Exercise Programming Components - Amazon S3s3.amazonaws.com/.../NCSF_Chapter_15_Exercise_Programming_Components.… · fitness, while preparing for power and strength training. These

Chapter 15

ExerciseProgrammingComponents

IN THIS CHAPTER

Types of Warm-ups

Cool Downs

Exercise Selection

Training Frequency

Training Duration

Training Intensity

Rest Intervals

Training Volume

Recovery Period

Exercise Principles

Program Safety Factors

CHAPTER 15 REV_Layout 1 9/14/12 11:34 AM Page 1

Introduction When designing exercise programs, many factors and variables need to be considered before creating the actual exercise prescription matrix. The exercise prescription matrix is a compilation of prescribed, individual exercise components and their interrelationships that collectively focus on achieving a client’s program goals. The primary determinant for all client program decisions is the needs analysis created from the screening and assessment protocols. These findings will guide the exercise prescription, effectively addressing the key needs and goals of the client. That being considered, programming options for goal attainment present seemingly limitless possibilities, as the human body is capable of countless movement options and a variety of speeds at which these movements can be performed. The only constants are the principles of exercise program design. These principles are manipulated to reflect the desired adaptation response. They include the following: Progressive Preparation – acclimating the body to harder work levels (warm-up). Metabolic System – energy system used to fuel the work. Exercise Selection – type of exercise or modality selected. Exercise Order – sequence of exercises. Training Frequency – number of exercise bouts per week. Training Duration – length of time engaged in physical effort. Training Intensity – level of effort performed. Rest Periods – duration of time between each physical effort. Training Volume – number of sets and repetitions. Recovery Periods – duration of time between exercise sessions. These training principles are also viewed as training variables, or components, and can be manipulated to attain the desired effect of the exercise program. Changes to one or more of these variables present a completely different outcome, so personal trainers must clearly recognize the independent characteristics of each variable and the effect altering any variable will have on the program. To take it a step further, the interrelationship among variables must also be known in order to appropriately create a coordinated and supportive program matrix, while concurrently preventing any conflict among variables. An easy way to view this program harmonization is to consider each

program component as an ingredient in a recipe. In appropriate quantities, each ingredient complements the others to produce a predictable and desirable outcome. When imbalance or conflict among variables exists, the outcome may be neither completely predictable nor desirable when compared to the intended goal. Warm-up Based on the understanding of kinetics, mechanical objects function best when the resistive forces are reduced or controlled. When objects move under the duress of resistance caused by friction, tension, and other constraint mechanisms, they do not have the same abilities to accelerate. The human body works the same way. When body tissue is cold, it resists movement. Cold tissue is less pliable, cellular enzymes are less active, and neural conduction is less efficient (22; 31). For the body to function optimally during activity, it must be adequately warmed-up. For most people, it is common knowledge that the performance of a warm-up should precede higher intensity physical activity; however, many individuals fail to understand the scientific rationale for this sequence. Warm-up is a generic term used to describe a preparation period prior to a designated physical activity. Its use has application prior to virtually any mode of physical movement, albeit recreational or competitive. As the name implies, warm-ups are designed to increase tissue temperature prior to engaging in elevated levels of physical work. The increase in body temperature assists the function of tissues through several proposed physiological mechanisms, (11; 14; 22; 28; 31) including: • Increased speed of muscle action and relaxation. • Greater economy of movement due to lowered

viscous resistance within the active muscle.

• Increased delivery of oxygen to the muscles due to the fact that hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily at higher temperatures.

• Increased cellular gas exchange. • Increased nerve transmission, enzymatic activity,

and muscle metabolism due to the effect temperature has on accelerating the rate of bodily processes.

• Increased blood flow, which heightens metabolic processes and muscle temperature.

• Improved range of motion (ROM) capabilities seen with increases in muscle and core temperatures.

Scientific observation suggests that increasing muscle temperature facilitates the faster transfer of gases at the

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT

310


cellular level, increases blood flow through vasodilatation and the opening of dormant capillaries, lowers lactate levels, increases oxygen uptake and increases the energy metabolism within the muscle. (19) Arguments have been made as to whether or not these physiological changes actually reduce the risk of injury for individuals who employ them as a precursor to activity. However, most professionals will agree that that the performance of a warm-up will reduce activity-related injury risks (i.e., sprains, strains) (11; 28). This opinion is based on the fact that muscle tissue pliability increases as muscle temperature rises and the neural response time is accelerated, allowing for increased lengthening of the muscle-tendon unit and better neuromuscular control. Further benefits of a warm-up performance are also seen, as the blood flow to the heart muscle mirrors the gradual intensity progression of the activity. Progressing from low to moderate to high intensity activity will help reduce stress on the cardiac muscle (smaller oxygen deficits in skeletal muscle and reduced lactate build up), which can help prevent spikes in systolic blood pressure and reduce the risk of abnormal electrical rhythms (cardiac arrhythmias). Psychological enhancements accompany warm-up progressions as well. This preparation period can increase mental focus and arousal, which in turn can facilitate enhanced motor activity (11; 13; 28). Directing attention to specific movements, conditions, and environments can lead to improved performance. This combination of mental and physical preparation can make a warm-up effective in enhancing physical capabilities. Types of Warm-ups Warm-ups are usually designated into one of two categories: general or specific (27). Each holds particular merit for inclusion both before and during daily physical activity. The general warm-up is characterized by gross motor activation, and is designed to increase blood flow and temperature in the working musculature. General warm-ups often utilize basic movement patterns repeated continuously for a set period of time. Examples of this type of warm-up include walking, low speed jogging, jumping rope, calisthenics, and biking. Warm-ups usually last anywhere from three to ten minutes, depending on the client’s physical fitness level and the activity that they are preparing to perform. Higher intensity activities require longer warm-up periods prior to their engagement. The actual duration of the warm-up is subject to the level of intensity at which the client will perform their training. Olympic athletes may use

gradual, progressive warm-ups lasting as long as thirty minutes for optimal physiological preparation.

