Upload
phunghanh
View
218
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
Examining Justice Practices in Philippine Catholic Business Universities:
A Review of Student Discipline Programs
Catherine Deen and Neil Pariñas
ABSTRACT
This research examined the justice practices of Catholic business universities in the
Philippines. Using a descriptive-evaluative research design, the research sought an
answer to the question: Are prevailing justice practices in student discipline programs
of selected Catholic universities in the Philippines consistent with Catholic social
teachings on exercising grace and preserving human dignity? The contrast between the
legal and restorative student discipline approaches in light of Catholic social teachings
was used as framework in evaluating discipline programs. Using document analysis
and interview data, findings in relation to purpose of student discipline programs,
student discipline practices and student sanctions are presented and discussed.
Keywords: Catholic social thought, educational management, human dignity, higher
education justice, restorative justice, student discipline.
Student discipline is an integral part of the education system. In many Catholic schools,
student discipline is linked directly or indirectly to formation programs. Research has found that
the most common discipline incidents in schools involve students and personnel. Educational
leaders are expected to resolve these issues adequately since a poor response does not only entail
management or financial costs but contributes to a more salient and irredeemable cost—the loss
of public trust and faith in the academic institution itself (Bruhn Zajac, Al-Kazemi & Prescott Jr.,
2002).
In a Philippine study of high school principals, it was found that student-related issues
including discipline cases and student welfare considerations presented ethical dilemmas to
principals (Mendoza, 2004). These findings were supported in another study among higher
education leaders where leaders were found to experience dilemmas in handling student
discipline cases (Deen, 2011). In both researches, the dilemmas stemmed from the leaders’ desire
to preserve human dignity, promote student welfare, and uphold institutional integrity but also to
uphold justice in their schools. When resolving discipline cases, there is a gap between espoused
restorative intentions and available retribution-based justice models. Although restorative justice
practices are available, these are typically done informally and not institutionalized.
Reflecting upon the essential Catholic Social Teachings of preserving human dignity and
the value of persons, this research aims to review if current justice practices in Catholic
universities specifically in their stated student discipline programs are consistent with teachings
on exercising grace and preserving human dignity. This study aims to investigate prevailing
justice practices in student discipline programs of selected Catholic universities in the
Philippines.
The premise is that student discipline is an integral part of formation programs in
Catholic universities. It is assumed that the current justice practices are documented in their
Student Handbooks. Are prevailing justice practices in student discipline programs of selected
Catholic universities in the Philippines consistent with Catholic social teachings on exercising
grace and preserving human dignity?
2
Review of Related Literature To situate the objectives of this study, it is helpful to distinguish between the justice and
restorative approach in the area of student discipline. Furthermore, it is essential to highlight the
connection of discipline approaches to relevant Catholic social teachings.
Student Discipline Approaches A review of the history of discipline programs in schools revealed several approaches in
handling school discipline. These approaches include the (1) legal approach, (2) moral education,
and (3) restorative approach.
Legal approach. Guided by ethics of justice, the legal approach focuses on the
development of discipline codes based on the enforcement of a set of rules (Hyman, 1997).
Commonly referred to as the traditional model of student discipline, punishment or sanction has
a major role in dealing with misbehavior or infractions. Denig and Quinn (2001) explain that the
justice approach envisions moral decision making to be a rational, logical, systematic approach
where the decision-makers deliberately distance themselves from the issue. One of the features
of the justice approach is to give priority to establishing the facts and limiting the decision
makers’ sensitivity to individual needs. In the school setting, due process is the most evident
practice under this approach while the most common resolutions include punitive sanctions such
as suspensions, exclusions, and expulsions.
Moral education approach. The moral education approach views discipline issues as a
result of inadequate development of moral character. In the late 1980s, some educators and
scholars advocated the idea that misbehavior is a direct result of parents’ and schools’ inability to
train students in universal truths and values needed for proper behavior. Therefore, moral
education and the formation of a conscience is incorporated into the curriculum through subjects
such as values education. As a natural progression of this approach, conservative and liberal
views on the matter of moral education emerged. Due to this, the influence of moral education in
the area of student discipline, although strong, is shaped by the values and ideology of the
regions and cultures where it is implemented (Hyman, 1997).
