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The Pennsylvania State University
The Graduate School
College of Arts and Architecture
EXPANDING BIOPHILIC CITY DESIGN THEORY:
A STUDY OF INCORPORATING NATURE INTO THE URBAN DESIGN ELEMENTS
OF KATHMANDU
A Thesis in
Architecture
by
Moti Maya Gurung
2014 Moti Maya Gurung
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Architecture
December 2014
ii
The thesis of Moti Maya Gurung was reviewed and approved* by the following:
Peter J. Aeschbacher
Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture and Architecture
Thesis Advisor
Madis Pihlak
Associate Professor of Architecture
Pasang Yangjee Sherpa
Lecturer of Anthropology
Ute Poerschke
Associate Professor of Architecture
Head of the Graduate Program
*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School
iii
ABSTRACT
Kathmandu, the historic capital city of Nepal, has sustained development
environmentally and ecologically for more than a millennium; however, the city now faces a wide
range of urban problems. A rapidly increasing population and unmanaged urbanization have
severely degraded the city's urban climate and environment, resulting in a dense urban area with
little or no open spaces, narrow roads, and a lack of adequate greeneries and green spaces. Nature
in urban areas vitally contributes to the quality of urban life, and subsequently the recognition of
the importance of restoring and inserting nature within cities is increasing worldwide. Biophilia,
popularized by Edward O. Wilson, posits that humans have the innate inclination to affiliate with
nature. Recognizing this inherent human need to connect with nature, biophilic city design theory
suggests integrating nature into the design, planning, and management of a city through various
biophilic urban design strategies that range in scale from buildings to regions. This work presents
an applied research of biophilic urban design principles in Kathmandu.
This thesis has made an attempt to address Kathmandu’s degrading urban nature by
completing a feasibility assessment of the biophilic urban design strategies in the context of
contemporary and vernacular Kathmandu, which generated some recommendations for
incorporating nature into the city’s urban environment. A general assessment of Kathmandu’s
biophilic levels has also been carried out to assess which qualities of a biophilic city are met,
which are not and what are new.
In the course of completing this project I have further identified larger issues: non-
Western approaches and spiritual aspects of biophilia within biophilic city design theory.
Biophilic city design theory, introduced by Tim Beatley, was developed through observing
innovative strategies and practices in North American and European contexts. But these biophilic
urban design strategies might not be applicable to the other non-Western cities with different
iv
social, cultural, economic, and environmental backgrounds. Further, the moralistic affinity to
nature i.e. one of the nine dimension of biophilia, encompasses strong feelings of affinity,
spiritual reverence, and ethical responsibility to the natural world. The spiritual reverence to
nature also inspires people to conserve and protect nature. In the comprehensive list of key
qualities for a biophilic city, this spiritual aspect of biophilia has been overlooked in favor of
other moralistic experiences of nature. Therefore, studying biophilia in Kathmandu, a non-
Western context, this thesis has endeavored to develop a broader and well- rounded definition of
biophilic city design theory.
Keywords: biophilia, biophilic city, urban nature, Kathmandu
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xi
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ xii
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Research Methodology ............................................................................................. 6 1.4 Organization of the Thesis ........................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 Biophilia and Biophilic City Design ...................................................................... 9
2.1 Biophilia ................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Biophilic City Design ............................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Examples of Biophilic cities .......................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Significance of Biophilic City Design ........................................................... 16 2.2.3 Biophilic City Design in a Broader Context .................................................. 18
Chapter 3 Case Study: Kathmandu ........................................................................................ 22
3.1 Overview of Kathmandu .......................................................................................... 22 3.1.1 History ........................................................................................................... 24 3.1.2 Historical Settlements .................................................................................... 26 3.1.3 Urbanization in Kathmandu ........................................................................... 30 3.1.4 Climate in Kathmandu ................................................................................... 34
3.2 Assessment of Biophilic Level in Kathmandu .......................................................... 37 3.2.1 Biophilic Urban Design Elements in Kathmandu .......................................... 37 3.2.2 Role of Institutions and Government ............................................................. 46 3.2.3 Role of Non- Government Organizations ...................................................... 53 3.2.4 Residents' Biophilic Attitudes, Knowledge, Behaviors and Lifestyles ........... 56 3.2.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 64
Chapter 4 Biophilic City Design Strategies in the Context of Kathmandu ............................. 66
4.1 Building Scale .......................................................................................................... 69 4.1.1 Green Rooftops .............................................................................................. 69 4.1.2 Sky Gardens and Green Atria ........................................................................ 72 4.1.3 Rooftop Gardens ............................................................................................ 74 4.1.4 Green Walls ................................................................................................... 77 4.1.5 Daylight Interior Spaces ................................................................................ 82
vi
4.2 Blocks Scale ............................................................................................................. 85 4.2.1 Green Courtyards ........................................................................................... 85 4.2.2 Clustered Housing Around Green Areas ........................................................ 89 4.2.3 Native Species Yards and Spaces .................................................................. 92
4.3 Street Scale ............................................................................................................... 93 4.3.1 Green Streets ................................................................................................. 93 4.3.2 Sidewalk Garden............................................................................................ 99 4.3.3 Urban Trees ................................................................................................... 101 4.3.4 Low-Impact Development ............................................................................. 102 4.3.5 Vegetated Swales and Skinny Streets ............................................................ 104 4.3.6 Edible Landscaping ....................................................................................... 106 4.3.7 High Degree of Permeability ......................................................................... 107
4.4 Neighborhood Scale ................................................................................................. 108 4.4.1 Stream Daylighting and Stream Restoration .................................................. 109 4.4.2 Urban forests ................................................................................................. 114 4.4.3 Ecology Parks ................................................................................................ 116 4.4.4 Community Gardens ...................................................................................... 116 4.4.5 Neighborhood Parks and Pocket Parks .......................................................... 119 4.4.6 Greening Grayfields and Brownfields ........................................................... 122
4.5 Community ............................................................................................................... 123 4.5.1 Urban Creeks and Riparian Areas .................................................................. 123 4.5.2 Urban Ecological Networks ........................................................................... 125 4.5.3 Green Schools ................................................................................................ 126 4.5.4 City Tree Canopy........................................................................................... 128 4.5.5 Community Forests and Community Orchards .............................................. 128 4.5.6 Greening Utility Corridors ............................................................................. 133
4.6 Region ...................................................................................................................... 133 4.6.1 River Systems and Flood Plains .................................................................... 134 4.6.2 Riparian Systems ........................................................................................... 136 4.6.3 Regional Green Space Systems ..................................................................... 138 4.6.4 Greening Major Transport Corridors ............................................................. 140
Chapter 5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 150
5.1 Recommendations for Biophilic City Design Strategies in Kathmandu ................... 150 5.2 New Knowledge to Biophilic City Design Theory ................................................... 157
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 163
Appendix A Climatic Data of Kathmandu Airport, Kathmandu .................................... 173 Appendix B IRB Application Form ............................................................................... 176 Appendix C IRB Approval Letter ................................................................................. 189 Appendix D Survey Written Questionnaire ................................................................... 191 Appendix E Survey Interview Questions....................................................................... 194
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1-San Francisco Source: http://biophilic cities.org/ ................................................. 15
Figure 2-2 -Singapore Source: http://biophilic cities.org/ ...................................................... 15
Figure 3-1Kathmandu Valley and it's five cities-Kathmandu, Lalitpur (also called Patan),
Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Thimi Source: (Thapa & Murayama, 2009) ............................. 23
Figure 3-2Compact traditional settlement located on ridges fallow and un-irrigated hill
tops Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011) ............... 26
Figure 3-3An example of settlement pattern with open courtyard Source: (Shrestha S. ,
2011) .............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 3-4 Progressive urban growth of Kathmandu Valley from 1967-2000 Source:
(Thapa & Murayama, 2009) ........................................................................................... 30
Figure 3-5 Arial View of Kathmandu Source: http://www.mountainsoftravelphotos.com/ .... 31
Figure 3-6 Dense urban settlement in Kathmandu Source: http://travelingcanucks.com/ ...... 31
Figure 3-7 Land Use Map of Kathmandu Metropolitan City Source:
http://www.kathmandu.gov.np/ ...................................................................................... 33
Figure 3-8 Sun path diagram for Kathmandu Source: (Tuladhar, 2011) ................................ 35
Figure 3-9 Graphical representation of climate summary (Tuladhar, 2011) ........................... 36
Figure 3-10 Plant plantation median in Pulchowk Kathmandu Source:Author ...................... 38
Figure 3-11 Container plantation median in New road, Kathmandu Source: Author ............. 38
Figure 3-12 Traffic-Island at Tripureshwar, Kathmandu Source: Author .............................. 39
Figure 3-13 Traffic-Island at Maitighar, Kathmandu Source: Author .................................... 39
Figure 3-14 Map showing parks in Kathmandu with 500 meter radius circle showing that
majority of the people do not have access to parks at reachable distance Source:
Author ............................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 3-15Ratna Park Source: Author .................................................................................. 40
Figure 3-16Sankha Park Source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/ ...................................................................................... 40
Figure 3-17 Map showing some religious sites in Kathmandu valley Source: Author ........... 43
Figure 3-18Buddha Park, a park in religious site, Kathmandu Source:
http://www.panoramio.com/ ........................................................................................... 43
viii
Figure 3-19 Nag Pokhari,-s religious pond serving as recreational green space
Source:http://www.alltravels.com/ ................................................................................. 43
Figure 3-20 Map showing Religious forests within Kathmandu valley .................................. 45
Figure 3-21 Patches of agricultural land within settlements Source: Author .......................... 46
Figure 3-22 Legislative framework for urban development in Nepal Source: Author ............ 47
Figure 3-23 New community park at Gyaneswor, Kathmandu created by WATO
Source: http://www.watonepal.org.np/ ........................................................................... 54
Figure 3-24 Tree plantation program in new re-constructed road by WATO in Singha
Durbar area, Kathmandu Source: Author ....................................................................... 54
Figure 3-25 Flower pot plantation in Magnahiti by CGNN Source: Author .......................... 55
Figure 3-26 Patan Durbar Square Flower Project by CGNN Source: Author ........................ 55
Figure 4-1Extensive Green roofing diagram Source: http://ecobrooklyn.com/ / ..... 69
Figure 4-2 Green roof at Hattiban, Kathmandu Source: (Shrestha S.
, 2012) ............................................................................................................................ 70
Figure 4-3 Section of green roof at Hattiban, Kathmandu Source: (Shrestha S. , 2012) ....... 70
Figure 4-4 Traditional roof construction detail Source: (Korn, 1977) .................................... 71
Figure 4-5 A typical residence with Potted Plants on roof Source: Author ............................ 72
Figure 4-6 Typical section of traditional building showing attic terrace Source: (Korn,
1977) .............................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 4-7 Rooftop Gardening Concept in Kathmandu
Source: Authorr's own collection from Environment Division of KMC ......................... 75
Figure 4-8 Rooftop gardening practices in Kathmandu
Source: Author's own collection from Environment Division of KMC .......................... 76
Figure 4-9 Typical Section of Living Wall Source: Introduction to Green Walls
Technology, Benefits & Design ..................................................................................... 77
Figure 4-10 Free-Standing Green facade built with Cable and Wire-Rope Net Systems
Source:www.greenscreen.com ....................................................................................... 78
Figure 4-11 Patricl Blanc's Vertical Wall on Jean Nouvel’s Musée du quai Branly , Paris
Source: http://inhabitat.com/vertical-gardens-by-patrick-blanc/ ..................................... 78
Figure 4-12 Typical green facades in the form of vegetation covered boundary wall being
practiced in Kathmandu Source: Author ....................................................................... 79
ix
Figure 4-13 Traditional wall construction details Source: (Korn, 1977) ............................... 80
Figure 4-14Reduction of light and ventilation in public spaces and pedestrian lanes in
historic core areas in Kathmandu Source: (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009) ......................... 83
Figure 4-15 Wide and narrow street allowing solar radiation from ground floor and first
floor respectively Source: (Korn, 1977) .......................................... 84
Figure 4-16 Park in Nag Bahal in Patan Source: Author ...................................................... 86
Figure 4-17 Initiation of greening courtyards observed in Bhimsenthan, Kathmandu
Source: Author ............................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4-18 Unplanned settlement dispersed in agricultural land in the periphery of
Kathmandu Source: Author ........................................................................................... 90
Figure 4-19 Residential neighborhoods planned around a central open green space in
Outer Ring Road Development Project
Source: (Shrestha B. K., 2013) ....................................................................................... 92
Figure 4-20 Typical inner streets of Kathmandu Source: Author ........................................... 94
Figure 4-21 Typical main street of Kathmandu Source: Author............................................. 94
Figure 4-22 Narrow sidewalks with no space for tree plantation and also used by bikers in
Putalisadak, Kathmandu Source: Author ...................................................................... 95
Figure 4-23Pedestrians disrupted by venders and parked bikes in Bagbazar, Kathmandu
Source: Author ............................................................................................................... 95
Figure 4-24 Streets of old towns traditionally designed and planned for pedestrians
Source: https://www.facebook.com/VintageNepal/photos ............................................. 96
Figure 4-25 KSUPT proposes to pedestrianize a part of the heritage route of Kathmandu's
historic core and improve sidewalks of the city center Source: (ADB, 2007) ................ 97
Figure 4-26 Street landscaping being proposed in the heritage route of Kathmandu's
historic core in the KSUPT plan Source: (ADB, 2007) ................................................. 97
Figure 4-27 Different initiatives taken by the people for landscaping streets with narrow
sidewalks Source: Author .............................................................................................. 98
Figure 4-28 Sidewalk gardens observed in streets of Kathmandu, in front of banks, stores,
commercial complexes etc. Source: Author .................................................................. 99
Figure 4-29 Possibility of creating sidewalk garden in streets with narrow sidewalks
using the building frontage zone or the "transitional space" between the sidewalks or
front of the street and the ground floor shops Source: Author ........................................ 100
Figure 4-30 Cross section of Rain garden Source: http://www.jkdirtworks.com/ .................. 102
x
Figure 4-31 Cross section of Vegetated Swales Source: http://www.portlandoregon.gov...... 105
Figure 4-32 An example of Skinny Streets
Source:http://streetswiki.wikispaces.com/Skinny+Streets .............................................. 105
Figure 4-33 Filthy Bagmati river in 2010 A.D. Source:http://sorazora.blogspot.com ............ 110
Figure 4-34 Clean Bagmati river in 1950A.D.