Specific Warm-up Specific warm-ups attempt to utilize actions and musculature which will be used during a particular activity and will often resemble, either in part or whole, the actual activity to be completed. They are effective in both warming up the muscles, as well as enhancing the specific neuromuscular pathways employed by the activity (27). Utilizing lighter weights for high repetitions on the bench press before heavier training sets are employed is a common example. Using specific sprint mechanics and slower speed sprinting before attempting full speed sprints is another. Both activities are event specific but still elicit all the aforementioned physiological and psychological responses. In either case, the goal is the same: increase performance while reducing the likelihood of injury.

Performance Warm-up In addition to the traditional general and specific warm-ups, two hybrid models have gained popularity in various training environments. They include performance and functional warm-ups. Performance warm-ups combine general and specific warm-up modalities to enhance particular areas of performance fitness, while preparing for power and strength training. These activities combine large muscle continuous movement with gross sport-specific movements, completed through gradually increasing ranges of motion before becoming more specific to the speed and

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components

311


energy system used in the activity. The durations often reach 15-20 minutes before transitioning into the more intense work. An example would be jumping rope for 3 minutes before performing low-level, agility dot drills, then progressing to some agility ladder work and low intensity plyometrics such as skips, ankle pops, lateral shuffles, hops, medicine ball rebounds and passes. The intensity used is often 20-30% less than that employed for the actual training. The concept is to focus on skills and motor patterns that will improve the overall performance of the athlete. Functional Warm-up The fourth classification of warm-up has been termed the “functional warm-up.” The functional training philosophy and its application are rooted in the physical rehabilitation setting. Allied health care professionals, such as occupational and physical therapists, have been using the “functional training” philosophy to complement other therapeutic modalities to improve movement capabilities after an injury has occurred. The premise behind functional training is to utilize integrated movement patterns that elicit increased joint stability through enhanced proprioception and improved transfer of energy across the kinetic chain. The goal is to create a more stable and functional joint for improved movement economy and improved function. Fitness professionals can, and have, applied this concept to fitness routines to help promote enhanced training responses and movement efficiency. Applying the functional training concept to the warm-up component has several advantages. The most obvious is that the activities accomplish many of the same physiological and psychological benefits as the (traditional) general and specific warm-ups do, but with the added benefit of functional enhancement. Secondly, the functional warm-up addresses the ever-present injury prevention and core stabilization concerns of sound fitness programming. Although some of the activities employed within a functional warm-up may not fully present an integrated approach, they can be termed functional due to their injury prevention and core stabilization properties. Further clarification and exploration of integrated functional training techniques and the functional training paradigm will be covered

in the functional resistance training segment of Chapter 20. To be classified as a warm-up activity, the actions should be directed at continuous movement. Walking on the treadmill for ten minutes is often inappropriately used as a complete warm-up before many training sessions. Walking is, in fact, continuous movement, but serves little purpose for a person seeking to improve his or her overall physical conditioning in a relatively short period of time. This becomes increasingly evident when the contact time a client and trainer have per week is usually between 120-180 minutes (2-3 sessions). For the average person hiring a personal trainer, the need for core strength and stability, improved movement proficiency, enhanced joint integrity, and improved musculoskeletal condition is a priority and should take precedent over a ten minute warm-up of walking or biking. With this in mind, 10 minutes on an aerobic machine should seem somewhat ineffective for the goals of the program. Rather than 10 minutes of low level movement by the muscles of the lower body in a single plane, it may better serve the needs of the client to use the warm-up period by combining total body activities in a continuous manner that will affect the conditions that require specific attention. This provides better use of the warm-up period and increases the amount of time designated for goal attainment. Due to the fact that trainers are expected to show results for their client’s time and money, activities directed at improving functional ability and range of motion are


312


~Key Terms~ Kinetics – The mechanics concerned with the effects of force on the motion of a body.

Calisthenics – Exercises designed to develop muscular tone and promote physical fitness. Often used as a warm-up activity.

Proprioception – An unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientation in relation to functional training.

Catecholamine – Naturally occurring compounds in the body that serve as hormones or neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system.

