Examining the pedagogical foundation of Examining the pedagogical foundation of modern educational computer gamesmodern educational computer games

Presenter: Ming-Chuan Chen

Advisor: Ming-Puu Chen

Date: 3/16/2009

Kebritchi, M. & Hirumi, A. (2008). Examining the pedagogical foundations of modern educational computer games. Computers & Education, 51(4), 1729-1743.

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IntroductionIntroduction

• Modern educational games are thought to be effective tools for teaching hard and complex procedures.

(Charles & McAlister, 2004; Holland, Jenkins, & Squire, 2003; Sheffield, 2005)

– (1) Using action instead of explanation– (2) Creating personal motivation and satisfaction– (3) Accommodating multiple learning styles and skills– (4) Reinforcing mastery skills– (5) Providing interactive and decision making context

• This study examines the pedagogical foundations of modern educational (computer video) games.– Many literatures emphasizes the importance of applying established

instructional strategies and theories to design educational games.– 55 educational computer games & 50 relevant articles

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• The direct instructional approach was applied to design Destination Math to teach mathematics.– Grounded in the behaviorist learning theory

• The instructional events associated with the Direct Instruction Strategy: (Joyce, Weil, & Showers,1992) (1) Orientation (2) Presentation (3) Structured practice

(4) Guided practice (5) Independent practice

• Destination Math oriented and presented learners with a mathematics concept, then facilitated learning through practice and feedback. – Like traditional drill and practice programs

Results - Results - Direct instructionDirect instruction

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Results - Results - Experiential learning theoryExperiential learning theory

• Experiential learning:– Engaging learners in direct [real-life] experience and direct their

focus on learning reflection to increase their knowledge, skills, and values (Dewey, 1938)

• Concrete experience is the heart of the experiential learning approach – Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted, as a result of

experiencing and interacting with the environment.

• 5 instructional strategies:(1) Learning by doing (2) Experiential learning

(3) Guided experiential Learning (4) Case-method teaching

(5) Combination of experiential & Inquiry-based learning

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Results - Results - Experiential learning theoryExperiential learning theory

(a) Learning by doing(a) Learning by doing && (b) Experiential learning(b) Experiential learning • Learning by Doing:

– To foster skill development and the learning of factual information in the context of how it will be used

– Ex: BioHazard, La Jungla de Optica & Daelalus’ End

• The instructional events to facilitate Learning by Doing: (Schank et al., 1999)

– (1) Define goals (2) Set mission (3) Present cover story

(4) Establish roles (5) Operate scenarios (6) Provide resources

(7) Provide feedback

• Experiential learning:– Using learner experiences to facilitate learning– Based on the belief that people learn best by doing (Schank et al., 1999)

– Ex: Global Conflicts

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Results - Results - Experiential learning theoryExperiential learning theory

(c) Guided experiential learning (GEL)(c) Guided experiential learning (GEL) & & (d) Case-method teaching(d) Case-method teaching • Guided experiential learning:

– Student-centered instructional strategies did not work effectively unless additional guidance was provided (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004)

– Ex: Full Spectrum Warrior & SLIM-ES3– The components: (Clark, 2005)

(1) Solve real problems from field (2) Activate relevant prior knowledge(3) Demonstrate how to solve (4) Apply what is learned by solving(5) Integrate learning so that it reflects real field conditions

• Case-method teaching:– Using Failure leadership stories to teach tacit knowledge of military

leadership to US Army trainees– Using case-method teaching & Hollywood storytelling techniques to

develop fictional leadership case studies (Hill, Gordon, & Kim, 2004)

– Ex: Army Excellence in Leadership (AXL)

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Results - Results - Experiential learning theoryExperiential learning theory

(e) Experiential learning & inquiry-based learning(e) Experiential learning & inquiry-based learning • Inquiry-based learning

– Confrontation with the problem– Data gathering, including verification and experimentation– Organizing, formulating rules or explanation– Analysis of inquiry process and development of more effective

processes

• Experiential learning & inquiry-based learning– Hands-on actions and reflections are the two main components of

the learning process– The context of the learning is considered as a co-determinant of

meaning– Ex: Quest Atlantis

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Results – Results – Discovery learning theoryDiscovery learning theory

• Discovery learning:– Instruction through which students interact with their environment by

exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments” (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442)

– Students are more likely to remember concepts that they discover on their own.