Restorative approach. Based on ethics of care, the restorative approach focuses on the
idea of restoring relationships. The ethics of care regards people as human beings and not as
parties to a contract (Starratt, 1991 as cited in Gorman & Pauken, 2003). As such, decision
makers are sensitive to the dignity and uniqueness of each person. A review of extant literature
revealed that the restorative approach, although not the mainstream discipline approach, is highly
developed specially in the juvenile justice system. Hopkins (2003) described the first
documented case of restorative justice involving two young adults who vandalized properties in
Canada in 1975. Since the probation officer was a member of a church, he started discussing how
a Christian perspective may be used to respond to the case. The probation officer proposed that
rather than a fine and probation, the judge can make the juvenile offenders meet their victims and
personally discuss how the damage may be repaired along with compensating for the damage.
The judge agreed and the probation officer was able to implement the process successfully. This
initial success led him to further systematize the process thus starting the restorative justice
movement. Restorative justice is defined as a process where parties come together to collectively
resolve and deal with the aftermath of an offense and its implications for the future (Marshall,
2003). Hopkins (2003), a key researcher in the area of restorative justice in schools, expressed
that the goal of restorative justice is to achieve reconciliation between victims and the offenders.
3
Restorative approaches in schools are available in a hierarchy starting with methods for
dealing with minor offenses (i.e., mediation, peer mediation) to those dealing with serious
conflicts (i.e., restorative conferencing). The more common approaches utilized include
mediation, group conferencing, and restorative conferencing. Suvall (2009) identified the three
main focus of restorative justice in schools including (1) holding the offender accountable, (2)
repairing the harm to the victim, and (3) reintegrating the offender into the community.
In the Philippines, the most evident application of restorative justice is the Juvenile
Justice Act of 2006. Villero (2006) summarized the values of restorative justice including
encounter, amends, reintegration, and inclusion (see Table 1). Although there is an articulation
regarding the use of restorative justice in dealing with juvenile offenders, there are challenges in
translating these principles to actual practice. Villero himself described that even with restorative
justice guidelines, there are still many children and juvenile offenders who are tortured and
treated unkindly upon apprehension.
Table 1
The Values of Restorative Justice
Values Description
Encounter Create opportunities for victims, offenders and community members to
meet and discuss the crime and its aftermath
Amends Expect offenders to take steps to repair the harm they have caused
Reintegration Seek to restore victims and offenders as whole, contributing members of
society
Inclusion Provide opportunities for parties with a stake in a specific crime to
participate in its resolution.
Source. Villero, J. M. (2006). Restorative justice: Legal framework and practices in the Philippines.
Quezon City: Philippine Human Rights Information Center.
To synthesize, a contrast between the legal approach and restorative approach is provided
(see Table 2). The moral education approach, although significant, has more to do with the
curriculum, which is not the main focus of this study. Thus, it was not included in the contrast
table.
Table 2 summarizes the distinction between the legal and restorative approach to
discipline in four areas of distinction including the (1) student wrongdoer, (2) the student
harmed, (3) the process and (4) the output. These distinctions were drawn from the review of
literature and the ideas presented by Skelton, Russell, Shepperd and Head from “A Guide to
Developing Restorative Culture in Schools”.
4
Table 2
Distinctions of the Legal and Restorative Approaches to Student Discipline
Areas of
Distinction
Legal Approach Restorative Approach
Student
Wrongdoer
Student is viewed as an offender
having broken a school rule.
Student is viewed as a person
having caused harm to an
individual or the community.
Student
Harmed
Student has limited chance to
express how they have been
affected.
Student has the opportunity to
express how they have been
affected.
Process Due process typically characterized
by formal hearings and summary
proceedings. System keeps harmed
and wrongdoer apart
Restorative processes where those
affected are brought together to
consider viewpoints and reach a
resolution together
Output Blame and punishment Responsibility, accountability and
reintegration
Adapted from Skelton, Russell, Shepperd and Head “A Guide to Developing Restorative Culture
in Schools”.