often passed over for actions that will elicit a visual change. Problems arise when the neglect of certain areas leads to some level of debilitation or deficiency. Back pain, shoulder problems, and similar ailments reduce training participation and effectiveness. To combat this scenario, the trainer should use the warm-up time to address preventative action, while keeping in mind the role of the warm-up in physiological preparation. Utilizing exercises in a circuit fashion enables multiple activities to function in a structured format of continuous movement, resulting in increased muscle temperature with the possible added benefits of injury prevention and improved functionality. Designing Warm-ups Any program component should be based on the client’s personal profile and need. This is also true of warm-up activities. Deciding on the right warm-up for the client will be based on the intended goal, the training experience of the client, and their current physical capabilities. In some cases, the traditional general warm-up may be most appropriate as a client is introduced to exercise or for deconditioned individuals who are being gradually acclimated to routine exercise. In the case of a conditioned athlete, the warm-ups may be more aggressive than a new exerciser’s entire workout. The movements and level of difficulty should mirror the capabilities of the client while still emphasizing the warm-up concept and purpose. Likewise, the specific activities the trainer selects to incorporate into the warm-up depend on several factors that often stem from the activity being prepared for specific client needs. Warm-up modalities can range in difficulty and intensity. It is important that the trainer choose exercises that best meet their client’s current fitness and ability levels. The purpose of warming up is to gradually increase temperature, range of motion, and intensity. Whether employing warm-ups aimed at performance preparation, functional movements, or traditional general preparation, the sequence of activities should be sensible. Large gross movements at a controlled pace will supercede faster, more specific actions. The selection of movements should logically support the subsequent activities and serve a desired purpose. Deciding on the program components is the job of the personal trainer and should be based on the best interest of the client. Professional discretion will ultimately define the choices made for each aspect of the training regimen and will certainly be based on knowledge, personal philosophy, and experience. Gaining comprehension of different modalities and the particular

benefits of each can enhance the program offerings and lead to more efficient goal attainment by the client. This concept can be implemented throughout the training session, starting with the warm-up. Cool Downs Warm-ups are used to progressively prepare the body for activity, whereas a cool down works in the opposite direction. The purpose of cooling down at the end of an exercise session is to bring the body back down to a pre-exercise state. The cool down should use low intensity, rhythmic, large muscle group exercise activities immediately following the exercise bout. The physiological rationale for the cool down includes the following (32; 33; 38): 1. Reduction of blood and muscle lactate. 2. Prevention of blood pooling. 3. Promotion of venous blood return, which positively

affects cardiac output. 4. Reduced concentration of catecholamines in the

blood. 5. Reduced risk of cardiac irregularities post-exercise. Cool downs should be employed following both moderate to high intensity anaerobic and aerobic exercise. The actions promote a continued delivery of oxygen to the tissues that were placed under stress, which may aid in reducing delayed-onset muscle soreness related to cellular ischemia and tonic muscular spasm. Additionally, the prevention of blood pooling and the gradual decrease in activity enhances myocardial oxygen delivery and venous blood return to the heart, thereby promoting cardiac output (32; 34; 37). Although the primary activities should be of light aerobic nature, flexibility exercises can also be utilized at the end of the cool down to further promote a more relaxed state and take advantage of the warm tissue.


313


Metabolic System As discussed in Chapter 4, the body utilizes different energy systems to create energy. Each system has specialized features that make it ideal for managing specific types of stress. Recall, the phosphagen system (ATP-CP) provided powerful burst energy when phosphate bonds were split. The fatigue rate is incredibly fast, but the force production output reached the maximum capabilities of the muscle. For this reason, power and absolute strength training requires use of this system in the training program. If the force is required for longer duration, the energy system is switched over to the glycolytic pathway. In the initial stages of the phosphagen energy system (<20 sec.), high force can still be produced if the movements are executed before lactic acid builds up in the tissue and blood. Training at near maximal or maximal levels for 8-10 repetitions will encourage some strength gains, but, perhaps more importantly, hypertrophy of the muscle tissue. When the activity duration extends even further (>30 sec.), the training enhances local muscular endurance and is used for “muscle tone” training. When extended from 60 to 90 seconds at near maximal levels, the exercise stress encourages improvements in anaerobic capacity. Exercise performed for longer than 90 seconds will cause a shift from the anaerobic energy system to aerobic metabolism. Aerobic metabolism accounts for prolonged work but may be assisted by anaerobic metabolism for higher intensity portions of activities of a continuous nature. This leads to aerobic adap t a t i ons i n c lud ing me t abo l i c enzyme

concentration changes, increased stroke volume, increased capillary density, and greater concentration of mitochondria in the muscle fibers (6; 12; 17; 20; 23). Clearly, the metabolic system defines the capacity for work when expressed by time and intensity. Matching the energy system with the goals is fundamental to correct exercise prescription. Straying from the correct energy system or duration within that system can compromise results. For instance, lifting 15 repetitions maximum (RM) compared to a 6RM will have completely different results when applied over a training cycle, as reflected by the energy systems utilized. Knowing these systems is not only advantageous for exercise programming, but necessary for efficient goal attainment. Exercise Selection Exercise selection is equally important for proper prescription. Once the energy system for training has been identified, the modalities and specific exercises which maximize the system and best reflect the needs analysis can then be selected. Much like the options available for the exercise program, the specific exercises to be used have numerous variables for consideration. Aerobic training most frequently utilizes a single modality performed for an extended period of time, such as jogging, biking, swimming, or stair climbing. This does not have to be the case. Creative prescription may employ any group of movements applied in a continuous fashion that results in