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagmati_River ...................................................... 110
Figure 4-35 Plan of proposed design for river banks of Bagmati riverside by UN-Habitat
& Water for Asian Cities Programme NepalSource: (UNWAC, 2008) .......................... 111
Figure 4-36 Plan of proposed design for river banks of Bagmati riverside by UN-Habitat
& Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal Source: (UNWAC, 2008) ......................... 111
Figure 4-37 Direct discharge of waste water into the Bagmati river Source: (GoN/NTNC,
2009) .............................................................................................................................. 113
Figure 4-38 New face of the Bagmati river near Pashupatinath
Source:http://www.stableglobalprogress.com/tag/bagmati-river/ ................................... 114
Figure 4-39 Community Garden at Pulchowk Campus, Kathmandu Source: (Shrestha,
2011) .............................................................................................................................. 117
Figure 4-40 Community Garden at US Embassy, Kathmandu
Source: http://www.leagueofgreenembassies.org ........................................................... 117
Figure 4-41 Patches of agricultural Land within city core area, Thapathali, Lalitpur
Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011) ........................................................................................... 118
Figure 4-42 The riparian area of Bagmati encroached by squatter settlement
Source: http://fpgm.org/blog-archive/2012-travel-blog/farewell-to-nepal/ ..................... 124
Figure 4-43Banks of Bagmati with Ghats and agricultural fields (1921 AD) Source:
https://www.facebook.com/photo.php ............................................................................ 125
Figure 4-44 Swayambhunath Religious forest standing within the urban landscape of
Kathmandu Valley Source:http://www.merodeshnepal.com/ ......................................... 129
Figure 4-45 Swayambhunath Sacred forest in the mid of the agricultural land Source:
(Shrestha S. , 2011) ........................................................................................................ 131
Figure 4-46Map showing different zones and quality of river in different zones of the
valley Source: (GoN/NTNC, 2009) .............................................................................. 136
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 A Typology of Biophilia Values Source: (Kellert S. R., 1993) .............................. 10
Table 2-2 Biophilic city design elements across scales Source: (Beatley T. , 2010) ............ 12
Table 2-3 Some important dimension of biophilic city (and some possible indicators
thereof) Source: (Beatley T. , 2010) .............................................................................. 13
Table 3-1 Description of the parks of Kathmandu (DUDBC, 2013) ...................................... 41
Table 3-2 List of Religious forests found within the three main districts of Kathmandu ....... 44
Table 3-3 List of names of parks and other green spaces visited by participants ................... 58
Table 3-4 Purpose of visiting Religious Sites and the comments about the sites ................... 60
Table 3-5 Participants' comments about city parks ................................................................ 61
Table 3-6 Various recommendations provided by respondents for promoting greenery in
Kathmandu ..................................................................................................................... 64
Table 4-1 Summary table showing feasibility assessment of Biophilic urban design
strategies in Kathmandu .............................................................................................. 68
Table 5-1 Biophilic urban design strategies for non-Western cities ....................................... 158
xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to my committee chair, Professor Peter J. Aeschbacher, for his
motivation, guidance, time, and continuous encouragement. I thank him for supporting me throughout my
thesis with his patience and knowledge whilst allowing me the room to work in my own way.
I am grateful to my thesis committee members for their encouragement and valuable feedback. My sincere
gratitude also goes to Dr. Pasang Yangjee Sherpa for helping me with survey analysis and providing me
with her valuable guidance which helped me in writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank Professor
Madis Pihlak for his comments and advice.
My sincere thanks also go to the School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture at the Pennsylvania
State University for providing me an opportunity to pursue my Master's degree and conduct the research.
Additionally, I would like to thank the participants in my survey, who have willingly shared their precious
time during the process of interviewing and data collection.
Finally, I thank my family, roommate sister and friends. Thanks to my parents for supporting me
throughout all my studies at the University and my loved ones, who have supported me throughout the
entire process by helping me putting the pieces together. I am so grateful for my family and friends.
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
The thesis is an applied research project related to the biophilic city design theory applied
to the case of the city of Kathmandu, Nepal. Additionally, studying the theory in the context of
the non-Western city has also informed new knowledge to the biophilic city design theory.
Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, with its rapidly increasing population and
unmanaged urbanization, has developed into a dense urban area with little or no open spaces,
narrow roads, and a lack of adequate greeneries and green spaces, thereby severely degrading the
urban climate and surrounding environment. As nature in urban areas vitally contributes to the
quality of urban life, the importance of restoring and inserting nature in cities is increasing
worldwide. Biophilia, popularized by Edward O. Wilson, posits that humans have the innate
inclination to affiliate with nature. Recognizing this inherent human need to connect with nature,
biophilic city design theory, introduced by Tim Beatley, suggests integrating nature into the
design, planning, and management of a city through various biophilic urban design strategies that
range in scale from buildings to regions. This thesis applies biophilic urban design principles in
Kathmandu.
In the course of completing this project I have discovered that the problem pervades not
just in Kathmandu but also sits in within a larger issue; non-Western approaches and spiritual
aspect of biophilia within biophilic city design theory. The biophilia city design theory was
emerged from observing innovative strategies and practices to return nature and greenery into
2
North American and European cities. So, while applying these Western biophilic urban design
strategies in non-Western cities, the difference in social, cultural, economic, and environmental
backgrounds might impede in their application. Further, the moralistic affinity to nature which is
one of the nine dimensions of biophilia, encompasses strong feelings of affinity, spiritual
reverence and ethical responsibility to the natural world. The spiritual reverence to nature also
aspire people to conserve and protect nature. This spiritual aspect of biophilia has been
overlooked in favor of other moralistic experiences of nature, in the comprehensive list of key
qualities of a biophilic city. Therefore, studying biophilia in Kathmandu, a non-Western context,
this thesis also addresses the two key problems that are underdeveloped in the biophilic city
design theory.
The thesis assesses biophilic qualities in Kathmandu to see which of the biophilic city's
qualities are met, which are not and what are new. Then, the thesis evaluates Western biophilic
urban design strategies in Kathmandu and seeks to provide some recommendations for integrating
nature into the city’s urban environment. Additionally, in studying biophilic city design theory in
Kathmandu, a non-Western context, the thesis also attempts to develop a more well-rounded
definition of biophilic city design theory.
1.2 Problem Statement
Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson, describes biophilia as an inherent human affinity
for life and lifelike processes (Wilson, E.O, 1984). The nine hypothesized dimensions of the
biophilia tendency are utilitarian, naturalistic, ecologistic-scientific, aesthetic, symbolic,
humanistic, moralistic, dominionistic, and negativistic.
Realizing human beings’ innate need to connect with nature, theory and research
associated with biophilia argue that we need to reimagine cities as ‘biophilic cities'. It is a new
3
theory for urban development, which not only suggests putting nature into city design planning
and management through various biophilic urban design strategies ranging in scales from
buildings to regions, but also shows concern for the overall welfare of human beings (Beatley T. ,
2010). According to the theory, the quality of biophilic cities depends on the extent of presence of
biophilic conditions and infrastructure such as parks within few hundred meters, green rooftops,
green walls etc. Also, they depend upon the citizens' biophilic behavior such as strong likeness
towards the flora and fauna, amount of time spent outside close to nature and their knowledge
about common species. In addition to these, it also depends upon the biophilic sensibilities of
city’s leaders. However, it was found that two larger issues are underdeveloped within the
biophilic city design theory: non-Western approaches and spiritual aspect of biophilia.
The central problem with biophilic city design theory is that it was developed from the
observation of practices in places with similar contexts, such as America, Europe, and Australia.
For that reason, every biophilic city design strategy might not be applicable to a non-Western city
with different social, cultural, economic, and environmental backgrounds. Further, theories such
as critical regionalism, cultural responsive design, and postcolonial theory argue that the cultural,
geographical, and historical context of a region should be given importance while designing and
planning buildings or urban space.
Furthermore, the moralistic perspective of biophilia which is one of the nine dimensions
of biophilia, encompasses strong feelings of affinity, spiritual reverence, and ethical responsibility
to the natural world. Humans' strong moralistic affinity for nature could also induce the desire to
protect and conserve nature with spiritual reverence (Kellert S. R., 1993). Traditionally, such
sentiments of spiritual connectedness to nature have been also articulated in religion (Kellert S.
R., 1993). This spiritual aspect of biophilia has been overlooked in favor of other moralistic
experiences of nature in the comprehensive list of key qualities of a biophilic city.
4
Therefore, with the research question, “What new knowledge can be gained studying
biophilic city design in non-Western context?”, the thesis addresses these two issues of biophilic
city design theory. Studying biophilia in a non-Western context, this thesis attempts to identify
some new strategies being practiced in non-Western cities that are not included in Beatley's
(2010) biophilic urban design strategies list, and aims to put forward a new list of biophilic
urban design strategies that would be appropriate for non-Western cities. Also, this thesis aims to
establish the importance of moralistic aspect of biophilia or more specifically, the spiritual aspect
of biophilia in assessing a city's biophilic qualities. Hence, through this study, the thesis aims to
make a contribution to developing a broader and well-rounded definition of biophilic city design
theory.
Moving forward, in a global context, many cities are realizing the importance of having
nature within their borders and are moving towards integrating nature into their urban
environment, setting a world model for combining density and nature. For instances, Singapore
that has set the goal of becoming "a city in garden" with extensive parks and green areas and San
Francisco, a pioneer in promoting the creation of small street parks through the pavements to
parks program to creation of parklets.
When comparing Kathmandu with such biophilic cities, one can observe that the city is in
need of biophilic qualities. Kathmandu has historically sustained development for more than a
millennium environmentally and ecologically, now faces a wide range of urban problems. Its
historic architecture and its agricultural landscape made up of green rice-fields covering rural
areas have nearly disappeared or are on the decline. Over the years, with rapid urban growth and
haphazard development, the city has developed into a dense urban area with few or no open
spaces, narrow roads, and a lack of adequate greeneries and green spaces. Because of rapid
urbanization and little planning intervention on the part of Nepal’s government, settlements are
growing spontaneously in the valley. Subsequently, the Kathmandu valley's prime agricultural
5
land has been converted into urban and built areas, whereas areas previously covered with shrubs
and forest have been converted into agricultural land, leading to a reduction in the valley’s
biological diversity.
The environmental quality of the city is declining. The city has high levels of air, water,
and land pollution, severely affecting human health and urban climate. Along with these
environmental problems, Kathmandu’s residents are also facing an absence of public parks, open
spaces, and green hubs. Parks and open green spaces important for the city’s ecological balance
are rarely being built. Spread over an area of 50.67 square kilometers, Kathmandu has only
0.04% of public green space, which is less than 2 square kilometers (DUDBC, 2013). Yet, the
city’s few existing parks and public open green spaces are like open fields rather than lush green
parks due to a lack of proper design and management. Most of them lie on the city’s outskirts, out
of easy reach for the majority of the population. Although city planners are concerned about the
current urban problems, they have not been successful in taking into account the degrading
environment of the city.
Therefore, the thesis attempts to address Kathmandu’s degrading urban nature through
the application of the biophilic urban design strategies set by the biophilic city design theory. So
the second research question is “What aspects of biophilic city design principles or strategies can
be applied in the city of Kathmandu?”A feasibility assessment of each biophilic urban design
strategy in Kathmandu will illustrate which of the strategies will or will not be feasible and how
each strategy can be made feasible in Kathmandu. The main aim of the applied research is to
provide recommendations for various ways of integrating, returning, and restoring nature into
Kathmandu’s urban environment, which would benefit the government or city planners to set up
guidelines for enhancing the city's urban nature.
6
1.3 Research Methodology
The research for this thesis has been conducted using a case study method. The case
study method is a power research method as it allows the researcher to study in a setting
embedded in real-life context. This thesis is an applied research project related to the biophilic
city design theory applied to the case of the city of Kathmandu, to draw some urban greening
recommendations for the city and generate new knowledge to biophilic city design theory. The
research was carried out in two parts: assessment of biophilic level and feasibility assessment of
biophilic urban design strategies in Kathmandu.
The biophilic level of Kathmandu is assessed on the basis of the Biophilic city
dimensions provided by Beatley (See Table 2-3). They are: biophilic conditions and
infrastructure; roles played by institution and government; roles played by non-government
organization and residents biophilic attitudes, knowledge, behavior and lifestyle. On the other
hand, in the feasibility assessment, each of the Western biophilic city design strategies across
scales from buildings to region (See Table 2-2 ) are analyzed to find out what aspects of the
biophilic city design principles or strategies are feasible, applicable and appropriate in
Kathmandu.
The research requires a thorough overview of existing conditions of every parts of the
city from buildings to neighborhoods to regions. For that reason, during the field visit to
Kathmandu in the summer of 2013, various parts of the city such as buildings, streets, courtyards,
public spaces, parks, river banks, forests etc. were explored, observed and photographed. Those
urban design elements that are considered under the biophilic urban design interventions (See
Table 2-2) were particularly observed. While exploring the city, people living around the sites
were also informally interviewed to gain good understanding about the places. Further, during my
visit, many professionals from various government institutional bodies who are responsible for
7
the physical planning of the city were interviewed, in order to investigate the important roles
played by the government in integrating nature into the design, planning, and management of
Kathmandu. Planning documents of the on-going and new projects of the city were also collected
from the government offices. In addition, individuals belonging to non-government organizations
who are actively working in maintaining, conserving and promoting greenery in the city were
also interviewed. Furthermore, the qualitative research method was used to gain insight about the
residents' biophilic attitudes, knowledge behaviors, patterns, and lifestyles practices. An open-
ended survey questionnaire was conducted for exploring the inhabitants' opinion about their
relationship and experience with urban nature in the city. The literature review includes books,
government reports, planning documents, planning policies of city's different sections such as
streets, buildings, housing etc., institutional reports and scholarly articles on biophilia, biophilic
city, and Kathmandu
1.4 Organization of the Thesis
This thesis is organized as follows:
Chapter 2 provides an understanding of the concepts: biophilia and the biophilic city
design. It also argue that the biophilic city design theory needs to be expanded by including
biophilic urban design strategies for non-Western context and giving importance to spiritual
aspects of biophilia for assessing the biophilic qualities of cities.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of contemporary and historical context of Kathmandu;
and presents a general assessment of biophilic level or qualities in Kathmandu, specifically which
of the qualities are met, which are not and what are new.
Chapter 4 evaluates the Western biophilic city design strategies across scales (from
buildings to region) in the context of contemporary and vernacular Kathmandu and presents a
8
feasibility assessment of each of the strategies to find out what aspects of the biophilic city design
principles or strategies can be feasible, applicable and appropriate in Kathmandu.
Chapter 5- conclusion provides some recommendations for incorporating nature in
Kathmandu and some new know knowledge to biophilic city design theory.
9
Chapter 2
Biophilia and Biophilic City Design
2.1 Biophilia
Humans have an innate inclination to affiliate with nature, and this hypothesis is referred
as Biophilia (Wilson, 1984). The term "Biophilia" is popularized by Harvard University
myrmecologist and conservationist, Edward O. Wilson who describes it as an inherent human
affinity for life and lifelike processes (Wilson, 1984). According to Wilson, humans have
biologically based attraction for nature and life as they have evolved with the rest of the creation.
Some years before Edward Wilson introduced the biophilia notion in his 1984 book, the term
Biophilia was used by psychologist Eric Fromm independently (Wilson, 1984). Fromm defined
biophilia as a "passionate love of life and of all that is alive; it is the wish to further growth,
whether in a person, a plant an idea, or a social group" (Fromm, 1973). The term described the
need for cultivating the capacity for our mental health and emotional well-being (Fromm, 1973).
The book "Biophilia Hypothesis" shows scholarly examination of the Biophilia concept
from different angles (Kellert, 1997). The book asserts that the human dependence on nature not
only involves the issue of material and physical sustenance but also covers the human needs for
aesthetic, cognitive, intellectual, and even spiritual meaning and satisfaction (Kellert S. R., 1993).
