/RICH DESERTSONORAN DESERT, USA

Thar Desert, India Economic opportunity (employment) Challenge (problems) Management (response)Thar Desert is the most densely

populated desert in the world (83 people per km2). This is leading to

overgrazing and over cultivation (farming) which leads to soil erosion.

Once eroded away the soil takes thousands of years to re-form.

Most farmers keep a few animals on the grassy areas and cultivate

vegetables and fruit trees so they have some crops to sell at local

markets

The Kohlis tribe survive by hunting animals and gathering fruit and natural products such as honey.

Limestone is quarried in Jaisalmer and used in the steel industry.

Rajasthan is rich in minerals and the following are mined: gypsum (makes

cement), phospherite (makes fertiliser), kaolin (whitens paper) and

feldspar (makes ceramics)

People make a living selling hide and wool from livestock (animals).

Most people are involved with subsistence farming (producing

enough food for farmer and family to live off)

Local people act as guides on camel safaris or rear/look after the camels.

Too much irrigation (watering) has led to waterlogging in some areas. Salts get deposited on the ground surface

and poison the plants.

Too much demand for water in some places has caused an unsustainable

fall in the water tables (it cannot continue forever).

Sand dunes are unstable and can move across farmland, roads and

waterways.

Rainfall is very low (120-240mm per year) and temperatures are very high

(53˚c) which makes commercial farming (farming to make a profit)

very difficult.

Prosopis cineraria tree has multiple uses: a) planted in blocks to stabilise

sand dunes and stop them moving, b) its pods provide food for animals, c)

wood can be used as a strong building material and good quality firewood.

Reserves of firewood, their main source of fuel, is reducing so people are using manure as fuel rather than

using manure to fertilise the soil.

The 650km long Indira Gandhi Canal was built in 1958. It provides drinking water for many people in the desert and means that commercial farming

of wheat and cotton (selling these for a profit) occurs in the Jodhpur and

Jaisalmer.

Trees and fences are built alongside roads and canals to block the

movement of sand dunes across them.

Thar Desert National Park has been created to protect 3000 km2 of desert

vegetation and wildlife.

The Ber Tree produces large plums and can survive in low rainfall

conditions. The plums can then be sold for a decent profit.

Economic opportunities, challenges and management LEDC/POOR DESERTTHAR DESERT, INDIA

Sustainable Management

• Protected for future generations

Describe the strategy but also link this to how this leads to protecting the environment for future generations to use

Water on the landEROSION TRANSPORTATION DEPOSITION

Wearing away of the land due to high energy

Movement of material downstream after it ahs been eroded

Low Energy – dropping of material being transported.

Hydraulic ActionAbrasionAttritionCorrosion

TractionSaltationSuspensionSolution

River Profile

Landforms ‘V-shaped Valley’

Vertical erosion

Weathering

V shaped Valley

Landforms ‘Waterfall’

• Resistant and less resistant rock• Soft rock is eroded by (describe processes)• Undercuts hard rock• Hard rock collapses into plunge pool• Forms a steep sided gorge

Landforms ‘Meander and Oxbow Lake’

Cross SectionMake sure you label the inside and outside!

Lateral erosion on the outside of the bend because of Hydraulic action… (describe erosion processes)Deposition on the inside of the bend where there is less energy.Neck narrows over time Flood event / high discharge breaks through neckForms an Oxbow lake

Landforms ‘Floodplain’

Meander erodes a flat valley floor either side of the river channel.

Deposits alluvial sediments – larger near river channel

Leaves layers of flat fertile land with raised levees either side of channel

Flooding

• Discharge• Lag time• Interception• Infiltration• Percolation

• Permeable/impermeable

Discharge:

Frequency and location of flooding in the UK

• More frequent• March 1947 – Major floods • January 1953• 1968 – Great Flood (South East England)

• Gap

• 1998 onwards – annual occurrence

Flooding – MEDC/RICH • Boscastle 2004

Physical Causes (Natural) Human Causes (People)

Confluence of 2 rivers (Valency and Jordan)Small drainage basin.Heavy rain saturated the moors.

Urbanisation of steep sided valley.Bridges were built.Clearing of vegetation in valley so tourists could see the views.River Jordan passes through 100m underground culvert.

Immediate effects Long-term Effect

60 cars swept out to sea1 person with a broken finger.Belongings lost People/tourists could not return to their homesTourist information centre damaged

80 buildings damaged and 3 houses destroyed.25 businesses damaged (e.g. Harbour restaurant) so loss of tourist incomeTourism number fell in following year£10million damage causedSome areas of the town improved after repairs

Immediate Responses Long-term responses

Search and rescue used boats to reach people. 150 people airlifted to safety by helicopter.Homeless moved overnight to Camelford town hall.Yellow marks on vehicles and buildings checked.Food and water donated

£800 000 flood defence scheme completed 2005.