314


~Quick Insight~ Skill Acquisition and Movement Economy

The first step in implementing any exercise program or fitness activity is to teach the client to become proficient in the actions to be used within the training regimen. Although not a designated principle of programming, this work is a fundamental component in exercise instruction. Often referred to as the preparation phase of training, clients are taught how to properly execute each movement with correct biomechanical technique. Using physical and verbal cues, personal trainers can help clients become proficient at each exercise movement. Progressing a client toward more complex or resisted exercises before the techniques have been mastered often leads to a breakdown in form. Common consequences of poor form are repetitive microtrauma, which manifests into acute inflammatory syndrome at, or around, an articulation or joint, limiting results from the training (3; 18; 24; 29). Personal trainers should accept nothing less than perfect movement execution during each training bout. Trainers who allow clients to perform exercises incorrectly are being negligent in their job performance. In sports, athletes routinely practice actions and movement sequences that they will perform on the field or court. They do this so they can become more efficient at managing the forces for precise execution during a competitive situation. By rehearsing the activity over and over again, the body learns to coordinate motor patterns via enhancements in neural efficiency. Once the pattern is learned, the nerves maintain a type of motor history, so every time the situation calls for the motor pattern, the body knows exactly what to do. This phenomenon explains why people do not forget how to ride a bike or throw a ball when they become adults, even though they may not have performed the actions routinely since they were age 10.

maintained elevated heart rates for the entire period of the performance. The exercise modality may change fifteen times during the specified exercise period, but as long as it is consistent with the aerobic energy system, it is acceptable. The main guidelines to consider are client-specific characteristics and sustained elevated heart rate for the designated time period. Cardiovascular circuit training is an excellent example of how many movements can be synergistically applied to form an aerobic workout, as long as the heart rate remains elevated for the duration. Anaerobic training is far more complicated because it includes so many options and subcategories of those options. The needs analysis will once again provide the best guide for the exercise selection. Deficiency or a desire to improve in any particular area or movement will justify selecting from the group of exercises that specifically challenges the designated muscle or area for the desired adaptation, be it strength, power, speed, flexibility, or balance. Once the category of exercises has been identified, the client-specific criteria should be applied to the decision-making process. Utilizing this method, exercises may be identified as appropriate for consideration or left in reserve for a different time or different client. For instance, if a client has hamstring weakness and the knee extensor: flexor ratio is off balance, the decision to isolate the hamstring using a knee flexion exercise may be the most logical choice. On the other hand, if additional considerations, such as poor ROM in the hip extensors are determined, it may justify using a movement that may contribute to improved function like the Romanian Deadlift exercise. Each factor may define a particular exercise as advantageous or inappropriate depending on the goals of the training and the client’s capabilities. Although many more options in training are available to today’s fitness professionals than in the past, researchers and practice-based exercise pioneers have helped to identify how each exercise challenges the body and what is most beneficial for the training program. These findings have been used to categorize exercises and modalities by their respective characteristics, including their usefulness and limitations. Reviewing the exercise usages, benefits, and disadvantages will help a trainer when deciding on the best solution to meet the client’s need. Many of these findings will be reviewed in the following chapters and provide insight on the logical choices for each specific situation.

Exercise Order When exercise selection causes different energy systems to be used in the same training bout, some

logical sequence considerations should be applied. The primary consideration relates to specific need. If a person has deficiencies or health risks that can be improved upon with training, they should be addressed first on the priority list of exercise order. Traditionally, aerobic exercise is performed after resistance training when the two are combined in a single training period. The reason for this order is that aerobic training will deplete muscle glycogen and consequently reduce the client’s ability to overload the muscle during the resistance training portion of the exercise session. However, if aerobic training tops the priority list based on the needs analysis, then it should precede anaerobic training in the exercise session. Hypertensive clients, those with low CRF, or those with risk factors for heart disease will benefit most from aerobic activities and


315


~Key Terms~ Intensity – The magnitude, or level of degree, in which an activity is performed, often expressed as a percentage of maximum. Circuit Training – A method of training or physical conditioning in which a person moves through different exercises/stations in a timed manner. The primary purpose is to maintain an elevated HR while resistance training. Micro trauma – Relatively small injuries in the body, usually consisting of small tears in the muscle fibers. Frequency – The number of times a person engages in a particular activity per given amount of time. Duration – The period of time that an exercise session or training bout lasts.

warrant changing the traditional exercise order (1; 2; 9; 39). This may also be true for individuals competing at endurance events. In the latter example, the endurance stress is the most important part of the training bout based on the defined exercise goal; the resistance training is used as a complementary modality. Therefore, if the training bout employs both anaerobic and aerobic activities for an endurance athlete, the aerobic exercise should precede the anaerobic activities. When aerobic and anaerobic activities are combined in a single bout for a healthy person with no underlying conditions, the order of exercises selected for the program will generally follow a pre-set, consistent format. In most cases the order will be as follows:

1. Warm-up 2. Dynamic flexibility 3. Strength training 4. Hypertrophy training 5. Anaerobic endurance training 6. Aerobic training 7. Cool down 8. Static stretching

The type of anaerobic activities will vary by the client and may or may not include all the different training options in a single bout, but the energy systems and intensity used ultimately determine the order. Anaerobic exercise has additional characteristics that define the actual order used in the exercise session. Fast, compound, heavy, and complex movements are ordered first. Lighter, single-joint, isolated movements are used later in the session. Likewise, the size and number of muscle groups used also contribute to the order of operations. Larger muscle groups should take precedence over smaller groups in the exercise sequence. For instance, leg exercises precede arm exercises, and cross-joint hip movements precede cross-joint shoulder movements. This method ensures the physiologically most challenging activities are completed first in the exercise bout. These concepts will be further explored in the chapter devoted to anaerobic exercise prescription. Training Frequency The number of times a person engages in a particular activity per week defines the frequency of participation. Frequency is a relevant component to the exercise program because it plays a role in the rate and degree of adaptation response and serves as a preventative component for overtraining when properly manipulated. A common frequency choice in exercise