According to the hypothesis, the human need for affiliation with life and life like processes has
been advantageous in the human evolutionary struggle to adapt, persist, and thrive as species and
individuals (Kellert S. R., 1993). There are nine hypothesized dimensions of the biophilia
tendency which are considered as an indicative of the human dependence on nature as a basis for
10
survival and personal fulfillment. These include utilitarian, naturalistic, ecologistic-scientific,
aesthetic, symbolic, humanistic, moralistic, dominionistic, and negativistic (Kellert S. R., 1993).
Table 2.1 shows the definition and function of these dimensions of biophilia.
Table 2-1 A Typology of Biophilia Values Source: (Kellert S. R., 1993)
Term Definition Function
Utilitarian Practical and material exploitation of nature Physical sustenance/ security
Naturalistic Satisfaction from direct experience/contact with
nature
Curiosity, outdoor skills,
mental/physical development
Ecologsitic-
Scientific
Systematic study of structure, function, and
relationship in nature
Knowledge, understanding
observational skills
Aesthetic Physical appeal and beauty of nature Inspiration, harmony, peace,
security
Symbolic Use of nature metaphorical expression,
language, expressive thought
Communication, mental
development
Humanistic Strong affection, emotional attachment, 'love'
for nature
Group bonding, sharing,
cooperation, companionship
Moralistic Strong affinity, spiritual reverence, ethical
concern for nature
Order and meaning in life,
kinship, affiliational ties
Dominionstic Mastery, physical control, dominance of nature Mechanical skill physical
prowess, ability to subdue
Negativistic Fear, aversion, alienation form nature Security, protection, safety
Both Biophilia and Biophilia Hypothesis together give emphasis on the psychological
phenomena that arose from the deep human history of interaction with nature and hence are now
quite likely ingrained in their genes (Kellert S. R., 1993). The homes of the ancient Egyptian
nobility, Persian settlements, and medieval Chinese villages were all marked by extensive and
elaborate gardens indicating that human had tendency to contact with nature throughout the
history (Kellert S. R., 1993). Similarly, at Pompeii, next to every inn, restaurant and private
residence, there are Roman built gardens with artfully spacing trees and shrubs, pools and
11
fountains, beds of herbs and flowers, and domestic statuary (Wilson, 1984). Interestingly, when
their courtyards were too small to hold much of gardens, owners would paint attractive pictures of
plants and animals on the enclosure walls in order to satisfy their desire to be close to nature
(Wilson, 1984). Also, Japanese gardens of ninth to twelfth centuries, emphasized on the orderly
arrangement of trees and shrubs, streams and ponds and open spaces (Wilson, 1984).
The urgency of the search for the subject has gained more importance due to the rapid
disappearance of the living part of the environment, generating a call for the better understanding
of not only the human nature but also a more convincing environmental ethic based on it (Kellert
S. R., 1993).
2.2 Biophilic City Design
The importance of urban green spaces and urban forests is increasing worldwide because
of the expansion of urban land fueled by urbanization. The provision of parks and green spaces in
urban areas make a vital contribution to the quality of urban life. Nature is beneficial for human
beings in various ways, people in cities do not get chance to have intimate contact with nature.
Realizing the importance of nature in human life, theories and researches associated with
biophilia argue that we need to re-imagine cities as ‘Biophilic Cities' (Beatley T. , 2010).
“A Biophilic city is a city abundant with nature, a city that looks for opportunities to
repair and restore and creatively insert nature wherever it can” (Beatley T. , 2010). “Biophilia” is
the term used to describe the city that seeks to foster closeness to nature- it protects and nurtures
what it has, repairs and restores what has been lost and degraded, while at the same time finding
new creative ways of integrating nature into the streets, buildings and urban living environments
(Beatley T. , 2010). It is a new theory for urban development which not only suggests putting
nature into design planning and management of the city but also concern is shown for the overall
12
Table 2-2 Biophilic city design elements across scales Source: (Beatley T. , 2010)
Scales Biophilic design elements
Building Green rooftops
Sky gardens and green atria
Rooftop garden
Green Walls
Daylit interior spaces
Blocks Green courtyards
Clustered housing around green areas
Native species yards and spaces
Street Green streets
Sidewalk garden
Urban trees
Low impact development (LID)
Vegetated swales and skinny streets
Edible landscaping
High degree of permeability
Neighborhood Stream daylighting, stream restoration
Urban forests
Ecology parks
Community gardens
Neighborhood parks/pockets parks
Greening grayfields and brownfields
Community Urban creeks and riparian areas
Urban ecological networks
Green schools
City tree canopy
Community forest/community orchards
Greening utility corridors
Region River systems/floodplains
Riparian systems
Regional greenspace systems
Greening major transport corridors
welfare of the human-beings (Beatley T. , 2010). Such cities are concerned about the ecological
integrity of its network of nature and the ability and accessibility of residents to move from a
neighborhood to larger green realm. Some various ways for making cities and urban environment
greener is utilizing a variety of tools and strategies applied on a number of geographical and
governmental scales such as green roofs and green walls, community gardens, planting trees and
forests, day lighting urban streams, etc. Table 2-2 presents some various examples of biophilic
design interventions ranging in scale from buildings to regions. Biophilic urban design and
13
biophilic urban planning represent the connection with and designing-in with nature in cities
(Beatley T. , 2010). On contrary to green cities and green urbanism that are more related to the
energy or environmental conservation, biophilic cities are more concerned directly to human
well-being, recognizing the innate need for a connection to nature (Beatley T. , 2010).
Table 2-3 Some important dimension of biophilic city (and some possible indicators thereof) Source: (Beatley T. ,
2010)
Biophilic Conditions and Infrastructure
--Percentage of population within a few hundred feet or meters of a park or green spaces
--Percentage of city land area covered by trees or other vegetation
--Number of green design features (e.g. green rooftops, green walls, rain gardens
--Extent of natural images, shapes, forms employed in architecture, and seen in the city
--Extent of flora and fauna (e.g. species) found within the city
Biophilic Behaviors, Patterns, Practices, Lifestyles
--Average portion of the day spent outside
--Visitation rates for city parks
--Percent of trips made by walking
--Extent of membership and participation in local clubs and organization
Biophilic Attitudes and Knowledge
--Percent of residents who express care and concern for nature
--Percent of residents who can identify common species of flora and fauna
Biophilic Institution and Governance
--Priority given to nature conservation by local government; percent of municipal budget declined to
biophilic programs
--Existence of design and planning regulations that promote biophilic conditions (e.g. mandatory green
rooftop requirement bird-friendly building design guidelines)
--Presence and importance of institutions, from aquaria to natural history museums, that promote education
and awareness of nature
--Number/extent of educational programs in local schools aimed at teaching about nature
--Number of nature organizations and clubs of various sorts in the city, from advocacy to social group
For creating biophilic cities, physical environment of cities are an essential requisite
(Beatley T. & Newman P., 2013). A biophilic city is not just described or defined by the physical
design; the biophilic quality of a city also depends upon the citizens' strong likeness towards the
flora and fauna, their knowledge of certain common species of flora and fauna and the amount of
time spent outside by them enjoying nature within the cities. The biophilic sensibilities of how the
14
city’s leaders and its populace consider or take the importance of nature as well define a biophilic
city. Table 2- 3 show some indicators or qualities of biophilic cities.
2.2.1 Examples of Biophilic cities
The call for biophilic cities and biophilic urban neighborhoods is not a theoretical notion
but a practical reality in many places (Beatley T. , 2010). Nature is in decline almost everywhere
in the world, the results of the pervasive impact of climate change, population growth, resource
extraction, development and various other human impacts. Cities must be designed to provide
ready outlets and rewards for even greener spaces (Beatley T. , 2010). City planners and
urbanists can advance the biophilic city design, utilizing a variety of strategies and tools, applied
on a number of governmental and geographical scales (Beatley T. , 2010).
There are many good examples of cities that have established useful biophilic targets and
are working toward them. New York has set a goal of providing a park or green space within a
ten-minute walk of every resident. Approximately half of the ground area of Singapore city has
been devoted for nature and green space which is a significant achievement in a very dense city
(Beatley T. , 2010). The very spaces around and between the buildings and streets in a city
represent many other opportunities to inject and insert natural wildness. Other dense cities are
also exploring new and creative ways to insert nature into the urban fabric. For instance,
Barcelona’s Agency for Urban Ecology has released an ambitious plan to bring nature and in
particular new green elements in the interior of the dense city (Beatley T. , 2010). They are
imagining to have interconnected networks of parks and green spaces for e.g. conversion of the
interior courtyards of super-blocks in the city into green oasis. An essential step for greening
cities could be tree plantation and urban forestry and hence many cities are forming up some kind
of urban forestry programs. For example, some cities like New York City and Los Angeles have
15
set a goal of planting one million new trees (Beatley T. , 2010). Cities are also adopting some
other important ways to return greeneries and nature into their neighborhoods. One such city is
Chicago which has taken initiative to create green alleys. Also, many other cities are also
developing some kind of community garden programs (Beatley T. , 2010).
Additionally, finding a space for parks in already dense city is a challenge but still some
cities like Paris are creating a park on top of disused elevated elements; likewise New York has
shown an innovative way of introducing parks into the city (Beatley T. , 2010). While applying
biophilic urban design in dense urban environment, it becomes essential to see all the leftover
spaces as opportunities for green spaces, for nature creep in and to occupy and grow into urban
fabric (Beatley T. , 2010). These examples show that the theory of biophilic city has been
developed from North American and European examples.
Figure 2-2 -Singapore Source: http://biophilic cities.org/ Figure 2-1-San Francisco Source:
http://biophilic cities.org/
16
2.2.2 Significance of Biophilic City Design
The urban green areas (public, semi-public or private character) constitute one urban
element which, due to its structure and multi functionality, has an exemplary contribution for
enhancing the quality of life of the people in many ways. These spaces have different functions in
cities, at several levels such as the environmental, ecological, social, economic, cultural and
aesthetic, promoting the image and character of an urban area. Green spaces play an important
role in social, economic, cultural and environment aspects of sustainable development.
Some various benefits of urban green spaces in urban settings are: Environmental
benefits, Economic and aesthetic benefits, social and psychological benefits (Atiqul Haq, 2011).
Many studies have been carried out that demonstrate how green spaces in our surrounding are
beneficial to us. The parks and nature reserves play a vital role in human health and well-being
(Maller, Townsend, Pryor, Brown, & Leger, 2005). It has been proved that urban natural
environment is helpful for reducing stress and strains and providing a restorative experiences,
both physically and conceptually (Kaplan R. , 1984). An explanatory study suggests that the
natural elements within the home environment produce a profound effect on children’s cognitive
functioning (Wells, 2000). The view of trees and other vegetation around an urban setting
compared to urban scenes lacking natural elements provides not only aesthetic values but also
provides positive influences on emotional and physiological states of an individual (Ulrich,
1986). Additionally, it is believed that employees get restorative effects from mental fatigue in
the work environment when having a view of nature in the work place. They are less frustrated,
more patient, show greater enthusiasm and satisfaction in a working place when they have a view
of nature from their work place (Kaplan R., 1993). Due to changing work patterns, increased
mobility and development in communication, social interaction and social ties among the
residents of urban neighborhood are in decline. Trees and plants are generally preferred in urban
17
settings not only as a visual amenity but also to attract people and encourage them for having
social interaction. Local parks or inner city parks or nearby green spaces provide opportunities for
social interaction among the people living in the neighborhood (Kazmierczak, 2013). The public
spaces with trees outside the housing areas tend to attract more people for having social
interactions among people which foster friendships and also generate a sense of safety in the area
among the neighborhoods (Coley, Sullivan, & Kuo, 1997).
Urban green spaces in the form of parks or parklets that are designed to meet different
cultural needs and to facilitate social interaction encourages interaction between different ethnic
communities as different members of the community visit them, meet other people and enjoy the
area (Peters, Elands, & Buijs, 2010). The experience of nature generates a sense of positive
feeling which fulfills important “immaterial and non-consumptive human needs”. Urban nature
fulfills many social and psychological needs of citizens, which make nature a valuable municipal
resource, and key ingredients for city sustainability (Chiesura, 2004). Furthermore, urban green
spaces and urban trees provide a valuable contribution in improving the quality of the
environment of the urban areas. From the overview of the studies done on the effects of green
space on temperature, it was found that the presence of parks and trees in the urban area produce
a cooling effect in the environment at local level (Bowler, Buyung-Ali, Knight, & Pullin, 2010).
Hence, urban greening helps to mitigate the human health problems caused from the increase in
temperature of the urban area due to climate change. The urban heat island (UHI) effect which is
primarily triggered by dense built environment (replacement of the natural landscape) as well as
anthropogenic heat in cities causes the city temperature to rise by few degrees compared to the
temperature of the city’s sub-urban area. When vegetation in the form of natural reserves, urban
parks, neighborhood parks, rooftop gardens, and so forth are arranged throughout the city, they
provide a source of moisture for evapotranspiration and thus helps reduce the atmospheric
temperature. Not only the parks and vegetated area have lower temperature but their cooling
18
impact also lower the temperature in the nearby built environment, saving the energy required for
cooling (Yu & Hien, 2006).
The green spaces not only provide a supportive habitat for important aspects of biological
diversity, but also have the potential to attenuate sounds generated outside of the space. In the
outer-edge green space, hedge trees as well as homes and gardens act as a buffer effectively
minimizing the impact of continuous and monotonous external sounds into the green space
(Irvine, Devine-Wright, Payne, Fuller, Krausse, & Gaston, 2009). Moreover, the studies have
found that urban trees and tree canopy have been highlighted as offering a mitigation potential
against atmospheric air pollution. It has been found that even green roofs and green walls help to
improve the air quality in populated urban areas when installed in sufficient quantities to some
degree (Currie & Bass, 2008). Green spaces in urban areas are very much valuable, economically
as well. It has been found that the presence of neighborhood parks and landscape nearby a
residence increases the price value of the residence (Jim & Chen, 2010). Some studies carried out
in Los Angeles, provides the most comprehensive analysis to-date of the benefits of urban spaces
capitalized in the housing market (Saphores & Li, 2012). Additionally, landscaping in urban areas
will reduce storm water runoff and hence helps improve storm water management drastically.
2.2.3 Biophilic City Design in a Broader Context
It has been identified that two larger issues within biophilic city design theory have been
overlooked. They are non-western approach of biophilic city design theory and moralistic
perspective of biophilia which is more specifically categorized here as spiritual aspect of
biophilia.
19
1. Non-Western Approach of Biophilic City Design Theory
The biophilic city design theory was developed from the observation of strategies and
practices of innovative ways of returning nature and greenery carried out in cities of Europe and
North America. The theory suggests that cities must be designed to provide ready outlets and
rewards for even greener spaces and every city planners and urbanists can advance the biophilic
city design, utilizing the variety of biophilic strategies and tools, applied on a number of
governmental and geographical scales. However, as the theory was developed from the
observation of practices in Western cities with similar context, the biophilic city design strategies
for integrating nature into cities might not be applicable to other non-Western cities. The
difference in social, cultural, economic and environmental background might impede the non-
Western cities from following the biophilic city design strategies. Further, theories such as critical
Regionalism, cultural responsive design and post colonial theory argue that the cultural,
geographical and historical context of a region should be given importance while designing and
planning buildings or urban space.