Justice Practices in Philippine Schools
A review of the Philippine Education Law, specifically in the context of higher
education, revealed that the available documented methods of student discipline include punitive
methods such as suspension, non-readmission, exclusion, and expulsion. In fact, these methods
are expressly described as the three categories of disciplinary administrative sanctions for serious
offenses or violation of school rules and regulations (Sarmiento, 2009). It is not surprising,
therefore, that schools apply the legal model in dealing with student discipline. In a study among
higher educational leaders, it was revealed that that due process, a function of the legal model of
student discipline, is still the dominant framework of discipline resolution in Philippine higher
education institutions. Although leaders show signs of restorative intent, the formal strategies
used are linked to the traditional justice framework (Deen, 2011). Furthermore, the most
common consequence for school infractions include suspensions, exclusion, and expulsion,
consequences deemed punitive as opposed to restorative. In another study involving secondary
school principals, Mendoza (2004) discovered that principals in the Metro South area preferred
using established rules, regulations and policies in the school as written in the handbooks or
manuals. However, they are also mindful of the community including the parents so they practice
restorative approaches as well. It may be concluded, therefore, that current practices shows the
dominant use of the legal approach when dealing with student discipline.
5
Student Discipline Programs and the Church Documents
Several church documents were reviewed in light of student discipline programs. These
documents include: (1) Ex Corde Ecclessiae, (2) Gaudium et Spes, (3) Compendium of the
Catholic Social Doctrine of the Church, (4) Gravissimum Educationis, and (5) Justicia in Mundo.
Each person, regardless of age, condition or ability, is an image of God and so endowed
with an irreducible dignity or value. This dignity is possessed simply by virtue of being human.
All human beings regardless of individual properties and circumstances enjoy this God-given
dignity (PCJP, 30). The goal of the restorative approach which is to repair relationships is
supported by the principles contained in the Vocation of the Business Leader which are anchored
on human dignity and common good.
Human dignity, along with cultural heritage, is to be protected and advanced by every
Catholic university, according to Ex Corde Ecclessiae. Its institutional autonomy guarantees its
members academic freedom, so long as the rights of the individual person and of the community
are preserved within the confines of the truth and the common good (JPII, 1990).
It is implied that any discipline program ought to encourage students to pursue their
vocations and to strive for personal fulfillment in communion with others. This entails that
students have a duty to avoid actions that impede the flourishing of others and a duty to promote
that flourishing (PCJP, 31). Human flourishing always involves reasoning well, choosing freely
in accord with reason and living in society. It is only in communion with others that a person can
genuinely develop in ability, virtue, and holiness (PCJP, 32).
Common good is defined in the Second Vatican Council document Gaudium et Spes as
“the sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to
reach their fulfillment more fully and more easily”. Common goods are developed between
human beings whenever they act purposefully together towards a shared goal. Common goods
are possible because we are relational beings who do not only have individual goals, and who do
not only grow individually. We also participate in shared and common projects that generate
shared goods from which all participants benefit. The common good embraces and supports all
the goods needed to allow all human beings to develop, individually and communally (PCJP,
34).
In light of these teachings, it is implied that schools’ discipline programs shall foster
conditions and activities that contribute to the common good, are oriented toward, and fully
respectful of the dignity of students as ends in themselves (PCJP, 35). In Ex Corde Ecclessiae, a
Catholic University possesses freedom in research and teaching, so long as the rights of the
individual and of the community are preserved within the confines of the truth and the common
good (JPII, 1990).
Overall, schools are supposed to develop personal virtues among the students, those life-
enhancing habits and qualities of character essential to any profession. Two very important
virtues for the future business professional are sound judgment (practical wisdom) and right
relationships (justice) (PCJP, 59). As future business leaders, students’ actions should be
informed by a prudential evaluation of each situation. True prudence informs the mind by asking
the right questions and discerning the best courses of action that can contribute to the common
good (PCJP, 76). The ability to make reasoned judgments must be nurtured in the moral and
6
spiritual culture from which the future business leaders come, namely their families, religion,
educational institutions, etc. (PCJP, 59). To live out their vocation as faithful stewards to their
calling, future business practitioners need to be formed in a religious culture that shows them the
possibilities and promise of the good they can do and ought to do. Family, Church and school are
critical institutions in this formation (PCJP, 83).