programming for general health attainment is at least three times per week. Although it may be true that structured exercise performed three times per week will provide many health benefits, it would be ignorant to use this value to define the appropriate frequency for all exercise programs. Generally speaking, the more frequent the exercise participation, the greater the rate and magnitude of the adaptations when all factors are properly considered. But before adopting the “more is better” philosophy, some key elements must be clarified. First, there is a tolerable upper limit to stress that the body can manage before reaching the exhaustion phase of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (10; 21; 30). This tolerable upper limit varies by the modality, intensity, and duration of the exercise, as well as by the individual. Jogging at a moderate level most days of the week will provide more health benefits than jogging two or three times per week (16; 26). On the contrary, high intensity running bouts at the maximal attainable distances most days of the week would cause a negative outcome due to overtraining effects. Even elite runners train at their maximal distances only a couple times per week, and then they complement the training with shorter running distances. This illustrates the need for balance between intensity, duration, and frequency. This scenario is also true of resistance training. Body builders train up to six days in a week, but they vary the muscles used so that each muscle has an appropriate opportunity to recover. Additionally, a less experienced exerciser who attempts a resistance workout at the same relative intensity and duration as an advanced body builder would likely have difficulty getting out of bed after the second or third day of training. This identifies that frequency is also a factor of training experience and physical condition.


316


The stress stimulus is the basis for the physiological adaptation response, and frequency is a factor in the volume of stress to which the body is exposed. When the stress is excessive, the outcome is negative. On the other hand, when the stress is inadequate, the outcome is insignificant because the body resists adapting to stress when it is applied too infrequently. This being said, when the number of exercise bouts per week is considered, too high a frequency will likely cause overtraining-related problems; conversely, if too low a training frequency is used, adequate exercise stress will not be experienced, resulting in limited benefits. Personal trainers must manage exercise frequency with other program components to ensure the adaptations are properly supported by the training stimulus. Guidelines exist that will help define frequency appropriateness, based on the client’s capabilities and his or her respective goals. Training Duration The amount of time a person experiences training stress in a single bout of exercise is referred to as the duration of training. Training duration, like frequency, is specific to the exercise goals and the client’s capabilities. Unlike frequency, however, duration is subject to a rate of fatigue. The faster an exerciser depletes his or her glycogen reserves, the earlier the bout will lose effectiveness. Fatigue most significantly defines the limit of the exercise session’s duration. Second to fatigue is the duration of stress that is required to cause the intended adaptation response. For anaerobic adaptations, the duration a muscle is placed under stress can be relatively short. On the contrary, the duration of stress required for chronic aerobic adjustments is fairly lengthy by comparison. Duration differences even exist within the energy systems, depending on the intended goal. Strength training requires very heavy loads, applied for short periods of time. When the performed work is tallied, it may add up to a total of 12 minutes of actual resistance training for an hour-long training session. Even though the exerciser remains in the gym for one hour, the body adapts mainly to the contact time with the resistance. When hypertrophy is the desired outcome, the duration of resistance training must increase over that necessary for strength gains. The

actual amount of weight lifted is slightly reduced, but the repetition ranges are increased to compensate for the difference. This places high levels of stress on the tissue for longer periods of time, a necessary element to increasing anabolic hormone response. Hypertrophy training duration may be two or three times that of strength training, even though both modalities utilize the anaerobic energy system. A consistent relationship exists between duration and intensity. The more intense the work becomes, the shorter the duration in which it can be performed. To the contrary, the lighter the work load, the longer the activity can be performed. Aerobic training performed at low intensity can last hours, but when the intensity is elevated, the duration of time to exhaustion is inversely affected. A balance between intensity and duration is necessary for effective exercise prescription. In addition, adequate fuel storage is also an important factor to consider for exercise performance duration. Writing an appropriate and effective exercise prescription will not be fully executable if the client presents low initial energy storage at the onset of the training bout. Training Intensity Training intensity often receives credit for being the key factor in exercise-induced adaptations. Although it can not truly exist independently in an exercise prescription, appropriate intensity is vital for physiological stress perception and hormonal response, as it denotes the level of effort exerted by the body. When added to exercise duration, the interrelationship becomes clearly evident, as previously discussed. Managing these two factors is fundamental to successful goal attainment. The specific intensity/duration values necessary for adaptations will be covered in Chapters 17 and 18 as they pertain to anaerobic and aerobic training, but some general guidelines do exist when viewed from a broad perspective of exercise prescription. Intensity has two relevant issues that determine the degree to which it is employed in an exercise regimen. The first issue is the physical aptitude and abilities of the client. Inherent to any exercise programming factor are safety and the relative capabilities of the client. Exercise that is too