According to Kenneth Frampton, "Critical Regionalism is a dialectical expression. It self-
consciously seeks to deconstruct universal modernism in terms of values and images which are
locally cultivated, while at the same time adulterating these autochthonous elements with
paradigms drawn from alien sources." (Frampton, 1983). The theory does not necessarily reject
modernism nor completely ignore old culture, but suggests such architecture that are based on
local culture and geographical context, yet rooted in modern tradition. Further, in response to the
modern movement that ignored the cultural and context specificity, Rapoport emphasizes an
importance of considering culture while designing any built forms or environments (Rapoport A.
, 1998). According to him, environments are congruent with culture and design of an
environment includes the organization of four things: time, space, meaning and communication
20
(Rapoport A. , 1987). As currently the built environments do not communicate effectively and do
not respond with users, new designed environments or built forms should be made culturally
responsive (Rapoport A. , 1987). Also he adds that, "Culture helps us to understand the different
orders used, the different notions of comfort and environmental quality, the different standards
and responses to site and climate, the use or non uses of available materials and technologies, and
so on" (Rapoport A. , 1998).
Moving forward, while doing design and planning interventions, post colonial theory
give most significance to five themes; in-depth knowledge of place and people; an emphasis on
the particularities of region, site and context; social responsibility in design; and sustainability
(Hosagrahar, 2012). The post colonial approaches in architecture and urbanism seek for design
solutions that are more appropriate and more specific to the characteristics of a region, site and
context and do not necessarily dismiss commonalties of modernism but go for a more kind of
localized interpretation of modernisms (Hosagrahar, 2012).
From the perspective of sustainability (i.e. considered synonymous with green building
and energy efficient technologies), the post colonial theory argues that it is dominated by the
technological innovations in the practices and experiences in North America and Europe and such
modernity and globalization do not consider the timeless practices followed by indigenous people
for living in harmony with nature (Hosagrahar, 2012).
These architectural theories inform the importance of culture and context in city design.
Every strategy suggested by the biophilic city design theory might not be suitable in the other
parts of the world. For instances, one of the biophilic urban design strategies is "Greening
Courtyards". In case of Kathmandu, the urban design culture of profusely using brick and stone
pavement in the courtyards might not allow such dramatic transformation. Due to unavailability
of technologies, some strategies such as green walls and green roofs might also create obstruction
in their application. On the other hand, some cities in the Eastern world are conserving and
21
protecting nature and biodiversity within the cities through some religious and cultural practices
such as sacred groves. Studying the theory in such cities could help to inform some new biophilic
city design strategies that might be new to the Western world. Therefore, biophilic city design
theory should be analyzed in a broader context, for developing a well-rounded definition of
biophilia and biophilic city design theory.
2. Spiritual aspect of biophilia
The human dependence on nature not only involves the issue of material and physical
sustenance but also covers the human needs for aesthetic, cognitive, intellectual, and even
spiritual meaning and satisfaction. Kellert emphasized on the nine hypothesized dimensions of
the biophilia tendency which are considered as an indicative of the human dependence on nature
as a basis for survival and personal fulfillment (Kellert S. R., 1993). (See Table 2-1).
Among the nine dimensions of biophilia, moralistic perspective encompasses spiritual
reverence, ethical responsibility and strong feelings of affinity to the natural world (Kellert S. R.,
1993). The desire to conserve and protect nature with spiritual reverence could also come from
humans' strong moralistic affinity for nature (Kellert S. R., 1993). And, traditionally such
sentiments of spiritual and ethical connectedness to nature have been also articulated in religion
(Kellert S. R., 1993). This spiritual aspect of biophilia has been overlooked in favor of other
moralistic experiences of nature, in the comprehensive list of key qualities of a biophilic city (See
Table 2-3).
22
Chapter 3
Case Study: Kathmandu
The main objectives of this chapter are: 1) to present an overview of contemporary and
historical context of Kathmandu; and 2) to assess the biophilic qualities in Kathmandu,
specifically which of the qualities are met, which are not and also to seek new biophilic qualities
that are not included in the Biophilic theory as discussed by Beatley (2010). In order to meet
these objectives, this chapter will begin with an historical and contemporary overview of the city
followed by an assessment of biophilic level in Kathmandu.
3.1 Overview of Kathmandu
Located in the central part of Nepal in the eastern Himalayas, Kathmandu is the capital
city of the country and has been important economically, administratively and politically for
hundreds of years. It is located in a natural region which contains one of the oldest human
settlements in the central Himalayas. Kathmandu lies in a bowl shaped valley. It is mainly
composed of five cities: Kathmandu, Lalitpur (also called Patan), Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Thimi
and is surrounded by 96 agricultural villages. The 'Kathmandu Metropolitan City' and 'Lalitpur
Sub-Metropolitan City' are the two main densely populated centers.
Kathmandu derived its name from "Kastha-Mandap", meaning the temple made up of
wood in Sanskrit, which was built out of a single tree. Described as "the living heritage site" by
UNESCO, Kathmandu valley is known to the world for its ancient art, culture, craftsmanship, and
23
Figure 3-1Kathmandu Valley and it's five cities-Kathmandu, Lalitpur (also called Patan), Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and
Thimi Source: (Thapa & Murayama, 2009)
24
numerous monuments of historic and archeological importance. Reflecting its long history, there
are great varieties of cultural and heritage sites including monuments, palaces, historic
settlements, religious sites such as temples, monasteries and centuries old Buddhist stupas which
have been influenced over the centuries by Hindu and Buddhist religious practices.
The Kathmandu valley stretches from around 25 km from West to East and 20 km from
North to South and is at an altitude of 1350 meters above sea level. The climate there is sub-
tropical cool temperate with the rise of temperature up to 35 o C in summer and decrease in
temperature up to -1o C in winter. The city profile is generally flat with slope less than 1 degree
(Haack & Khatiwada, 2007). The city covers an area of 19.564 mi² and the region covers about
131.27 mi² (Thapa R. B., 2009) .
It is surrounded by hills of altitude ranging from 1500 m to 2800 m. The valley is drained
by Bagmati River system consisting of eight tributaries and the system has always been the city's
main source of water for drinking and irrigation and holds religious, cultural and social values
(ADB/ICIMOD, 2006). It is the most productive agricultural region in Nepal. The fertile soil of
the valley helped to form the society based on agriculture and this had provided the prerequisites
for the foundation of the city (Muller, 1981).
3.1.1 History
The religious texts and oral tradition describe that the Kathmandu valley was originally a
great lake surrounded by hills and forest which was drained out by the divine powers of Chinese
saint, Manjushree, to make it available for habitation. The valley, blessed with alluvial soil has
been one of the oldest population centers in the central Himalayas. In its earlier days, Kathmandu
Valley had predominantly Newar population, who are considered as the primary settlers of the
25
Valley and the most ancient ethnic groups of Nepal. They are most culturally renowned and are
credited for their incredible craftsmanship and artistic nature. The main occupation of the people
was agriculture.
The city and its culture have a history of 2000 years dating back to the beginning of the
Christian era, the Kirat period (Shrestha, Khatry, Sharma, & Ansari, 1986). Following this period,
a Lichchhavi Dynasty ruled from the 3rd to 9th centuries and during this period it was believed
that the two towns, Patan and Kathmandu, was established. In 14th
century, Mallas arrived which
was an important period for the flourishing of Nepalese art and architecture. The valley was then
divided into three rival kingdoms: Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. These three kingdoms
competing among themselves were successful in bringing the artistic expressions to the highest
point until the mid of 18th century. Around middle of the 18
th century, these kingdoms were
conquered and united by a leader coming from outside the valley, King Prithivi Narayan Shah.
He unified many small kingdoms and principalities into a single nation, Nepal, and made
Kathmandu as its capital city. Before the unification of Nepal into a nation, Kathmandu valley
was used to be known as Nepal itself and any early history of Nepal is actually the history of the
valley (Regmi, 1999).
Due to geographical and political reasons, Kathmandu and Nepal remained disconnected
with developments in the western world until 1960s. The mountains surrounding the valley and a
subtropical malarial jungle to the south of the valley, made it isolated and more or less
independent from the political turmoil and later colonial rule that took place in India and central
Asia. On the other hand, the Rana prime ministers after seizing and reducing the power from
Shah King to a symbolic monarch, kept the country completely isolated from the outside world
for 104 years. It was only after democratic movement in 1960; Nepal joined the United Nations
and adopted a free market economy.
26
3.1.2 Historical Settlements
The role of valley as the center of trade and a contact zone between China, Nepal and
India (Subedi, 2010) had attracted many people since ancient times which had led to the
development of small towns. According to the records, many small towns were established by 3rd
century AD and urban centers by the 11th
century. The ancient urbanization of Kathmandu Valley
are characterized by the dispersed urban settlement of small sizes (Muller, 1981).
The valley's early settlement took place around the Bagmati river. However, most of the
other ancient towns of the valley were located on ridges fallow and un-irrigated hilltops (Tiwar,
1999). The close-compact settlement pattern was adopted not only for the defense mechanism,
which was significant at that time, but also to maximize land suited for agricultural purposes.
This ecologically sensitive tradition emphasized the preservation and use of irrigable slopes and
the fertile plain along the riverbanks, for agricultural purposes (Tiwar, 1999). Indeed, the
structure of the settlement explicitly specified the linkage of the surrounding agricultural land to
the town.
Figure 3-2 Compact traditional settlement located on
ridges fallow and un-irrigated hill tops
Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011)
Figure 3-3 An example of settlement pattern with
open courtyard Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011)
27
The material presented in this section is taken from Tiwari (1999). Here, the historical
settlements are described on the basis of environmental and ecological sustainability the city had
in the past. In the ancient times, various religo-cultural (rituals) and socio-cultural (festivals)
practices developed over time, made the city dwellers realize that the protection of town was
dependent on the protection of nature and its micro-ecology. Small settlements during Kirat
period were centered on a built space protector god, which came to be known as Dyocchen in
Malla period. The Dyocchen, had a counterpart natural spot outside the town called Pith. The pith
which was considered as the out of town symbol of nature protector, were always located in an
ecologically important site, such as clump of trees, spring source of water, hillock and within the
agricultural hinterland of the settlement. The practice of rituals and festivals ensured that the
position of the pith in ecological site is maintained. Hence, the aim of the dispersed settlements in
the valley region with their own rituals and festivals was to sustain local micro-ecology and
ensure that urban expansion checked exploitation of nature.
With the rising commerce during Lichchhavi period, the settlements started growing with
the certainty of the town to expand out to the farms. In addition, as the settlements started
growing, the ponds, spring sources protected as pith outside the settlement, were not able to meet
the water supply needs of the expanding town. To solve this problem, the ponds were fed by
bringing water through canals from the foothills of the valley to towns. This would in turn
recharge supply to recessed pit conduits, a technology which is still working today in Kathmandu.
In order to guide the public behavior for protection of far away sources and watersheds, festivals
and rituals were framed. (One such ritual/festival is Satyanarayana festival from Lichchhavi times
which helps to connect the towns to the important spaces for water supply and ensures to protect
and clean the recharging ponds, sources and reservoirs through participatory strictures). In
addition to it, legal strictures as management tool were also enforced by the power of the state
28
(Strictures such as restriction for felling and burning of trees, cutting of branches for animal
fodder in watershed areas etc).
Despite the fact that the ecological behavioral pattern and structure of the towns were
encapsulated by rituals and festivals, the dispersed towns became much larger and grew further
beyond the ability of one nature protector. Due to the increasing mix and complexity of religious
faiths among the people, the effectiveness of the single dyochhen (in-town protector) got
challenged, as the potency of the ritual mediation through a single religious faith reduced. There
was a demand of retaining the social relationships and feeling of community among the large
conglomerate of increasing population. Besides, the tendency of the towns to expand outward
damaging immediate economic and ecological resources had to be checked. This was tackled by
doing social reclassification of the population on the basis professions called jaat. Zoning of the
city was also done on the basis of jaat, which created pockets of harmony linked to family clan
and profession at the same time. Each pocket was centered on a tutelary image such as Ganesh.
The palace and the royal tutelary replaced the central pith of the settlement area as nobles
subscribing to jaat, administration and political leadership occupied the central areas of the town.
Several Dyocchens, typically eight were placed in between the town center and its boundary, to
deal with the large extent of the town. Piths demarcated the boundary of the town such that the
expansion of town beyond them was considered unusual. The corresponding piths were moved
inward from the surrounding fields to define the boundary of the town. The surrounding fields to
the town were fertile and close to river. In order to ensure that the piths remained in the perimeter
of the town, religious rituals, taboos and festivals were charted and popularized. Subsidiary
temples were dispersed at important micro-ecological places. These piths and temples were
spatially and emotionally linked to the town by extending festivities and addition of annual socio-
cultural events.
29
As the settlement density increased, there arose problems of water supply for domestic as
well as irrigation purpose, and as the natural sub-surface water systems around the towns got
affected, the town faced problem of micro-heat. To tackle these problems, they developed
sustainable systems of collecting and aging night soil from the city and disposing to the
surrounding farms as manure. The dense town had a no-greenery inside situation due to its
location on fallow ridges. But as the town grew in size, this was not acceptable and hence towns
provided lung of space through several khyos (large chunk of open green space) within the
perimeter of the town. Again, many town level festivals were celebrated annually in khyos, to
ensure that the town expansion does not eat them.
Likewise, they also used the interior courtyards as Sagah or place for composting
vegetable waster matter. Sagah were also given religious imagery to maintain the periodic
cleaning cycles. These show that the ethics of behavior and socio-cultural codes favorable to the
ecological character of the hinterland and health of the community were consciously monitored
and meticulously followed.
Therefore, analytical review of the history of urban development shows that despite of
ecological imbalances and 'small scale' parallel problems in the past, the society was able to deal
with them and have sustained development for more than a millennium (Tiwar, 1999). This was
mainly because of the development and application of social-cultural practices of the native
people based on a perception that delicate continuum existed between nature and town. In the
past, balanced cultural processes and practices were designed, developed and practiced
responding to nature and social relationships unlike today where these are sought through
international norms and standards (Tiwar, 1999).
30
3.1.3 Urbanization in Kathmandu
In the beginning of the 1950s, with the construction of highways and air services,
Kathmandu became accessible to both the people from other parts of the country and to the
foreigners. Commercialization and external influences increased in Kathmandu with the
construction of the Tribhuwan Highway in the 1950s linking the region to India and the Araniko
Highway to China in the 1960s (DoR, 2004). The construction of the only international airport in
1949 enabled people from around the world into Kathmandu (Thapa R. B., 2009). Thereafter,
since 1960s, the agglomeration of rural settlements of the valley slowly began to be converted
into city with the establishment of infrastructure, which allowed easy access to the city (Ranjitkar
& Manandhar, 1981).
Figure 3-4 Progressive urban growth of Kathmandu Valley from 1967-2000 Source: (Thapa & Murayama, 2009)
31
Figure 3-5 Arial View of Kathmandu Source: http://www.mountainsoftravelphotos.com/
Figure 3-6 Dense urban settlement in Kathmandu Source: http://travelingcanucks.com/
32
Until 1960s and 1970s, the valley had a slow trend of growth of urban built forms but
since 1980s, it had grown rapidly which was mainly due to the outcome of transportation
accessibility and the implementation of government plans and policies (Thapa R. B., 2009). With
just a population of 400,000 in the mid-20th
century, the number of its inhabitants has now
increased to more than 1.5 million in just a half century (Zurick & Rose, 2009). On the basis of its
high annual growth rate i.e. 6%, it is estimated that by 2020, the population will reach 2.5 million
(Zurick & Rose, 2009).