New bigger culvert built on River Jordan that can carry at least twice the floodwater of the old one.

Wide bridge installed and old Victorian bridge removed.

Flooding – LEDC/POOR • Bangladesh 2004

Physical Causes (Natural) Human Causes (People)

70% of the land area is less than a metre above sea level.Heavy monsoon rains – 350mm in 24 hours.Snow melt from the Himalayas.

Huge population growth leads to mass deforestation.Deforestation leads to soil erosion which causes the bed of the River Brahmaputra to rise by 5cm per year.

Immediate effects Long-term Effect

30 million people homeless.760 people killed.60% of the country floodedMud and raw sewage spead

$7 Billion dollars damage to schools and hospitalsRice growing and fish farming disrupted. More than 1m children suffered malnutrition and disease.

Immediate Responses Long-term responses

Heavy reliance on emergency aid from UN, charities and MEDC governments.WaterAid (NGO) supplied water purification tablets and posters highlighting the hygiene risk in flood water.

NGOs gave out food, blankets, medicines

Flood shelters have been built – areas of raised land where people can move with their cattle and have access to dried food and clean water.

Super ducks (eggs)/fish farming / growing pumpkins

Differences between rich and poor

• Effects• Responses

Flood PreventionHard Engineering Soft Engineering

Description This strategy involves the use of technology in order to control rivers. It is expensive and needs to be maintained.

This option works with the natural river and avoids building in areas likely to flood. It is usually cheaper and has less of a negative environmental impact

Examples DamsReservoirsRaised leveesDredging riversStraighten channelsBuilding concrete walls

Warning systemsPlanting more trees in the drainage basinLand use zoningPreparationDo nothing (let nature take its toll)

Case studies – Hard Engineering. China, Three Gorges DamHow it controls floods

Water fills the area behind the dam and is released during low rainfall times and held back during high rainfall times.

Benefits (positives)Economic Social EnvironmentalThe dam will protect over 15 million people living in high risk flood areas from flooding events.

China gets 10% of its electricity from the Hydro Electric Power stations on the dam.

Thousands of jobs created because of the building and maintenance of the dam and HEP scheme.

The dam will protect the flooding of over 25 000 hectares of farmland.

China will use less coal because of using HEP so reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.

Costs (negatives)Economic Social EnvironmentalCost $25.5 billion.

Areas downstream will not get the fertile sediment from the river which will affect farming.

The Yangtse used to carry over 500m tonnes of silt every year, 50% of which now silts up behind the dam, reducing the storage capacity of the reservoir and making it less effective. It is costly to fix this problem

1.4 million people were forcibly removed from their homes to make way for the dam, reservoir and power stations.

Over 150 towns and 4500 villages were flooded.

The natural flow of water in the River Yangtse is prevented by the dam (a concrete barrier across a valley) built at Yichang.

Water in the reservoir is becoming heavily polluted from ships and toxic waste from factories, mines and waste tips.

Soft engineering

Environment agency Flood Warning systems

Send texts direct to registered users

Flood watch and then flood warning

Website

Information about how to prepare for a flood.

Flood Transfer Scheme • Water Surplus• Water Stress• Water deficit

Details Storage Transfer Positives Negatives

Kielder waterNorthumberlandScottish border

Reservoir/Dam

River Tyne and Wear

13km pipeline to link lower Tees and River Ouse

No droughtsUsed for recreationJob opportunities

Cost £80 millionFlooded farmlandCould spread diseases between rivers

Case study = Kielder Water in Northumberland

Social effects of Kielder Water Economic effects of Kielder Water Environmental effects of Kielder Water

Farming communities were displaced (forced to move)

Water and land based activities attract ¼ million visitors each year.

Created jobs in the water industry, tourism and forestry as previously there were only farming jobs available.

It is a multipurpose scheme – used for water supply, flood control, tourism and forestry

The dam water generates HEP to supply homes and industry in the region.

No problem of water shortage in NE England so industries do not suffer.

Flooded an area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

1.5 million trees were deforested to make way for the lake.

MAP SKILLS

Maps

• Choropleth• Topological • Physical

Compass rose

‘Never eat shredded wheat!’

How can we remember the points of the compass?

Now think of your own slogan.

4-figure grid references

6-figure grid references

6-figure grid references

Scale