While it is true that business students may be informed by powerful theories and are
highly trained in technical skills, they must, more importantly, undergo ethical and spiritual
formation that would ensure that their insights and skills are used for the welfare of others and
the support of the common good. Their formation should, therefore, give them the fundamentals
for an integrated life. Formation must educate them to be highly principled and effective
business leaders (PCJP, 86). Ex Corde Ecclessiae indicated that the entire educative process
should be directed towards the whole development of the person (JPII, 1990). Teachers need to
inspire their students to discover the good that is within them and to follow their call to use their
professional skills and judgment as a force for good in the world (PCJP, 86).
In the Vocation of the Business Leader, it is stated that “good business decisions are those
rooted in principles at the foundational level, such as respect for human dignity and service to the
common good”. The Compendium of the Catholic Social Doctrine of the Church (PCJP, 2004)
emphasized that the social order and its development must invariably work to the benefit of the
human person, since the order of things is to be subordinate to the order of persons, and not the
other way around (132). In the same Compendium, the principle of common good indicates “the
sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach
their fulfillment more fully and more easily” (164).
In the education sector, business decisions refer to decisions affecting learners. The
Vocation of the Business Leader further explicates that the ability to make reasoned judgments
must be nurtured in the moral and spiritual culture from which the business leaders come (PCJP,
44ff). The implication is that students who are future business leaders will learn, through their
experiences of justice in their school environment, justice principles which inform and influence
their later practice.
Gravissimum Educationis expressed that Christian Education is tasked to develop
harmoniously the persons’ physical, moral and intellectual endowments so that they may
gradually acquire a mature sense of responsibility in striving endlessly to form their own lives
properly and in pursuing true freedom as they surmount the vicissitudes of life with courage and
constancy (1). An essential part of this development is the formative role of the school in
enabling a moral transformation among students who commit acts considered to be deviant
and/or immoral.
How can business schools facilitate the future business leaders’ education to justice?
Justicia in Mundo, the document that resulted from the 1971 World Synod of Catholic Bishops,
provides sound guiding principles.
First, the document affirms the right to development as a basic human right. In paragraph
15, “aspiring to justice asserts itself in advancing beyond the threshold at which begins a
consciousness of enhancement of personal worth with regard both to the whole person and the
whole of humanity. This is expressed in an awareness of the right to development. The right to
development must be seen as a dynamic interpenetration of all those fundamental human rights
upon which the aspirations of individuals and nations are based.”
Second, the document promotes dialogue and encourages the participation of all,
especially the youth, to correct social injustices. Particularly in paragraph 28, the creation of a
7
lasting atmosphere of dialogue is encouraged to promote effective mediation. The meaning of
life could be restored through adherence to authentic values. Towards this end, the participation
and witness of the rising generation of youth is highlighted as a necessity.
Third, Justicia in Mundo asserts that Christian love of neighbor and justice cannot be
separated. Paragraph 34 states that “love implies an absolute demand for justice, namely a
recognition of the dignity and rights of one's neighbor. Justice attains its inner fullness only in
love. Because every person is truly a visible image of the invisible God and a sibling of Christ,
the Christian finds in every person God himself and God's absolute demand for justice and love.”
Paragraph 45 of Justicia in Mundo prescribes that the form of judicial procedure should
give the accused the right to know his accusers and also the right to a proper defense. To be
complete, justice should include speed in its procedure. The whole idea sheds light on the
conduct of disciplinary procedures in business schools in order to promote restorative justice.
Finally, the 1971 document asserts that in order to promote education to justice, there
ought to be a renewal of heart, a renewal based on the recognition of sin in its individual and
social manifestations. Education to justice inculcates a truly and entirely human way of life in
justice, love and simplicity. “It will likewise awaken a critical sense, which will lead us to reflect
on the society in which we live and on its values; it will make people ready to renounce these
values when they cease to promote justice for all people.”