As the urbanization pattern grew gradually outward from the city core, almost all spaces
around the core were transformed into built up areas. Because of the rapid urbanization,
settlement in the valley grew spontaneously and there was only very little planning intervention
on the part of the government of Nepal. Some major causes of haphazard growth of settlements
are the government inability to cater the demand of housing plots, soaring land prices and
delivery of improper plots by the informal sectors (Pokharel, 2006). Subsequently, the valley's
prime agricultural land has been converted to urban/built areas whereas the shrubs and forest
coverage areas have been converted into agricultural land. The farmland and agricultural land
which once used to be the historical source of city's prosperity are now being lost under the
process of rapid urbanization. It has been observed that from 1980 to 2000, the agricultural land
has been decreased by one third in the valley and if the trend continues, it is expected that, it will
be gone by 2050 (Zurick & Rose, 2009).
Parks and open green spaces that are important for the ecological balance of the city are
rarely being built. Spread over an area of 50.67 sq.km. Kathmandu Metropolitan city has only
0.04% of public green space which is less than 2 sq. km (DUDBC, 2013). The city has only
fifteen proper parks. The only prominent public open space in the center of the city is Tudhikhel.
Yet, it is only a large open grass field and fenced having only access through limited entry points.
Not every neighborhood has access to parks or open public green spaces at approachable
33
distance. Even the pockets of planned settlement areas that are being developed through land
pooling, sites and services and comprehensive housing schemes in the city, are not provided with
satisfactory open green spaces (Shrestha B K, 2013).
The environment of the Kathmandu valley is deteriorating. The most concerning issue
related to the ongoing environmental problems is that Kathmandu, being a bowl shaped valley
has little natural air movement for much of the year (Thapa, Murayama, & Ale, 2008). The rapid
growth in the number of motor vehicles, inferior quality and maintenance of automobile engines,
adulterated fuel and presence of polluting factories within the valley have added to the persisting
air pollution in the valley. Air pollution in Kathmandu is similar to the other major cities of the
world such as Jakarta, Kansas, Beijing, Vienna, etc (Sapkota & Dhaubhadel, 2002).
Figure 3-7 Land Use Map of Kathmandu Metropolitan City Source: http://www.kathmandu.gov.np/
34
Urbanization and industrialization has made a direct impact on the Bagmati River and its
tributaries which faces a number of serious environmental and ecological challenges
(GoN/NTNC, 2009). A recent study has indicated that the water flow and water quality of the
river has an alarming situation (KAPRIMO, 2007). It has classified that most parts of the rivers
within the valley are excessively polluted which has made considerable impacts on the overall
urban environment and human health (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
Hence, urbanization pressure has led to a population influx and increase in motorized
transport, and consequently caused air, water and noise pollution, energy consumption, a loss of
agricultural land, haphazard landscape development, stress on the ecosystem structure and a
reduction in biological diversity in the valley (Thapa & Murayama, 2009). It is also almost
impossible to clear openings for recreational green spaces, public parks and gardens as the city is
overly crowded with buildings and constructions. Concerned authorities and city officials blame
the unplanned urbanization and budget deficiency for the lack of open spaces and urban greenery
and failure of the maintenance of the parks and urban green spaces. However, Environment
Management Departments in recent years have shown efforts for the improvements and
maintenance of the parks and roadside and riverside tree plantation (Adhikari, 2011).
3.1.4 Climate in Kathmandu
On the basis of altitude, Kathmandu falls under Warm Temperate Zone and have pleasant
climate. However, according to the study of climatic data collected from the Meteorological
Department of Kathmandu, Kathmandu has sub-tropical temperate climate with slightly hot
summer and cold winter.
The summary of climatic data of Kathmandu has been obtained from computing the data
ranging from years 1997 to 2008 (see Appendix A). It is found that the maximum and minimum
35
monthly temperature of the city is 29.3o C during the month of June and 2.4
o C during the month
of January respectively. During the months from June to August, there is heavy concentration of
precipitation due to southeast monsoon winds. The maximum annual rainfall recorded between
the years studied (1997 to 2008) was 1871 millimeters (mm) in the year 2002. The average
annual humidity remains approximately 75% in Kathmandu. The wind direction is usually from
south and southwest and the average wind speed is 1.88 m/s.
The hours of sunshine vary between 3.3 hours to 8.4 hours and the average hour is about
6.3 hours (Tuladhar, 2011). The azimuth angle and solar altitude angle for different time of a day
for any month of a year is shown in the sun path diagram below. The sun angle at noon is 62.3o
during equinox (March 21 and September 22), winter solstice (December 22) is 38.8 o and
summer solstice (June 22) is 85.8 o (Tuladhar, 2011).
Figure 3-8 Sun path diagram for Kathmandu Source: (Tuladhar, 2011)
36
Figure 3-9 Graphical representation of climate summary (Tuladhar, 2011)
37
3.2 Assessment of Biophilic Level in Kathmandu
This section of the chapter intends to assess the biophilic level in Kathmandu. The
biophilic level of Kathmandu is assessed generally on the basis of the biophilic city dimensions
provided by Beatley (See Table 2.3). They are: 1) biophilic conditions and infrastructure; 2) roles
played by institution and government; 3) roles played by non-government organization and 4)
residents biophilic attitudes, knowledge, behavior and lifestyle. This section presents which of the
biophilic cities' dimensions are met, which are not and also seeks to identify some new biophilic
qualities that are not previously included in the biophilic city design theory.
3.2.1 Biophilic Urban Design Elements in Kathmandu
Biophilic urban design elements found in Kathmandu are street greening, parks, religious
sites, forests and agricultural lands. They are summarized below:
Street Greening: Avenue tree plantations, median plantations, and plantations on traffic
islands are the various practices for greening streets in Kathmandu. In recent years, city has lost
hundreds of its urban trees to undergoing road expansion campaigns in most parts of the city.
Therefore, in the present scenario, the best example of an avenue of trees of a single species in the
valley is seen in Durbar Marg. According to the Department of Roads (DOR), the valley lost
around 2300 trees within the past few years for widening roads (DoR, 2013).It has been
expressed in many recent newspaper articles that the government felled trees in haste without
considering the deteriorating environment of the valley and envisioning a proper and sustainable
planning for the valley. The government has admitted that due to a lack of an adequate budget,
there have been delays in planting new trees, as they are unable to invest in new tree plantation
38
programs (DoR, 2013). Besides, in this new undergoing road construction, priority has been
given to the expansion of the road only, not to the trees and the width requirements of sidewalks
to hold trees. Nevertheless, as a reaction to such devastation, many NGOs such as Save the
Environment Foundation (SEF) and WATO, have been recently formed with an aim to restore the
valley’s lost urban trees.
Besides, median plantations are seen in the form of container plantation and plant
plantation in the city. The "container plantation" serves not only as a barrier between the lanes but
also adds color to the streets. Such plantations first began in Nepal in 2010 from Durbar Marg,
Kathmandu, and have now spread to other stretches of the city such as Tripureswor, Thapathali,
Kupandole, Sahidgate, and New Road (DUDBC, 2013). However, according to the Urban
Landscape Guideline Report, because of a lack of technical knowhow, the right species were not
planted in many areas (DUDBC, 2013). The planting of trees or bushes on the ground in the
median of the road, known as "plant plantation," is seen along the Koteswor-Surya Binayak
stretch of the Araniko Highway and in the Kupandole and Pulchowk Stretch. However, it is
claimed in the Urban Landscape Guideline Report that the median plantation in the Koteshwor-
Surya Binayak Stretch and the Araniko Highway is a matter of concern, as it has a soil depth of
Figure 3-11 Container plantation median in New road, Kathmandu Source: Author
Figure 3-10 Plant plantation median in Pulchowk
Kathmandu Source:Author
39
about 30-45 cm, which is only capable of holding hedges, not trees (DUDBC, 2013). A median
plantation is also being proposed in the some parts of the city where four-six lane roads are under
construction, such as in Baneshwor-Maitighar Stretch.
Furthermore, several traffic islands projects, such as the Jwalakhel Roundabout, the
Maitighar Roundabout, the Traffic Island in the Maitighar area, and the Traffic Island in
Pulchowk, were constructed as an attempt to green and beautify streets under the Public Private
Partnership (PPP) program (DUDBC, 2013). Many of these were landscaped during late 1990s.
Among these traffic islands, only some are well maintained and (e.g., the Jawalakhel
roundabout), while others are littered with trash, are overgrown in some places due to a lack of
proper choice of plants species, or have vanished altogether due to improper care and
maintenance.
Parks: There are only 15 public parks in the Kathmandu valley, covering an area of 224
ha (4486 ropanis) (DUDBC, 2013). In addition to these public parks, 5 ha (100 ropanis) of green
spaces or small parks are available in the different parts of the valley. The Kathmandu
Metropolitan maintains most of these parks, while few are also maintained by the community, too
Figure 3-13 Traffic-Island at Maitighar, Kathmandu
Source: Author Figure 3-12 Traffic-Island at Tripureshwar,
Kathmandu Source: Author
40
(DUDBC, 2013). Nearly all of the larger parks, are situated on the outskirts of the valley.
Although these parks are well maintained, peaceful, and beautifully landscaped with plenty of
vegetation, their farther distance from the majority of the valley’s population has made them a
popular destination only for picnics, weekend visits, marriage ceremonies, etc.
Figure 3-14 Map showing parks in Kathmandu with 500 meter radius circle showing that majority of the people do not have access to parks at reachable distance Source: Author
Figure 3-15 Ratna Park Source: Author Figure 3-16 Sankha Park Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/
41
Table 3-1 Description of the parks of Kathmandu (DUDBC, 2013)
S/
No
Name of Park Location Area
(hectare)
Established
(year AD)
Present scenario
1 Bhugol Park New Road 0.15 1933 Reduced in Size
Good condition
2 Balaju Park Balaju 7.96 1961 Well maintained
Entry fee charged
3 Ratna Park Bhotahity 1.6 1962 Not well maintained
despite good
staffingovercrowded
4 Godavari Botanical
Garden
Godavari 82.14 1962 Focus on plantation of
indigenous and exotic
plants
Well maintained
Fees charged
5 Tribhuvan Park Thankot 9.52 1972 Beautifully Landscaped
Well maintained
Fees for holding picnic
6 Bhirkutimandap Park Bhirkutimandap 1.35 1972 Not only green space but
also amusement park
Entry fee charged
7 Coronation Park Kirtipur 54.1 1975 Only 120 Ropanis
Landscaped
Planned to develop as one
of the best park in the
country
8 Shankha Park Maharajganj 1.35 1979 Not well maintained but
improving
9 Dakshinkali Park Dakshinkali 56.1 1980 Holds a temple
10 UN Park Shankhamul 78.94 1995 Not well maintained
11 Sahid Smriti Park Bhaktapur 0.25 2001
12 Keshar Garden Keshar Mahal 0.6 2006 Best Garden in Nepal
Entry fee charged
13 GMS/JA Park Ranipokhari 0.35 2006 Beautiful park
14 Manmohan Park Balkhu 0.4 2006 People visit to relax
15 Peace Martyr Park Gokarna 32.66 2015 Under Construction
Others 5(approx)
TOTAL 224.69
42
The remaining parks located in the city’s core area (neighborhood parks) are fewer in
number, smaller in area, and are often overcrowded with visitors. Except for a few parks where
an entry fee is charged, the rest are not in good condition due to a lack of budget for maintenance
and overutilization by the growing population of the valley. In addition to these parks, there are
smaller pocket parks in the form of traffic islands, open spaces, and public gardens. But they are
typically neglected and overly utilized by the urban population. In some neighborhoods,
communities are taking measures to maintain the greenery of the parks, but still many parks are
either non-existent or do not serve the purposes of the vast population living in the core area of
the city (Adhikari, 2011). Additionally, in order to keep these parks intact or to avoid regular care
and maintenance, these places are enclosed by high metal fences, and their gates are locked with
heavy metal locks, preventing even the community and local people from using the space
(Adhikari, 2011).
Religious sites: The immense numbers of religious sites have also contributed to
preserving a considerable amount of nature and green spaces within the valley. Temple, shrines,
stupas, monasteries and historical ponds (mostly built during the Lichhavi (2nd
to 9th century) and
Malla (14th
to 16th century) periods) are the various kinds of religious sites found in the valley.
Large preserved areas around religious sites are the only remaining public spaces in the
midst of the increasingly urbanized landscape of the valley. Most of the religious sites in the
valley hold trees, flower plants, green spaces, and forests in and around their precinct. New parks
are also being constructed in a part of the large preserved areas of temples and stupas, for
instance, Buddha Park in Swayambhu and new park constructed in the Pashupatinath complex.
Some sites with religious structures (e.g., Lagan Stupa in Patan) are also being conserved with
landscapes and are serving as parks to the inhabitants of Kathmandu.
43
The valley consists of hundreds of historical ponds (Pradhan, 2003) that were mainly
built as reservoirs to recharge aquifers for feeding stone spouts (hiti). Although a few disappeared
with the passage of time, many have survived and hold cultural significance. Some good
examples of historical ponds are Siddha Pokhari (in Bhaktapur), Nagdaha (in Dhapakhel),
Taudaha (in Chobar), Rani Pokhari (in Kathmandu), and Kamal Pokhari (in Kathmandu)
Figure 3-17 Map showing some religious sites in Kathmandu valley Source: Author
Figure 3-18 Buddha Park, a park in religious site,
Kathmandu Source: http://www.panoramio.com/
Figure 3-19 Nag Pokhari,-s religious pond serving as
recreational green space
Source:http://www.alltravels.com/
44
(Shrestha A. B., 2010). These ponds hold cultural and religious significance but are important
from an ecological perspective, too, preserving the rich diversity of flora and fauna (Shrestha A.
B., 2010). Also, they serve as a recreational locale for the locals. Some ponds like Nag Pokhari
are well preserved with parks built around it (Shrestha A. B., 2010), and new parks are also being
proposed around some ponds like Kamal Pokhari. Authorities have made efforts to conserve and
maintain these historical ponds (Shrestha A. B., 2010).
Forests: Forests covers 19.43 % of the total area of the valley (Thapa & Murayama,
2009). Except in a few protected areas, the natural vegetation has been under intense pressure.
Excluding shrubs, the area under natural forest cover is 9,580 ha (45.7% of the forest land), of
which only about 22% has good forest cover with more than 50% crown coverage (ICIMOD,
2007). Along with the surrounding hills of the valley covered with forest, there are 12 sacred
groves or religious forests covering an area of 226.18 ha within the three main districts (Devkota,
2013). They are considered as birthplaces of strong religious and socio-cultural practices
(Mansberger, 1991). In Nepal, any religious body, group, or community wishing to manage a
forest for its religious value (Wagle & Ojha, 2002) is allowed to utilize the forest’s products for
religious purpose but not for any commercial purposes (Wagle & Ojha, 2002).