317


intense may cause injury or become a psychological barrier to exercise participation. The second key consideration in intensity planning is the energy system being utilized. Managing fatigue is a function of intensity and duration. Therefore, using incorrect workloads will throw off the body’s adaptation to the stress. Intensity/energy system mismatches present an obstacle to successful program development for goal attainment. Rest Intervals Rest intervals or rest periods are a crucial consideration for intensity prescription. Rest intervals are defined by the duration of time between each act of physical effort. High-intensity burst activities quickly use up the more powerful energy storage within the tissues. Once these energy stores deplete, or their metabolic byproduct accumulation becomes inhibitive, the action is stopped physiologically. To repeat the action, the body must rest while rephosphorylation occurs and lactate is removed (25; 36). Therefore, the rest intervals used for subsequent movement actions are secondary to the energy system consideration. The desired outcome and energy system replenishment cycles determine the rest interval length. In aerobic training, the rest interval may be between a 1:1 or 1:3 work to rest ratio, depending on the training system. In anaerobic bouts, that value jumps to 1:3 to 1:12 depending on the resistance used and the intended outcome. For example, between one mile run repeats that last seven minutes, the rest interval will be equivalent to the measured running times: in this case, seven minutes. In bouts of heavy resistance training such as a 5RM squat, the recovery may be over 2 minutes, even though the movement only takes 15 seconds to complete. Again, the duration of the energy replenishment cycle and the intensity used for the next action define these values. Training Volume Clearly, selected intensity and the other programming variables exist in an interdependent relationship. The exercise intensity level defines rest intervals, training duration, frequency, and the training volume used in the exercise bout and over the weekly training cycle. Training volume is the measure of total work performed. It combines sets, repetitions, and loads lifted. Training volume is calculated by multiplying the number of sets by the number of repetitions by the weight lifted per repetition. For instance, an individual who weighs 155 lbs. and completes four sets of body weight lunges for ten repetitions would have his or her training volume expressed as (4 x 10 x 155 lbs. body weight) = 6200 lbs. If the intensity is fairly consistent, then the total number of sets and repetitions can be used

to determine the volume instead. The goal is to approximate desired volumes per day or week consistent with intensity levels for recovery purposes. If volumes and intensities are high, the recovery demands will also be increased. Accounting for these variables will aid in the rate of adaptation and reduce the risk for over- or under training. Recovery Period The recovery period is the duration of time between exercise bouts. It may reflect a four-hour period of time between aerobic and anaerobic training in the same day, or a multiple day period between subsequent bouts of resistance training for a particular muscle group. Recovery periods replenish depleted energy sources (i.e. glycogen) and are necessary for cellular adaptations to occur from the stress experienced during the previous workout. It is important to recognize that adaptations to stress take place when the stress is eliminated. Simply stated, recovery periods are necessary for improvements. If the body is constantly stressed, it will become exhausted and break down. Injury, illness, and other negative side effects of overtraining can quickly occur with inadequate recovery. Exercise Principles The thoughtful arrangement of exercise prescription principles makes up a successful program matrix. In programming, the difficulty lies in creating balance in a complementary fashion so that the prescription is logical, client-appropriate, goal-driven and outcome-based. To help ensure the program matrix makes sense for the client, personal trainers can make additional changes which can enhance the program components. Program components should be evaluated for consistency with the principles of exercise. These principles add criteria, enhancing the ability of the prescription to effectively deliver the desired results. The principles of exercise include specificity, overload, and progression. Essentially, the three principles work together to ensure the exercise purpose reflects the goals of the client, the exercise provides adequate stress for


318


the desired adaptation response, and the exercise is consistently applied in a progressive manner so that the body continues to improve. The exercise principles steer the program components to properly account for the necessary inclusion and quantity of exercise stress. Principle of Specificity The principle of specificity is very logical in its application. The principle states that for a desired adaptation to occur in a physiological system, the stress demand must be appropriately and explicitly applied to that physiological system. Essentially, the adaptations are specific to the amount and type of applied physiological stress. If the proper amount of appropriate stress is placed on a system the system will respond by adapting to the stress. The principle of specificity guides the exercise selection and other components of programming to ensure the proper elements exist to enhance the desired function. Principle of Overload The principle of overload is defined as training stress which challenges a physiological system of the body above the level to which it is accustomed. Overload is applied by the manipulation of one or more of the training components, most commonly intensity, duration, or rest intervals, but possible adjustments are not limited to these three factors alone. The exercise selection, training volume, and frequency can also be modified to create a more physiologically stressful training experience. When overload is no longer perceived by the body, a fixed state is achieved and the adaptation response will discontinue. This phenomenon is

often referred to as staleness or hitting a plateau. Planned variations within the exercise program allow for the constant application of overload stress and continued improvement by the body’s physiologic systems.

Principle of Progression The planned, incremental increase in exercise stress is referred to as progressive overload and supports continued adaptations. The principle of progression suggests that the stress applied must continually be perceived as new for the physiological system to properly adjust to it. Progressions within an exercise program need to provide overload, but should not be excessive. Large increases in physical stress create a disparity between the rate of the adaptation process and the stress level increment. Rapid rates of progression lead to failure because the amount of overload is too great to manage and can potentially lead to injury. The actual quantity of the progression will be influenced by several factors, including:

1. The client’s training experience 2. The client’s physical condition 3. The client’s genetic potential

Progressions are individual-specific and rates of change vary depending on previous exposure to the stress and the current physical state of the client. New clients with limited training experience often present a faster rate of improvement due to nervous system adaptations. On the contrary, individuals who have reached high levels of


319


~Key Terms~

Principle of Specificity – For a desired adaptation to occur in the body, a stress demand must be appropriately and specifically applied for a desirable outcome to take place.

Principle of Overload – A training stress which challenges a physiological system of the body above the level to which it is accustomed.

Principle of Progression – The stress applied must continually be perceived as new for the physiological system to adjust accordingly.