A review of various Catholic social thought documents show that the principles
advocated by the Church encourages the practice of justice anchored on grace, love, human
dignity and common good. These practices are in tune with the restorative approach to discipline
where the goal is to restore persons as opposed to punishment.
Method Through a descriptive-evaluative research design, this study conducted a thorough
document analysis of prevailing discipline programs published in the official student handbooks
of Catholic universities offering business education. In-depth interviews were conducted to
enhance the data.
Participants A letter of invitation was sent to a total of 44 higher education institutions in the National
Capital Region of the Philippines listed as members of the Catholic Educational Association of
the Philippines (CEAP). Out of 44 invitations, a total of 12 institutions participated by sending
their Student Handbooks to the researchers. In-depth interviews were completed with discipline
program implementers from 2 institutions to enhance the analysis.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis specifically content analysis was used to process the data.
Content analysis by analyzing through the documents was done with the major goal of noting
themes and patterns that emerged from the data (Merriam, 2002). Themes and patterns in these
general areas were generated: (1) Purpose of Student Discipline Programs, (2) Student Discipline
Practices Themes, and (3) Types of Disciplinary Sanctions. Interview data were transcribed and
presented to enhance the discussion.
8
Results and Discussion The findings include a description of prevailing justice practices formally used in
Catholic universities, an evaluation of its consistency with Catholic Social Teachings and its
implications for the development and review of student discipline programs.
Purpose of Student Discipline Programs
Table 1 shows a summary of the dominant themes in relation to the purpose of student
discipline programs in Catholic business universities. The main purpose for the student discipline
program is to institute due process. All handbooks submitted for review described the purpose of
ensuring that due process is implemented to resolve discipline issues. The second major purpose
theme is Christian formation and to instill values. Since the study involved Catholic universities,
Christian and values formation as a purpose behind student discipline is a rational outcome.
Other purpose themes include upholding institutional norms, practicing in loco parentis or the
school as second parents, maintaining peace and order, and upholding students’ rights. Only 2
institutions mentioned restorative discipline as a purpose of their discipline program.
Table 3
Purpose of Student Discipline Programs
Purpose Themes Frequency Percentage
Practice Due Process 12 100.00%
Comply with Philippine Laws 9 75.00%
Instill Values 9 75.00%
Christian Formation 9 75.00%
Uphold Institutional Norms 7 58.33%
In Loco Parentis 5 41.67%
Maintain Peace and Order 4 33.33%
Uphold Students Rights 3 25.00%
Restorative Discipline 2 16.67%
9
Results in relation to purpose of student discipline programs shows the significant
practice of the legal approach to student discipline. This is evident in relation to ensuring that the
university abides by laws. In the Philippines, discipline policies are guided by the Commission
on Higher Education which outlines punitive sanctions to deal with discipline cases. Values
formation was likewise revealed as a purpose, although it is not as dominant as the legal purpose.
This shows that Catholic institutions of higher learning recognize the link between formation and
student discipline reminiscent of the moral education approach to student discipline. As stated in
the Ex Corde Ecclessiae, Catholic universities are tasked to educate the whole person which
includes their moral behavior.
Results revealed to a lesser extent that school discipline programs purport to uphold
institutional norms and maintain peace and order while very few institutions explicitly stated the
restorative function of their discipline program. It is important to note, though, that although
these schools stated a restorative function, their practices still adhered to the legal approach.
Delving deeper into the stated program reveals that the procedures are focused on punishment
than restoration.
Although the dominant purpose is not indicative of restoration, an interview with a
discipline practitioner points to an alternative perspective regarding student formation and
discipline--that an individual is a long-term participant in building a better society, which is like
a large fabric, in which each student is a thread in the social fabric. When a student commits an
infraction, it is not a simple matter of punishing him or her because to do so would eventually
destroy the whole social fabric. In this regard, restorative justice becomes a philosophy of
fostering appropriate intervention for each unique erring student that will hopefully restore
his/her original dignity and thereby allow him/her to function again effectively as a "thread in the
fabric".