Table 3-2 List of Religious forests found within the three main districts of Kathmandu
List of Religious Forests Location Pashupatinath Kathmandu
Swayambhunath Kathmandu
Bajrabarahi Lalitpur
Hattiban Kathmandu
Balkumari Bhaktapur
Karya Binayak Lalitpur
Mhaipi Kathmandu
Raniban Kathmandu
Bansbari Kathmandu
Dakshinkali Lalitpur
Suryabinayak Bhaktapur
Chonga Ganesh Bhaktapur
45
The forests covering the surrounding hills of the valley, such as Shivapuri-Nagarjun
National Park, Gokarna, Phulchowki, Nagarkot, etc., are managed under formal conservation
laws followed by well-developed policies and institutions. Despite the efforts being made for
their conservation, the forests in the valley are not in good condition, and most of them are in a
regenerating stage (ICIMOD, 2007). Devkota (2013) has claimed that due to rapid urbanization,
environmental degradation, deforestation, and other human impacts, the valley is losing many
important species (Devkota, 2013).
Agricultural Land: The valley was predominantly covered by agricultural land, which
changed gradually into an urban landscape in the 1960s and 1970s with increases in human
settlement (Thapa & Murayama, 2009). Even today, half of the valley is covered by agricultural
land, though the area of coverage has increased and decreased at different time periods (Thapa &
Murayama, 2009). Agricultural land covers 41% of the total area of the Kathmandu valley
Figure 3-20 Map showing Religious forests within Kathmandu valley
46
(KVTDC, 2002). During the process of rapid urbanization in the valley, a large share of the
valley's agricultural land was haphazardly and informally transformed into built up areas, so
patches of agricultural land are found within or in between the unplanned settlement areas of the
city. In the periphery areas of the valley, buildings are scattered around agricultural land.
3.2.2 Role of Institutions and Government
In Nepal, the government in 1960s and 70s established various ministries and
departments to facilitate urban development. Some of government professionals I interviewed
during my visit to Kathmandu includes Dr. Mahendra Subba (Joint Secretary at Ministry of
Urban Development), Er. Shivahari Sharma (Superindent Engineer, Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction), Bhairab B. Bogati (Road and Transport Division Chief,
Kathmandu Metropolitan City), Er. Nirmal Raj Baral (Urban Planner/Engineer, Kathamndu
Metropolitan City), Rabin Man Shrestha (Environment Management Division Chief, Kathmandu
Figure 3-21 Patches of agricultural land within settlements Source: Author
47
Metropolitan City), Er. Buddhi Sagar Thapa (Joint Secretary, Kathmandu Valley Development
Authority), and Surya Bhakta Sangachhe (Progam Manager National Society for Earthquake
Technology-Nepal). The chart below depicts the legislative framework for urban development in
Nepal, which provides a clear idea of the authorized institutional bodies with which the
professionals are associated with.
The interviews were very resourceful to gain insight into the attitudes of professional
groups and policies, strategies undertaken, and future plans for integration and conservation of
urban nature. Thus, the various ways the government is trying to maintain and promote greenery
in the city (found through interviews and literature reviews) are as follows:
Figure 3-22 Legislative framework for urban development in Nepal Source: Author
48
1. Policies
According to government professionals, the government maintains a certain amount of
open spaces for plantation through the enforcement of bylaws. They are as follows:
For individual buildings: setbacks, floor area ratio (FAR), site coverage, right of way
Provision of at least 20% open space for greenery in housing complexes (apartment
cones), health service zones, government and semi government zones, and star hotels
Provision of 15% open space for greenery in educational zones
2.5%-5% open space requirement for urban land development projects such as land
pooling, sites, and services
2. New Actions
One House Two Tree Rule to Make Kathmandu Green
As an initiative for increasing greenery in Kathmandu, the Kathmandu Metropolitan City
(KMC) has made it mandatory for new arrangements to plant at least two trees while
receiving approval for the new house map from January 15, 2013 and onwards (Ghimire
B., 2013). In the case of existing residential houses, if possible new trees should be planted
in the house compound or in front of the house within the next two years and, if not, green
plants should be planted in at least five flower pots on the veranda. According to Robin
Man Shrestha, this new policy will be strictly implemented by charging fines, as this
action will not only increase the beauty of the town but will also make a positive impact
on the environment (Ghimire B., 2013). The type of species to be planted will be
recommended by the forest office and monitored by the metropolis (Ghimire B., 2013).
49
Rooftop Gardening
With the aim of integrating urban agriculture in the city, and with climate change
mitigation and adaptation plans, a rooftop gardening project is being implemented in
Kathmandu through the joint efforts of the Environmental Public Health Organization
(ENPHO) and the Kathmandu Municipality with the technical support of the RUAF
Foundation and UN-Habitat. The campaign has been already successful in promoting
productive rooftops, coupled with harvesting rainwater, recycling organic household
waste, and using climate smart technologies among 150 households and targets to cover
500 households in the coming year (Dubbeling & Massonneau, 2014). To raise awareness
of rooftop gardening and urban agriculture, presentations on the concepts and practices of
rooftop gardening that disseminate practical information to the local community and
training workshops are being organized (NEFEJ, 2014).
According to Rabin Man Shrestha 1of the KMC Environment Management Division, in
addition to the training workshops, the department will be providing households with
garden spades, picks, drums, baskets, and other necessary tools for cultivation at
reasonable price (Kharel S., 2013). For the upcoming 2014/2105 fiscal year, KMC has
already allocated around $30,000 for its rooftop garden program (NEFEJ, 2014).
Parks and Streetscapes
Urban Landscape Guidelines: Recently, the Urban Landscape Guidelines have been
prepared by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The guidelines would
serve as a reference for developing landscaped areas by providing standards for greenery
in streets, traffic islands, courtyards, pocket parks, plazas, and parks in Nepal (DUDBC,
2013).
1 Interview with Rabin Man Shrestha on 4thAugust 2013
50
New Parks : The creation of urban green spaces is set as the main agenda by the KMC for
the upcoming fiscal year (2014/2015). There are many projects on the metropolis’ bucket
list, from the renovation of existing parks under its jurisdiction to the construction of new
parks. According to Robin Man Shrestha1, all of Kathmandu’s major parks—Balaju Park,
Ratna Park, and Sankha Park—are in the process of regeneration under the KMC's
authority. The KMC plans to replace and add more plants to these parks within the next
year and even have an allocated budget for these parks. Shrestha added that many parks
are being proposed in various locations like Tinkune, Chundevi, Indreni, Shobha
Bhagwati, and Narayan Chor, but due to budgetary problems, construction has not yet
started.
Efforts for Streetscapes : After a widespread loss in greenery due to the ongoing road
expansion drive, new road-building projects are being planned with the prospect of
regaining the lost greenery and beautifying the city to complement the successful
expansion drive. The chief of the Ring Road Widening Project, Ashok Tiwari, expressed
that they have plans to plant about 3600 to 4000 trees in areas spanning 5 meters on both
sides of Ring Road to compensate the number of trees that had to be felled for the road
widening project (Kharel, 2014). The ambitious road-widening project of 2.6 kilometers
from Maitighar to Tinkune is going to be built as a model road for the country, with all
road facilities including green belts, an expressway, service lanes, and a cycle lane
(Kharel, 2014). The Kathmandu Valley Road Improvement Project (KVRIP) is planning
to install small trees along the two meters of footpath on roads in Lazimpat-Maharajgunj
and Lainchaur (Kharel, 2014). Recently, the Kathmandu Metropolitan City is set to plant
trees in the core areas of the metro city, such as the footpath encircling the Khulamunch
and Tudikhel areas and RaniPokharai, and the Tri-Chandra campus areas.
51
Likewise, the construction of new green traffic islands holding bushes, flowers, seasonal
fruits, and recyclable materials is underway in Jamal, Tinkune, and Thapathali (Kharel,
2014). However, government professionals admitted that despite their efforts to plant trees
on open public places, roadsides, and along the banks of the river, due to budget
constraints they have not been successful in taking care of the planted trees.
Bagmati River Improvement Projects
Urbanization and industrialization has made a direct impact on the Bagmati River and its
tributaries; therefore, these waterways face a number of serious environmental and
ecological challenges. Additionally, the only open space left in the city core areas of the
Kathmandu Valley is the Bagmati Corridor, but still the space is left neglected and
polluted with unmanaged sewage connection, the dumping of solid waste, and
uncontrolled squatter settlements.
Some Bagmati River Improvement projects, such as the Bagmati Action Plan (by the
Government of Nepal HPCIDBC, the National Trust for Nature Conservation, UNEP and
UN-HABITAT) and the Develop and Information Base and Strategies for Environmental
Improvement of the Bagmati River and its Territory (by the Water and Sanitation Trust
Fund and UN-HABITAT), have already started in the valley. The main features of these
plans are to recharge and maintain the natural flow of river, promote the natural ecosystem
and its territory, and develop riverside roads and green belts all along either side of the
corridor to promote a healthy and green environment (UNWAC, 2008).
Formation of Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
Under the Kathmandu Valley Development Authority Act 2045 BS (1988 A.D.), the
Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) was formally established on April
52
13, 2012, with the aim of preparing and implementing an integrated physical development
plan for the Kathmandu Valley. It mainly aims to address the valley’s various problems,
such as inadequate open space, unplanned land use, unorganized urban sprawl, inadequate
road width, and inadequate monitoring of construction and the risk of earthquake, flood,
and landslides (KVDA, 2014).
3. Future Plans
Kathmandu Sustainability Urban Transportation Project (KSUTP)
The Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project plans to improve pedestrian
walkways in order to promote walking in the historic core area of the city center
sidewalks. The project has also proposed to provide other amenities such as
sidewalk gardens, sign posts, and street furniture (ADB & MPPW, 2010).
Kathmandu Valley 2020 Plan
Due to the undergoing habitation with a low density of population, the fertile agriculture
land of the valley is in decline. The fertile agricultural land decreased from 64% to 42% in
the Valley between 1984 and 2000, and it is expected that if the trend continues there will
no agricultural land left in the valley by 2025 (KVTDC, 2002). In addition, the loss of
agricultural land will have serious impacts on the cultural and economic activities and
disrupt the ecological balance of the Valley. Therefore, the main objective of this plan is to
set policies for limiting urban expansion to a certain level with the aim of preserving
agricultural land (KVTDC, 2002).
53
Outer Ring Road Planning
The Outer Ring Road Plan is being proposed in the Valley to control urban sprawl,
address the existing traffic problem in the Kathmandu Valley, encourage the planned
growth of settlements, and ease infrastructure provisions (Shrestha B. K., 2013). The
zoning of new neighborhoods around Outer Ring Road are planned with the concept of
combining community assets with the natural environment by laying out buildings around
central open spaces (Shrestha B. K., 2013).
3.2.3 Role of Non- Government Organizations
In Kathmandu, a number of non-profit organizations, NGOs and INGOS, are actively
working to raise environmental awareness and are undertaking urban greening initiatives through
tree plantation programs and developing open spaces and parks. Some of these organizations
include ICIMOD, United Nations (UN), the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), We
Are The Ones Nepal (WATO Nepal), Children for Green New Nepal (CGNN), Environmental
Camps for Conservation Awareness (ECCA-Nepal), Youth Awareness Environmental Forum
(YAEF), the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), Save the Environment Foundation (SEF),
Bird Conservation Nepal (BCN) Birthday Forest, and Hariyo-Chowk. In addition to these, other
such organizations discovered from the survey are the Shanti Nagar Youth Club, the Lion Club,
Tol sudhar, and the Prathik Foundation. Most of these organizations are working at the
community level and have been successfully carrying out their targeted projects. Being
community based, they have been encouraging local initiatives in the area of environment
conservation, involving communities in addressing their own problems and creating awareness
among the local people about their responsibilities in making their locality clean, green, and
healthy.
54
A very good example of such an organization determined to restore the lost greenery in
the valley is WATO Nepal, which has been collaborating with government agencies, corporate
houses, and environmental organizations around the globe in raising awareness and resources.
The organization has been actively working to introduce urban forestry in Kathmandu and also
planted thousand of trees in 2011, collaborating with American Forest (AmericanForests, 2011).
Currently, they have planted 1000 trees along the streets of major areas of the city (e.g., Gaishala,
Singhadarbar area, Ratopool area, and Kamalpokhari area), making efforts to point out that the
planted trees survived, and they are targeting to plant another 5000 trees during the next five
years.
Through the support of the Gyaneswor community dwellers as well as with the assistance
of various agencies and departments of the Nepal Government and local and foreign donor
agencies, WATO constructed a park after restoring a waste dumping site in Gyaneshwor (WATO,
2004). The park covers an area of 8928 sq.ft. and includes amenities such as a children’s play
area, a basketball court, a badminton court, benches, and a small ancient temple and shrines in its
vicinity (WATO, 2004). Like most of the neighborhoods in Kathmandu, there were no parks in
the Gynaeswor community, and so the construction of a green community park has provided the
Figure 3-23 New community park at Gyaneswor,
Kathmandu created by WATO Source: http://www.watonepal.org.np/
Figure 3-24 Tree plantation program in new re-
constructed road by WATO in Singha Durbar area, Kathmandu Source: Author
55
residents of Gyaneswor with a place for recreation, social interaction. or for sports and other
social activities.
Another such non-profit organization is Children For Green New Nepal (CGNN), which
strives for environmental awareness among local communities and school children through their
direct involvement in Nepal. In 2013, together with ICIMOD, CGNN organized a campaign to
plant 1000 trees all around the city with the help of local communities. One of the remarkable
projects of CGNN is the Patan Durbar Square Flower Project, carried out in Patan Durbar Square
in collaboration with the Patan Durbar Square Conservation Committee. CGNN started the
project in 2007 by cleaning the degraded pond next to the World Heritage Site, Patan Durbar
Square, and placing 30 flowers pots, benches, and dustbins around the pond. Currently, the
number of flower pots, including trees, has increased to 500, forming a mini-garden near the
square and hence enhancing the square’s environment. The responsibility for watering the plants,
maintaining the area, and organizing the clean-up program at regular intervals is carried out in
rotation by the CGNN members, including youths, school children, and volunteers. Recently, the
conservation work was expanded to another part of the square, Magnahiti, where over 100 flower
pots were placed.
Figure 3-25 Flower pot plantation in Magnahiti by CGNN
Source: Author
Figure 3-26 Patan Durbar Square Flower Project by
CGNN Source: Author
56
3.2.4 Residents' Biophilic Attitudes, Knowledge, Behaviors and Lifestyles
A survey questionnaire was carried out in Kathmandu to analyze the biophilic behaviors,
patterns, practices, and lifestyles, and biophilic attitudes and knowledge of the city's residents.
Based on this goal, an open ended questionnaire was prepared to elicit data from participants’ on
the accessibility of parks or green spaces from their residences, their park visitation rate, time
spent on outdoor activities, their opinion about the city's parks and green spaces, and their
knowledge and awareness of the importance of urban nature. (See questionnaire in Appendix D)
The questionnaire consisted of eight parts:
(1) The participant’s background, including age and where they live
(2) Listing the names of parks or green spaces around their home and the time required to
reach them on foot along with some comments about the places
(3) Time spent on outdoor activities such as walking/jogging and the visitation rate for
city parks or green spaces
(4) Listing the names of city parks or green spaces they visit along with their purpose for
visiting and their opinions or comments about the place
(5) Expressing their concerns towards nature
(6) Listing some common species of flora and fauna found in their surroundings
(7) Their involvement in local nature clubs and listing some names of local nature clubs
they know and explaining their activities; and
(8) Their perspective on how the city can be filled with more nature.