• 2 instructional strategies:(1) Discovery learning (2) Guided-discovery & inquiry-based learning

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Results - Results - Discovery learning theory Discovery learning theory

(a) Discovery learning(a) Discovery learning • The instructional events of The Monkey Wrench

Conspiracy : (Prensky, 2006)

– Ask questions that allow mistake and offer the learning topic – Provide feedback and reinforcement– Offer challenges, goals, & problems that are involving and relevant to

the learners– Allow the learners to learn by performing authentic tasks.– Apply cognitive apprenticeship method.

• The instructional events of Gamenomics (2006) :– Present an event that exaggerates an economic concept– Challenge the learner to discover that concept– Place the knowledge where they can find it– Provide rewards

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Results - Results - Discovery learning theory Discovery learning theory

(b) Guided-discovery & inquiry-based learning(b) Guided-discovery & inquiry-based learning • Discover Babylon applies a guided discovery & an inquiry-

based approach through the following features: (Roper, 2007)

– Compelling simulations of real environments– Opportunities for guided discovery and unguided exploration.– Authentic and motivating challenges designed with Subject Matter

experts– Immediate feedback to learners.– A question and answer tool that provides contextual information– Opportunities to learn by doing and learn through observation.– Scaffolding (e.g., clues to learning challenges)– Opportunities to moderate game levels,

objectives & time

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Results – Results – Situated cognitionSituated cognition

• Situated cognition:– Knowledge is a product of its context, activity and culture within

which it is developed and used. (Brown et al., 1989)

– The situated cognition is rooted in the social development theory of Vygotsky (1978) in which social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.

• 2 instructional strategies:(1) Situated learning in communities of practice

(2) Cognitive apprenticeship

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Results - Results - Situated cognition Situated cognition

(a) Situated learning in community of practice(a) Situated learning in community of practice • Situated learning in community of practice:

– Knowledge is taught in context of real-life application and occurs in relationships with a community of practice (Lave &Wenger, 1991).

– Ex: Racing Academy & Fizzees

• The elements of situated learning : Stein (1998)

– Content : higher order thinking and learners’ daily experience.– Context : sensitive to the tasks learners should complete – Community of practice : community through which learners reflect

and form meaning.– Participation : the process of interactions and dialogue

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Results - Results - Situated cognition Situated cognition

(b) Cognitive apprenticeship(b) Cognitive apprenticeship • Cognitive apprenticeship:

– Knowledge is situated within authentic activities and taught through interaction with instructors (Brown et al., 1989).

– Ex: simSchool & KM Quest

• Learning is promoted through: (Brown et al., 1989)

– (a) Situated modeling tasks– (b) Coaching & scaffolding to complete the tasks– (c) Fading support

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Results – Results – ConstructivismConstructivism

• Constructivist learning theories:– Knowledge is built by the learner, not supplied by the teacher

(Bruckman, 1998; Piaget, 1967).

• 2 instructional strategies:(1) Constructivism

(2) Community supported constructionist

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Results - Results - Constructivism Constructivism (a) (a) ConstructivismConstructivism & & (b) Community supported constructionist(b) Community supported constructionist

• Constructivism :– New knowledge could be acquired more effectively if the learners

were engaged in constructing products that were personally meaningful to them.

– Ex: SuperCharged

• Community supported constructionist:– It emphasizes the importance of social aspect of learning

environment.– Learning through interaction with other players, observing other

players’ design, and altering their designs accordingly– Ex: Hephaestus

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Discussion and ConclusionDiscussion and Conclusion

• The authentic problems in realistic contexts facilitate inquiry and exploration.

• 17/18 games simulated ‘‘real world” experiences

• Learner-centered approaches are gaining momentum in recent years.

• 17/18 games with explicit pedagogical foundations used learner-centered approaches.

• Games with learner-centered approaches are more effective and attractive to learners than games with basic drill and practice approaches. (Kebritchi, 2008)

• Guided experiential strategies are suggested to be more effective than unguided experiential strategies (Clark, 2005).