In summary, the purpose of student discipline programs in Philippine institutions of
higher learning primarily adheres to the legal approach of providing due process in resolving
discipline concerns. Still, there is an understanding that the discipline program supports the
development of Christian character and values among students.
Student Discipline Practices
The main structure and practices described in the discipline programs showed adherence
to the legal approach where due process is implemented (see Table 4). The processes described
in the Student Handbooks are extremely close to processes implemented in the justice system. In
all universities that participated, there is an appointed Discipline Board which formally hears and
decides on discipline cases. The Discipline Board is usually composed of school administrators,
students, faculty and legal representatives. There is also reference to a Code of Conduct or
expected behaviors of students. The dominant student discipline practices are governed by a
formal structure such as a Discipline Office typically under the Office of Student Affairs or the
Formation Office.
Table 4
Student Discipline Practices Themes
Practices Themes Frequency Percentage
Discipline Board 12 100.00%
Code of Discipline 11 91.67%
10
Formal Office Structure 11 91.67%
Definition of Jurisdiction 8 66.67%
Appeal Processes 7 58.33%
Available Counsel 3 25.00%
Student Discipline Sanctions Themes
The most dominant sanctions for student discipline concerns were those following the
legal approach. This is consistent with the strong influence of the legal framework on discipline
programs in schools. Table 5 presents a summary of the common types of sanctions following
the legal framework. These sanctions include expulsion, suspension, warnings, exclusion,
probation, dismissal and others. Reflecting on this list, the theme of punishment as a response to
infractions is clear. Only a minimal number of Philippine Catholic universities practice
restorative sanctions. Table 6 shows some examples of restorative practices including letter of
apology, counseling, parent conference, formation seminars, and community service.
Table 5
Types of Legal Sanctions
Legal Sanctions Frequency Percentage
Expulsion 11 91.67%
Suspension 11 91.67%
Verbal or written warning 11 91.67%
Exclusion 8 66.67%
Probation 7 58.33%
Dismissal 6 50.00%
Preventive Suspension 4 33.33%
Withholding records 4 33.33%
Non-readmission 3 25.00%
Loss of privileges 3 25.00%
Others 2 16.67%
11
Table 6
Types of Restorative Sanctions
Restorative Sanctions Frequency Percentage
Letter of apology 6 40.00%
Counseling 5 33.33%
Parent Conference 4 26.67%
Formation Seminars 3 20.00%
Community Service 2 13.33%
Although universities formally adhere to more legal methods of discipline, an interview
with a discipline practitioner reveals that there are conscious efforts to practice restorative justice
through informal mediation processes. She recalls of a case where she resolved an altercation
between a teacher and a student through a mediation process:
“There was a teacher who told another student I will hold your diploma for
graduation because you are a lesbian...I decided not to bring this up to the
discipline committee. I invited the teacher and the student for a dialogue. It was a
12
process of conflict resolution and they ended up apologizing to each other. It was
successful because the teacher was able to share her views and the student was
able to express her hurt and pain. They left the room talking like a teacher and
student. Being an advocate of peace, our College have conflict resolution as one
of our approaches. It is not popular. It takes time. It takes a lot of assistance...It
took half the day but when it ended well.”
The quote presented shows that although formal discipline processes reflected the legal
approach, there is an informal effort to practice restoration. In fact, the same discipline
practitioner expressed that their university recently revisited the Student Handbook. The revised
handbook includes a two-paragraph description of restorative justice and a conscious change in
the role of the counselor. Specifically, she stated that:
“In the discipline process, we made a flowchart because they want the counselor
to be in the right place. Before, the counseling session was part of the sanction.
There was a suggestion to not categorize the counselor as part of the sanction. The
counselor is part of the process but she is in between.”
Conclusion
The main conclusion from this study is that the most dominant justice approach used in
Philippine Catholic business universities is the legal approach. This approach needs to be
revisited when viewed vis-à-vis Catholic Social Teachings of preserving human dignity and
promoting common good. School leaders may consider discipline policies and strategies based
on the principles of restorative justice. Considering that students will be future business leaders,
their experiences of justice in the school environment will likely inform and influence their
professional practices later.