Data was collected from random visitors seen around the Kathmandu Metropolitan City
Office in Kathmandu. A total of 79 questionnaires were filled from the random people residing in
57
Kathmandu. The survey data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively using MS Excel
2010, and are summarized in the form of tables in the followings.
3.2.4.1 Results and Discussion
In the survey questionnaire, the respondents were asked whether they have parks or green
spaces nearby their houses, and 70% of the respondent stated they have. But, only 31% of the
respondents had parks or green spaces within a 10 minute walking distance from their home. In
addition, about 51% lived within a 30 minute walking distance from parks and green spaces.
According to the Urban Landscape Guidelines (2013), there are only 15 parks in Kathmandu
covering an area of only 224 ha, which is considerably less for the millions of city residents.
Furthermore, many newspaper articles also express the fact that the city is choking its
breath in the absence of public parks, open spaces, and green hubs. On the contrary, the survey
showed that the majority of the citizens have parks or green spaces near their houses. But, only
8% of the respondents had formal parks nearby within a 10 minute walking distance. Table 3.3
shows the list of parks or green spaces that the participants were found to visit more often.
The data shows that although there are not many parks in Kathmandu, other green spaces,
such as religious sites, religious forests, agricultural lands, and university grounds, act as
recreational areas for citizens. Although the amount of green spaces in Kathmandu is decreasing
due to haphazard urbanization, it is good to know from the survey that majority of the people
have access to other kinds of green spaces such as religious sites at walking distance from their
residences. The major findings of the survey are summarized below:
58
Table 3-3 List of names of parks and other green spaces visited by participants
Parks (Formal green spaces)
Informal green spaces acting
as park for participants from
survey (Religious spaces)
Religious Sites Others within valley
Bhaktapur
Siddhismriti Park
Godawari
Tribhuwan Park
UN Park
Manushree Park
Siddha Pokhari Temple
Bhaktapur Durbar Square
Patan Durbar Square
Pashupati
Changu Narayan
Swyambhunath
Jai Binayak Temple
Changa Ganesh
Agricultural land
Vegetable farm
Srijananagar to
Suryabinayak
Nearby residents
Lalitpur
UN Park
Manjushree Park
Godawari
Patan Durbar Square
Pashupati
Jal Binayak temple
Chundevi
White Gumba
Pashupati
Swayambhunath
Bhuddha Park
Krishna Mandir
Banglamukhi
Naghdhunga
Pulchowk Campus
Paddy fields
Chyasal ground
Central Zoo
Chasal football ground
Cricket ground
Kathmandu
Godawari Botanical Garden
National Park
Garden of Dreams
Balaju Park
Manjushree Park
Shanka Park
Bhrikutimandap Garden
Tribhuwan Park
Sankha Park
Birendra Batika
Ratna Park
Godawari Park
Ardolokeshwar Park
Devkota Park
Balaju Park
Fun Park
Bhaktapur Park
Kathmandu Park
Swayambhunath
Pashupatinath
White Gumba
Bhaktpaur Durbar Square
Ganeshthan temple
Historical Places
Sanga
Changu Narayan
Bouddha Stupa Premises
Mahadev Temple forest
Kalanki Mahadev Temple
Mahadevsthan
Bishwaroop
Nagh Daha
Bhadrakali temple
Basidhara
Ban Kali
Mhepi Temple
Rani Ban
Around tole
Green lot-back of my house
Round trip around city
River side
Indrachowk
Pulchowk Campus
Galfutar Planning
1km around my house
Tribhuwan University
Kuleshwar Apartment
Tudikhel
Dasharath Stadium
Joggerstrack Airport
Dhaulagiri Awas Chetra
Balaju Bus park
Narayan Gopal Chowk
59
Religious Sites: Present an Opportunity for Greening the City and Preferable Places for
Green Relief and Recreation
From Table 3.3, we can conclude that in the absence of parks in the participants'
neighborhood, they tend to go to religious places for green relief, in order to be close to nature
and recreation. Twenty-six percent of the respondents had religious sites within a 10-20 minute
walking distance. The purposes of visiting the religious sites, as stated by the participants, are
given in the Table 3.4. They claimed that they visited the sites for various purposes such as for
walking or jogging, religious purposes, green relief, leisure activities, and hanging out. The
comments they gave about the sites included phrases such as holy place with greenery, presence
of trees, maintained open spaces with green spaces, peaceful and greenery, and naturally very
lovely. With these responses, it is understood that religious sites are the only immediate green
spaces in the majority of the participants’ neighborhoods and that participants perceive religious
places also as recreational parks and visit them not only for religious purposes but also for green
relief and physical and leisure activities. Therefore, religious sites provide inhabitants with the
opportunity to spend time outside and in close proximity to nature within the city.
Although Kathmandu’s city planners have not been successful in integrating greenery
into every urban neighborhood, the number of religious sites in nearly every part of the city has
been beneficial in conserving patches of green spaces within the city. Yet, not all religious sites in
Kathmandu have green spaces. Some comments, such as newly built park has added essence to
Pashupatinath and lack of green spaces in Buddha premises, indicate that people expect to see
greenery in and around every religious site so that the site will serve both the function of worship
and recreation.
Furthermore, participants gave insightful comments about the religious sites they visit.
The comments show that such sites are in good state, well maintained, and had a peaceful
environment. On the contrary, they gave fairly poor comments for parks (See Table 3.5). They
60
Table 3-4 Purpose of visiting Religious Sites and the comments about the sites
commented that most of them lacked maintenance, required timely cleanliness, were too crowded
to visit, located near polluted river, etc. Hence, in terms of maintenance, people seem to have a
better perception of religious sites than parks.
Religious sites visited
by the participants
Purposes of their visit Comment about the sites
Changa Ganesh Walks/Joggings, Religious Purpose, Presence of Trees
Bhaktapur Durbar Square
Hangout, leisure activity, Roaming
Patan Durbar Square
Hangout, Walks/Joggings, leisure
activity, Roaming
Traditional Open Space, Historical
Pashupati
Religious Purpose, Recreation, Walks,
Green relief, Lazing, Roaming
Well maintained, Crowded, Holy Place,
Greenery, Nice place, fine, Best place,
Fresh Feeling, Naturally very lovely, not
managed by government, newly built park
add essence to Pashupati, maintained open
spaces including green spaces
Changu Narayan For Project Visit
Swayambhunath
Recreation, Religious Purpose,
Hangout, Leisure activity, For peace
Holy place with greenery, Peaceful, Green
hill with cultural values between concrete
jungle, Silent Place, Greenery
Jal Binayak Temple Walking/joggings Greenery
Chundevi Walking/joggings Peaceful, Greenery
White Gumba For visit, Leisure activity Nice place of waste management
Bhuddha Park Recreation Natural Beauty, Crowded
Krishna Mandir Walks/Joggings
Banglamukhi Religious Purpose
Ganeshthan Temple Walks/Joggings
Bouddha Stupa Premises Sitting area, lacks green spaces.
Changu Narayan Green relief
Sanga Walking/Joggings Greenery, Fresh air, Beautiful
Kalanki Mahadev Temple Walking/Joggings
Mahadevsthan Recreation, Joggings, Religious
Purpose
Bishwaroop Religious Site that needs restoration
Kathmandu Durbar Square Walking Joggings, Hangout
Nagh Daha Recreation Silent Place Greenery
Bhadrakali temple Walking/Joggings
Basidhara For Fun
Ban Kali Visit Perfect Area
Mhepi Temple Walking/Joggings
61
Table 3-5 Participants' comments about city parks
Therefore, for the respondents, the presence of a park's features, such as benches,
greenery, and shade, has made the religious sites function as parks and a preferable place for
recreation and green relief than parks.
Cultural and religious Practices can encourage biophilic behavior, practices, and
lifestyles
The survey showed that the rate of visitation of parks and engaging in outdoor activities
depended on the presence of parks or green spaces in proximity to respondents’ homes. The
nearer the locations of the parks, the more often people tended to visit them and go for walks or
jogging. Data showed that only 22% of the participants went walking or jogging and visited parks
Parks Comments
Tribhuwan Park Historic park, Greenery, Picnic spots, require timely maintenance and
cleanliness, Clean environment, free tickets
Godawari Botanical Garden Natural, Beauty, Nearest big garden for sightseeing, Picnic, Well maintained,
require timely maintenance and cleanliness, Nice place but lack maintenance
UN Park Nice place, recreation, untrammeled park, not manage d properly, Peaceful,
Public Park, Trees and gardens, Trees and garden, Great lawn, near polluted
river, concrete benches, Pangent smell of Bagmati, Bus servie system
Manjushree Park Commercialized not managed properly, Picnic spot with greenery
Garden of Dreams Sightseeing, Picnic, ok, very nice, beautiful
Balaju Park Green relief
Birendra Batika Peaceful beautiful,
Ratna Park Do not visit it- too crowded, Crowdy but funny too,
Ardolokeshwar Park Community gathering, Badminton court
Fun Park Free entry
Bhaktapur Park Bus service system, clean environment
Kathmandu Park Discounted on student-ID
62
or green spaces on a daily basis despite the city's favorable climate. Hence, in the absence of
parks or green spaces in close proximity to their residences, they rarely seemed to visit them and
participate in outdoor activities. In addition, only 15% of the respondents were involved in local
nature clubs and organizations. Thus, the lower rate of park visitations, the percent of trips made
for walking, and the extent of membership and participation in local nature clubs and
organizations imply that Kathmandu has a lower level of biophilic behavior and lifestyle as per
the biophilic city indicator.
On the other hand, the survey revealed that religious belief and culture play a significant
role in connecting people with nature spiritually, emotionally and physically. The majority of the
people in Nepal are so religiously and culturally oriented that they always visit religious sites up
to several times a week. When asked to provide a list of parks or green spaces they visit,
participants mentioned the names of more religious sites and forests than parks. Thus, in the
absence of parks in their localities, such religious sites and forests offer a public space to be close
with nature. Whether for religious purposes or due to the existence of more religious sites in their
surroundings, people are motivated to visit them, which in turn directs them to spend more time
outdoors close to nature, and hence turns them biophilic.
Moreover, culture and religion (followed by the majority of the city's population)
encourage them to engage with nature. In Hindu theology, specific plants and trees species are
worshiped, as they are esteemed incarnations or symbols of deities and other supernatural forces.
For performing every religious festival and ritual, plants and their products are required, as they
have spiritual and cultural significance. The nature of plant species used are flowers, herbs,
climbers, palm trees, and shrubs to large trees, including their parts, such as branches, stems,
fruit, bark and roots. Many respondents said that their religion and culture supports nature and
they do practice religious rituals such as worshipping trees and animals, and planting holy trees
around. Hence, they are culturally and religiously motivated to carry out religious activities,
63
which have influenced them to be in contact with nature. Having respect for the trees deemed as
gods and understanding their necessity for performing various rituals and festivals have enticed
them to learn more about nature, taught them the importance of the nature around them, and
hence ultimately have instilled in them a biophilic spirit and sensibilities.
Accordingly, even though the majority of the people of Kathmandu may not be visiting
parks or go for walks too often, or may not even be engaged in local nature clubs to a greater
extent, their culture and religion of respecting nature or their spiritual reverence to nature
reflected in their behavior, practices, and lifestyles make them biophilic spiritually.
Residence have fair knowledge About native flora and fauna but have Concern for the
City's Greenery
In order to assess the level of biophilic attitudes of Kathmandu’s people, the respondents
were asked to list the names of at least 5 common species of plants and insects found in their
surroundings. According to the data, only 36% of the participants could list five names of both
plants and insects, respectively, while the rest could not complete the list. However, only 26% of
the respondents could give all 10 names of native species found locally in Kathmandu. Hence, the
data implies that the majority of the population of Kathmandu is not familiar with what is
produced and found locally and could not even distinguish between native and invasive species.
At the end of the questionnaire, the participants were asked to give their perspective on
how the city can be filled with more nature. Table 3.6 shows some repeated suggestions given by
the majority of the respondents for promoting greenery in the city. Through some suggestions
given by respondents such as create awareness, enforcement of strict rules for promoting trees,
proper planning, and proper maintenance or parks, it is understood that Kathmandu’s citizens are
not satisfied with the efforts made by the government to manage public green spaces and promote
greenery within the city. Table 3.6 shows that the citizens' desire to see more parks, more trees on
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roadsides and riversides, and promote the practice of rooftop gardening in the city. From this
analysis, we can conclude that creating awareness among the citizens about the importance of
urban greenery would be a very effective way in promoting greenery in the city, as the citizens
are already aware of it.
Table 3-6 Various recommendations provided by respondents for promoting greenery in Kathmandu
3.2.5 Conclusion
In Kathmandu, the urban design strategies being practiced for greening the city are
limited to only parks, roadside plantations, and roundabout plantations. There are few parks, a
small percentage of the city’s land area covered by trees and vegetation and there are hardly any
green design features. The survey showed that majority of residents in Kathmandu rarely visited
parks or went walking or jogging, rarely participated in local nature clubs, and were not aware of
common flora and fauna species found in their surroundings. To account for the decreasing
greenery in the valley, the government of Nepal is taking initiatives to enhance green cover across
the city by undertaking various actions such as a tree plantation program, the creation of new
Particular Frequency of respondents
Create awareness 8
Creating more parks 9
Plantation in unused land 15
Road side plantation 19
Riverside plantation 7
Proper planning 7
Enforcement of strict rules for protecting trees 3
Conducting afforestation program by public participation from
NGO, INGO and government level
8
Preservation and maintenance of park planting more trees in
new parks
5
Roof gardening 6
65
parks, encouraging rooftop gardening, and launching the new "one house two tree" policy and the
provision of open green spaces in future city planning projects. However, budget constraints are
impeding them from accomplishing many prospective city beautification projects and from
providing aid to local nature clubs or organizations. Hence, evaluating the biophilic city
indicators or dimensions set by Tim Beatley (Table 2.3) in Kathmandu, it was observed that the
city has a low level of biophilic qualities.
On the other hand, the religious beliefs and culture followed by majority of the city's
residents have been very valuable in turning them biophilic spiritually and also contributing in
conserving and protecting patches of green spaces within the intensively used urban landscape of
the city. For Kathmandu, religious sites and forests have been functioning as a strategy for
preserving nature within the city. Even so, the Urban Landscape Guidelines (2013) prepared for
Kathmandu does not include the parks built in and around religious sites in the list of parks of the
city, thus indicating that the government of Nepal does not consider religious sites as recreational
parks (DUDBC, 2013). The survey showed that religious sites are at approachable distance from
majority of the inhabitants’ residences compared to parks, serve as places for recreation, social
gatherings, and green relief, as well being a holy place for worship and people prefer to visit them
for green relief too. Moreover, people expect to see green features in and around every religious
site, as not all of them have such features. Thus, the analysis show that presence of religious sites
and religious and cultural belief of people in a city can also make a city and its people
(spiritually) biophilic.