Humidity – The amount of water vapor present in the air that affects the body’s thermoregulation during exercise.

adaptation to a particular stress progress at a much slower rate relative to the percentage of change experienced. Another key factor in the application of the principle of progression is the person’s level of fitness. Individuals who are in better physical condition can manage more stress, compared to less physically fit individuals. As a general rule of thumb, increases in exercise stress should be approximately 2-5% per week. Some more aggressive practitioners have suggested progressions as high as 10% per week, but the likelihood of sustaining a consistent adaptation rate of this magnitude is very unlikely. Exercise Program Safety Factors Several external factors need to be accounted for when implementing an exercise program safely and effectively. These are considered external factors because they do not necessarily play a direct role in the program components or the exercise principles themselves, but are necessary considerations for the proper execution of the program. Ensuring that these factors are appropriately managed will increase client safety and reduce the risk of liability associated with the training program. Personal trainers must make sure the client is safe at all times when participating in physical activities under their guidance and supervision. It is well known that exercise comes with inherent risks for injury, but personal trainers can dramatically reduce the risk by accounting for many of the contributing factors that often lead to problems. Creating a safe environment is a key part of the trainer’s job description. The concept of a safe environment spans across all aspects of the training area and conditions that affect the client. They include the client’s acute condition, the ambient temperature and relative humidity, area safety hazards, the training space, equipment, and proper supervision. Each factor has independent relevance but can become compounded when other factors are also unaccounted for during the exercise session.

The client’s acute condition is dependent on several daily variables, which may or may not contribute to concerns during training. Some acute considerations include mental distraction or lack of focus, acute illness, dehydration, drug or alcohol use, hypoglycemia, and excessive fatigue. Any one of these daily variables can lead to injury during the performance of physical activity, and they are therefore considered relative contraindications to exercise participation. If a personal trainer recognizes that a client is not functioning properly or experiencing an issue that may increase risk for injury, the activity should be discontinued and rescheduled for another day once the problem has subsided. Failure to do so constitutes poor professional judgment and can, in some cases, be considered negligent. When the environmental conditions are analyzed for safety, temperature and relative humidity are often the first assessed. In some cases, pollution and altitude may also be factors, but they are less common agitators to exercise in most environments. High temperatures and humidity create physiological stress that increases the risk for dehydration and heat-related illnesses. Heat loss mechanisms can become relatively dysfunctional because heat loss from evaporation and convection cannot properly occur (5; 15; 35). Training inside often alleviates any concerns related to temperature. However, if training is to be completed outside, temperature and humidity must be considered. Selecting the most appropriate time of the day is often the easiest and most controllable component involved in managing these conditions. Pre-planning and having a contingency plan are necessary aspects to consider in dealing with environmental conditions.


320


When the environmental conditions are controlled, a personal trainer’s attention can be focused on other relevant program performance areas. The training space and the equipment used for the exercise performance must be evaluated for safety. Any time dynamic exercise is performed, adequate space must be available to accommodate the movements. Before the exercise is performed, the work area should be evaluated to ensure it does not present any possible risks to the client. This includes establishing a clear work space, accounting for other people working in close proximity, and keeping an eye on concurrent activities within the environment. The equipment being used constitutes another possible safety issue within the training area. All equipment should be evaluated for proper function, including making sure moving parts and cables are not damaged or excessively worn. If the equipment uses additional safety apparatus, such as clips, stoppers, and range-limiting devices, they should be employed during each performance to help reduce the risk in case the client

fails during the exercise. If a piece of equipment’s ability to function properly is in question, avoid using it until it has received proper maintenance. Additionally, the client’s capabilities should be evaluated before deciding on the equipment used within the program. For instance, hypertensive clients should avoid compression equipment like the leg press, and stability equipment may not be appropriate for clients not conditioned for less stable environments (4; 7; 8). The personal trainer can further enhance the safety and effectiveness of the training environment by providing proper supervision. Spotting clients, evaluating their movements for poor mechanics and signs of fatigue, and providing instructional cues to enhance movement proficiency will all contribute to better training practices. Setting controls and providing assistance will improve the client’s performance, while concurrently reducing safety-related issues. Trainers should be very active during the training session, observing the client and managing the environment for maximum safety.

Chapter Fifteen References 1. Banz WJ, Maher MA, Thompson WG, Bassett DR,

Moore W, Ashraf M, Keefer DJ and Zemel MB. Effects of resistance versus aerobic training on coronary artery disease risk factors. Exp Biol Med (Maywood ) 228: 434-440, 2003.

2. Belanger M and Boulay P. Effect of an aerobic exercise training program on resting metabolic rate in chronically beta-adrenergic blocked hypertensive patients. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 25: 354-360, 2005.

3. Blevins FT. Rotator cuff pathology in athletes. Sports Med 24: 205-220, 1997.

4. Braith RW and Stewart KJ. Resistance exercise training: its role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 113: 2642-2650, 2006.

5. Coris EE, Ramirez AM and Van Durme DJ. Heat illness in athletes: the dangerous combination of heat, humidity and exercise. Sports Med 34: 9-16, 2004.

6. Dickhuth HH, Rocker K, Mayer F, Konig D and Korsten-Reck U. [Endurance training and cardial adaptation (athlete's heart)]. Herz 29: 373-380, 2004.

7. Ewert R, Opitz CF, Wensel R, Winkler J, Halank M and Felix SB. Continuous intravenous iloprost to revert treatment failure of first-line inhaled iloprost therapy in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Clin Res Cardiol 2007.

8. Fagard RH and Cornelissen VA. Effect of exercise on blood pressure control in hypertensive patients. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 14: 12-17, 2007.

9. Fattirolli F, Cellai T and Burgisser C. [Physical activity and cardiovascular health a close link]. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 60: 73-78, 2003.