While it is true that business students should be informed by powerful theories and highly
trained in technical skills, more importantly, they should undergo ethical and spiritual formation
that would ensure that their insights and skills are used for the welfare of others and the support
of the common good. Their formation should, therefore, give them the fundamentals for an
integrated life, and educate them to be highly principled and effective business leaders (PCJP,
86). Ex Corde Ecclessiae indicated that the entire educative process should be directed towards
the whole development of the person (JPII, 1990). Teachers need to inspire their students to
discover the good that is within them and to follow their call to use their professional skills and
judgment as a force for good in the world (PCJP, 86).
It is ironic that restorative justice principles are practiced in handling cases of juvenile
delinquency when young school offenders are treated like adult offenders. Educators, especially
Catholic educators, must learn more about restorative justice and how its principles can be
integrated into school discipline programs.
School leaders are encouraged to reflect on discipline policies and strategies based on the
principles of restorative justice. Since students will be future business leaders, their experiences
of justice in the school environment inform and influence their later professional practices.
13
References Bruhn, J.G., Zajac, G., Al-Kazemi, A.A. & Prescott, Jr., L.D. (2002). Moral positions and
academic conduct: Parameters of tolerance for ethics failure. The Journal of Higher
Education, 73(4). 461-493.
Deen, C. (2011). Four dimensions of ethical dilemmas: A grounded theory towards
understanding ethical dilemmas of higher education leaders in Metro Manila. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, De La Salle University.
Dempster, N., Freakley, M. & Parry, L. (1998, November). A study of the ethical decision-
making of school principals. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Australian
Association for Educational Research, Adelaide, Australia.
Dempster, N., Freakley, M. & Parry, L. (2002). Professional development for school principals
in ethical decision-making. Journal of In-service Education, 28(3), 427-445.
Dempster, N., Carter, L., Freakley, M. Parry, L. (2004). Conflicts, confusions and contradictions
in principals’ ethical decision making. Journal of Educational Administration, 42(4/5), 450-
461.
Denig, S.J. & Quinn, T. (2001). Ethical dilemmas for school administrators. The High School
Journal, 84(4), 43-49.
Gorman, K. & Pauken, P. (2003). The ethics of zero tolerance. Journal of Educational
Administration, 41(1). 24-36.
Hyman, I.A. (1997). School discipline and school violence: The teacher variance approach.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
John Paul II (1990). Apostolic Constitution Ex Corde Ecclesiae. Retrieved from http://w2.vatica
n.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_15081990_ex-cor
de-ecclesiae.html on 30 June 2014.
Mendoza, R. L. (2004). Analysis of decision-making on ethical dilemmas encountered by
principals of selected private secondary schools in Parañaque, Las Piñas and Muntinlupa
[computer file]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, De La Salle University, Manila.
(University Archives No. TG-03778).
Merriam, S. B. (2002). Assessing and evaluating qualitative research. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.),
Qualitative research in practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Noddings, N. (2005). Identifying and responding to needs in education. Cambridge Journal of
Education, 35(2).
Paul VI (1965). Gravissimum Educationis. Vatican City: Vatican Press.
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (2004), Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the
Church. Retrieved from
http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/justpeace/documents/rc_pc_justpea
ce_doc_20060526_compendio-dott-soc_en.html#Respect for human dignity on 30 June
2014.
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (2012), Vocation of the Business Leader. Vatican City.
Retrieved from http://www.pcgp.it/dati/2012-05/04-999999/Vocation%20ENG2.pdf on 30
June 2014.
14
Sarmiento, U. (2009). Education Law and the Private Schools: A Practical Guide for Educational
Leaders and Policymakers. Manila.
Suvall, C. (2009). Restorative justice in schools: Learning from Jena High School. Harvard Civil
Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 44(2). 547-569.
Villero, J. M. (Ed., 2006). Restorative justice: Legal framework and practices in the Philippines.
Quezon City: Philippine Human Rights Information Center.
World Synod of Bishops (1971), Justicia in Mundo. Retrieved from
https://educationforjustice.org/system/files/justiciainmundo.pdf on June 13, 2015.