10. Fry RW, Morton AR and Keast D. Overtraining in athletes. An update. Sports Med 12: 32-65, 1991.

11. Gamalei IA and Kaulin AB. [Microscopic viscosity of muscle fibers. II. Temperature relations]. Tsitologiia 14: 1322-1327, 1972.

12. Giada F, Bertaglia E, De Piccoli B, Franceschi M, Sartori F, Raviele A and Pascotto P. Cardiovascular adaptations to endurance training and detraining in young and older athletes. Int J Cardiol 65: 149-155, 1998.

13. Ingraham SJ. The role of flexibility in injury prevention and athletic performance: have we stretched the truth? Minn Med 86: 58-61, 2003.

14. Jacobson AL and Henderson J. Temperature sensitivity of myosin and actomyosin. Can J Biochem 51: 71-86, 1973.

15. Kamijo Y and Nose H. Heat illness during working and preventive considerations from body fluid homeostasis. Ind Health 44: 345-358, 2006.

16. Karacabey K. Effect of regular exercise on health and disease. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 26: 617-623, 2005.

17. Kemi OJ, Haram PM, Loennechen JP, Osnes JB, Skomedal T, Wisloff U and Ellingsen O. Moderate vs. high exercise intensity: differential effects on aerobic fitness, cardiomyocyte contractility, and endothelial function. Cardiovasc Res 67: 161-172, 2005.


321


18. Kiefhaber TR and Stern PJ. Upper extremity tendinitis and overuse syndromes in the athlete. Clin Sports Med 11: 39-55, 1992.

19. Kreuzer F. Facilitated diffusion of oxygen and its possible significance; a review. Respir Physiol 9: 1-30, 1970.

20. Lambert CP and Evans WJ. Adaptations to aerobic and resistance exercise in the elderly. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 6: 137-143, 2005.

21. McGowan CM, Golland LC, Evans DL, Hodgson DR and Rose RJ. Effects of prolonged training, overtraining and detraining on skeletal muscle metabolites and enzymes. Equine Vet J Suppl 257-263, 2002.

22. Mutungi G and Ranatunga KW. Temperature-dependent changes in the viscoelasticity of intact resting mammalian (rat) fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres. J Physiol 508 ( Pt 1): 253-265, 1998.

23. Pogliaghi S, Terziotti P, Cevese A, Balestreri F and Schena F. Adaptations to endurance training in the healthy elderly: arm cranking versus leg cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol 97: 723-731, 2006.

24. Renstrom P and Johnson RJ. Overuse injuries in sports. A review. Sports Med 2: 316-333, 1985.

25. Sesboue B and Guincestre JY. Muscular fatigue. Ann Readapt Med Phys 49: 257-54, 2006.

26. Sharman JE, Geraghty DP, Shing CM, Fraser DI and Coombes JS. Endurance exercise, plasma oxidation and cardiovascular risk. Acta Cardiol 59: 636-642, 2004.

27. Shellock FG and Prentice WE. Warming-up and stretching for improved physical performance and prevention of sports-related injuries. Sports Med 2: 267-278, 1985.

28. Shellock FG and Prentice WE. Warming-up and stretching for improved physical performance and prevention of sports-related injuries. Sports Med 2: 267-278, 1985.

29. Sheon RP. Repetitive strain injury. 2. Diagnostic and treatment tips on six common problems. The Goff Group. Postgrad Med 102: 72-8, 81, 85, 1997.

30. Shephard RJ. Chronic fatigue syndrome. A brief review of functional disturbances and potential therapy. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 45: 381-392, 2005.

31. Sidell BD. Intracellular oxygen diffusion: the roles of myoglobin and lipid at cold body temperature. J Exp Biol 201: 1119-1128, 1998.

32. Takahashi T, Okada A, Hayano J and Tamura T. Influence of cool-down exercise on autonomic control of heart rate during recovery from dynamic exercise. Front Med Biol Eng 11: 249-259, 2002.

33. van Mechelen W, Hlobil H, Kemper HC, Voorn WJ and de Jongh HR. Prevention of running injuries by warm-up, cool-down, and stretching exercises. Am J Sports Med 21: 711-719, 1993.

34. van Mechelen W, Hlobil H, Kemper HC, Voorn WJ and de Jongh HR. Prevention of running injuries by warm-up, cool-down, and stretching exercises. Am J Sports Med 21: 711-719, 1993.

35. Walsh NP and Whitham M. Exercising in environmental extremes : a greater threat to immune function? Sports Med 36: 941-976, 2006.

36. Westerblad H and Allen DG. Cellular mechanisms of skeletal muscle fatigue. Adv Exp Med Biol 538: 563-570, 2003.

37. Whitney JD, Stotts NA and Goodson WH, III. Effects of dynamic exercise on subcutaneous oxygen tension and temperature. Res Nurs Health 18: 97-104, 1995.

38. Whitney JD, Stotts NA and Goodson WH, III. Effects of dynamic exercise on subcutaneous oxygen tension and temperature. Res Nurs Health 18: 97-104, 1995.

39. Zanettini R, Bettega D, Agostoni O, Ballestra B, del Rosso G, di Michele R and Mannucci PM. Exercise training in mild hypertension: effects on blood pressure, left ventricular mass and coagulation factor VII and fibrinogen. Cardiology 88: 468-473, 1997.


322


Documents

Exercise Programming Components - Amazon S3s3.amazonaws.com/.../NCSF_Chapter_15_Exercise_Programming_Components.… · fitness, while preparing for power and strength training. These