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Chapter 4
Biophilic City Design Strategies in the Context of Kathmandu
This chapter presents an analysis of each of the biophilic urban design strategies as
outlined by Beatley (2010) in the context of Kathmandu. It examines each of the Western
biophilic city design strategies across scales (from buildings to region) in order to find out what
aspects of the biophilic city design principles or strategies can be feasible, applicable and
appropriate in Kathmandu. To present a holistic understanding of Kathmandu, each of the
biophilic urban design elements is evaluated in the context of contemporary and vernacular
Kathmandu through literature review, and field visit, which included survey interviews and field
observation. The elements are also studied in the context of vernacular Kathmandu, to see if the
past practices also inform any solutions to the Kathmandu’s current urban design issue. Then, the
feasibility or suitability of each strategy in the city's context is assessed. Through this assessment,
the thesis seeks to generate various recommendations for incorporating nature into urban design
elements of Kathmandu and also to put word a list of biophilic urban design strategies that would
be suitable for non-Western contexts.
Format of Analysis
I begin by introducing scales as identified by Beatley (2010), which include buildings,
blocks, streets, neighborhoods, community and region. Each scale consists of biophilic urban
design elements such as green rooftops, green courtyards and neighborhood parks. These
elements are described in the context of contemporary and vernacular Kathmandu, for instance,
67
what is being practiced or what is the situation in contemporary Kathmandu; and what was
practiced or what was the city's situation in the ancient historic settlements. Then feasibility
assessment for each of these elements is shown with a brief discussion.
The biophilia feasibility assessments for each strategy are carried out in the following general
format:
If the strategy is being followed or is going to be followed, then the assessment shows
how it is being practiced, what the government's role is in its implementation, what problems
it is helping or might help in solving, and a brief description about what further could be
done, what needs to be done, or is required in Kathmandu.
If the strategy will not work, then the assessment shows the reasons why it will not work in
Kathmandu.
If the strategy could possibly work, then the assessment briefly discusses what could be
done and how it might be possible.
The summary Table 4-1 is the brief outcome of the evaluation and assessment of
biophilic urban design strategies in the city. Under the different biophilia urban design elements
across scales, the table shows whether the strategy is practiced or not or if a similar kind is being
practiced in contemporary Kathmandu, whether the strategy was practiced or not or a similar kind
was being practiced in vernacular Kathmandu, the biophilia suitability feasibility assessment, and
new identified strategies and ideas.
68
Table 4-1 Summary table showing feasibility assessment of Biophilic urban design strategies in
Kathmandu
Sca
les
Bio
ph
ilic
urb
an
des
ign
elem
ents
Con
tem
pora
ry
Kath
man
du
Ver
nacu
lar
Kath
man
du
feasi
bil
ity
New
Id
eas
Building Green roof ✓ ~ ~
Sky garden and green atria ✓ ✓ ✓
Rooftop garden ✓ ✓ ✓
Green walls ~ ~ ~
Day light Interior Spaces ✓ ✓ ✓
Blocks Green Courtyards x x ~
Clustered Housing around green areas ~ ~ ✓
Native species yards and spaces ~ x ✓ Streets Green streets ✓ ~ ✓
Side walk garden ~ x ~
Urban trees ✓ ~ ✓
Low-impact development ~ ~ ~
Vegetated Swales and skinny streets ~ ~ ~
Edible landscaping ~ ~ ✓
High degree of permeability x x ✓ Neighbour-hood Stream daylighting, stream restoration ✓ ✓ ~
Urban forest ✓ ~ ✓
Ecology Parks ✓ x ✓
Community gardens ~ ~ ✓
Neighborhood parks and pocket parks ✓ ~ ✓ Religious sites
as new strategy
Greening grayfields and brownfields x x ~ Community Urban creeks and riparian areas ~ ✓ ~
Urban ecological x x ~
Green schools x x ~
City tree Canopy x x ~
Community forest and community
orchards ~ ~ ✓ Religious forest
as a new strategy
Greening utility corridors x x ~ Regions River systems and floodplains ~ ✓ ✓
Riparian systems ~ ✓ ~
Regional green space systems ✓ ✓ ✓
Greening major transport corridors ~ ✓ ✓
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4.1 Building Scale
In dense urban environments, biophilic urban design see many leftover spaces, such as
building rooftops, facades, balconies, window facades, and terraces, as opportunities for adding
greenery and nature into the urban fabric (Beatley T. , 2010). Additionally, permitting maximum
daylight into interior spaces is also one of the biophilic design features of buildings.
4.1.1 Green Rooftops
Green rooftops are specifically designed flat
or sloped rooftops or substrates that support
vegetation. Some benefits of green rooftops are
reduced energy usage for cooling, air quality
improvement, reduced urban heat island effects,
reduction in storm water flow, increased roof life,
and increased urban wildlife habitat (Oberndorfer, et
al., 2007). There are two kinds of green rooftops:
intensive green rooftops and extensive green rooftops.
Intensive green rooftops have deep (greater than 20cm) substrate that supports complex
vegetation such as small trees, ground cover, and shrubs and usually covers only a small portion
of a roof or balcony (Oberndorfer, et al., 2007). In contrast, extensive rooftops have relatively
shallow substrate (less than 20cm), require less maintenance, and usually cover an entire rooftop
(Oberndorfer, et al., 2007).
Figure 4-1Extensive Green roofing diagram
Source: http://ecobrooklyn.com/ /
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1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Even though the practice of green rooftops would be helpful in increasing the percentage
of greenery and bringing back vanished green space, especially in the core areas of Kathmandu
where houses have been cluttered due to insufficient land, it is not yet popular in the city. The
principle reason behind why green rooftops have not gained popularity in Kathmandu is the
impediments concerned with construction. The design and constructions of green roof technology
was established in Germany, where many planting designs were tested (Williams, Rayner, &
Raynor, 2010). Thus, the difference in climatic conditions and several other reasons, such as high
installations cost, lack of demonstration examples, and differences in construction materials and
technology, have made it difficult to adapt the technology in the local context on this side of the
world (Williams, Rayner, & Raynor, 2010) .
Until recently, only one residential building located in Hattiban, Kathmandu has
attempted to install a green roof using a combination of easily available local materials. Here, a
combination of ordinary materials such as screed, cement paste, waterproof carpet, and pebbles
form a base for the vegetation on top and are held by a dropped concrete slab (Shrestha S. , 2012).
Still, the functioning of these layers or the need to introduce any new materials for improving
existing techniques has yet to be seen (Shrestha S. , 2012).
Figure 4-2 Green roof at Hattiban, Kathmandu
Source: (Shrestha S. , 2012)
Figure 4-3 Section of green roof at Hattiban, Kathmandu
Source: (Shrestha S. , 2012)
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2. Vernacular Architecture and City Design
The sloped roofs of the traditional
buildings do not hold vegetation, but the
construction technology used provides some
benefits similar to green rooftops. The
multilayer thick roof (143mm thick) with clay
tiles and compacted mud supported by a wooden plank
and joist has a U-value of 1.30 W/m2 o
C without
rafters, a time lag of 4.86 hours, and an indoor temperature of 17.6 o
C (Shestha, 2009). The
traditional energy efficient technology used in the roof maintains comfortable indoor temperature
by resisting heat in summer and cold in winter. Also, the clay tiles used for the roof reduce the
heat island effect in an urban environment.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Since the technology used for constructing green rooftops is still in its infancy phase in
Nepal, a large amount of research needs to be undertaken for gaining insights into green roof
technology suitable for the local context of Nepal. Also, for a city in a developing country with
low resources, the green roof technology should be low-tech and cost effective. Possible future
research could be carried out by incorporating the techniques used in the construction of the roofs
of a traditional Newari building into the design and construction of green rooftops appropriate for
the country. There seems to be great possibility that this incorporation might prove to be
constructive, improving the performance of the roof, as these roofs are made up of locally
available materials found in the region and have been successfully functioning, withstanding the
climatic conditions for over a thousand years.
Figure 4-4 Traditional roof construction detail
Source: (Korn, 1977)
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4.1.2 Sky Gardens and Green Atria
Green spaces on rooftops or on the intermediate floors of high-rise buildings are referred
to as sky gardens (Ong, 2003). According to Osmundson (1999),"sky gardens are any planted
open spaces that may be below or above the ground-level, intended to provide human
employment or environmental enhancement that is separated from the earth by a building or other
structure (Osmundson, 1999). A plantation can be made using the walls, railings, balcony, raised
planting beds, window aisles, rooftops, and can be underground or aboveground, maximizing the
scope of greenery on buildings
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Planted pots are seen on the balconies
of most of Kathmandu’s buildings. Because the
concept of zoning has not been strictly
enforced in Nepal, there is a trend of
converting buildings designed and built for
residential purpose into commercial buildings,
schools, and even medical nursing homes.
More specifically, potted plants are seen on the
balconies of residential buildings and particular inhabited floors of other buildings. This is a
common practice in Kathmandu, as most houses, especially in the core area, do not have the
privilege of having a garden or green spaces in front of their homes. Also, people mostly plant
flowering plants for cultural and religious uses. Moreover, the majority immigrants living in the
Figure 4-5 A typical residence with Potted Plants on roof Source: Author
73
valley rent, so a balcony is the only option.
Until recently, buildings in Kathmandu were never higher than 5 or 6 stories. In the past
five years, high rise apartments and commercial complexes of up to 17 stories have started being
constructed. The practice of having flower pots is also seen on the balconies (i.e., the only
outdoor space) of these new high-rise apartments.
As per the new "one house two trees" policy implemented by the Kathmandu
Metropolitan City (KMC), there is a hope of seeing more flower pots in the balconies of these
buildings in Kathmandu. The KMC has made it mandatory to arrange for a plantation of two trees
in the plans of a new house to be built and in possible areas for existing buildings, or at least five
flower posts must be on the verandah. The policy also applies to apartments, making it mandatory
to allocate a garden or place potted plants on every floor.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
A three to four storey Newari traditional building
consists of a kitchen and a dining area, along with an attic that
includes a terrace for ventilation. Traditionally, inhabitants
generally used the attic terrace for washing dishes and clothes.
Today, flower pots are often placed on the attic terraces of
traditional buildings.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Planted pots on the balconies of buildings act as skygardens in Kathmandu. The newly
enforced "one house two tree" policy, implemented in Kathmandu beginning in January 2012,
will likely increase the scope of green spaces on the city’s buildings, as the policy also
emphasizes plantations on verandahs or rooftops in the case of a lack of open space. Still, this
Figure 4-6 Typical section of traditional
building showing attic terrace Source:
(Korn, 1977)
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policy is restricted to residential buildings and does not apply to other buildings that have been or
will be converted into other purposes, such as commercial complexes, schools, and health centers.
Regardless, the policy should also apply to these buildings generally employed for commercial
purposes that stand on the main roads in core areas where greenery is most essential.
Furthermore, it is yet to be seen whether the government can successfully enforce the policy and
if the citizens will loyally follow it.
4.1.3 Rooftop Gardens
In the absence of resources, technology, or the space for an intensive and extensive green
roof system, the container plantation can serve as an alternative (Hanson & Schmidt, 2012).
Though it requires some dedication to maintain, advance planning, and careful plant selection,
container plantations are very effective in mitigating storm-water run-off and fostering local
wildlife, and hence contribute to urban sustainability (Hanson & Schmidt, 2012).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
In Kathmandu, rooftop gardening in the form of growing vegetables and flowers in pots
or containers has been a common household practice in the past. And, in recent years, with the
aim to promote greenery and food security, rooftop gardening has been promoted and
implemented in Kathmandu by the Environmental Public Health Organization (ENPHO) and the
Kathmandu Municipality with the technical support of the RUAF Foundation and UN-Habitat
(NEFEJ, 2014). The rooftop gardening project has been set forward with the intent of integrating
urban agriculture into the city, mitigating climate change, and planning for adaptation. The
project will encourage families to become more self-sufficient in growing vegetables and herbs,
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reducing household waste by recycling organic waste, and by practicing rainwater harvesting
(NEFEJ, 2014).
Through rooftop gardening promotional incentive programs, such as workshops and local
radio programs, the general public is made aware of the benefits of urban agriculture and rooftop
gardening as well as the practical information required for its execution. In addition to training
workshops, the KMC Environment Management Division will provide households with garden
spades, picks, drums, baskets, and other necessary tools for cultivation at a reasonable price. To
encourage more participation, the KMC will focus on promoting locally available proven
technologies to reduce the potentially high financial burden that would prohibit individuals or
communities from participating and to deliver services to every sector of society, including the
poor and disadvantaged (NEFEJ, 2014). Currently, rooftop gardening is being practiced by more
than 1,000 households in the Kathmandu Metropolitan City, the program is to be extended to
Figure 4-7 Rooftop Gardening Concept in Kathmandu
Source: Authorr's own collection from Environment Division of KMC
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Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City, and the possibilities of rooftop gardening are being examined in
another city, Pokhara (NEFEJ, 2014).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
A three to four story Newari traditional building consists of a kitchen and dining area
with an attic. The attic terrace provides ventilation and inhabitants have used it for washing dishes
and clothes. Today, attic terraces of these traditional buildings are also used for growing flowers
and vegetables in pots or containers.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Rooftop gardening is already being practiced in Kathmandu. Lately, more households are
being encouraged to partake in rooftop gardening through rooftop gardening promotional
incentive programs led by ENPHO and the KMC with the technical support of the RUAF
Foundation and UN-Habitat.
Figure 4-8 Rooftop gardening practices in Kathmandu
Source: Author's own collection from Environment Division of KMC
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Along with other environmental problems, Kathmandu is facing a rapid decrease in
agricultural land, making the city depend on the produce of either rural areas or imports from
India or China. The introduction of a rooftop gardening project in Kathmandu will not only help
grow food in inner-city areas where often open space for food production is in short supply but
will also help mitigate environmental problems by productively using built spaces in dense cities.
If every household practices rooftop gardening, then these vegetated roofs would minimize the
urban heat island effect and waste and storm water management problems to some extent. Hence,
as an important public activity, rooftop gardening would directly have positive impacts on
households, the environment, and the city’s ambiance and image.
4.1.4 Green Walls
Green walls may be divided into two
categories in accordance to green wall
technologies: living walls and green facades.
Living walls are "self-sufficient vertical
gardens that are attached to the interior and
exterior wall of a building" (Wienmaster,
2009) and are also termed as green walls in
general, plant walls, or vertical gardens. In such
walls, a vertical structural support (wall or frame) supports the pre-vegetated panels, planted
blankets, or vertical modules (www.greenscreen.com, 2008). Living walls require more intensive
maintenance than green facades due to the density and diversity of plant life. Some technologies
or methods used for constructing living walls are hydroponic systems and modular boxes. In a
hydroponic system, pioneered by Patric Blanc, two layers of synthetic fabric holding pockets
Figure 4-9 Typical Section of Living Wall Source:
Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benefits & Design
78
back the growing media and the plants (Wienmaster, 2009), whereas in the modular system, pre-
planted vertical planter boxes or plastic trays supporting plant material are affixed on a square or
rectangular vertical panel (Wienmaster, 2009).
In green facades, the vegetative layers, either climbing plants or cascading, are trained to
cover or grow along a specially designed vertical supporting structure, such as a wall, wires, or
fence rooted to the ground (Wienmaster, 2009). These structures can be built as free standing or
attached to existing walls. Here, the plants do not receive any nutrients or moisture from the
supporting structure. Buildings covered with trellises or ivy with vines is common examples of
green facades. As aggressive plants can damage a building’s permanent structure and require
regular maintenance, new innovative technologies are being developed in Europe and North
America that would hold the plants off of the wall’s surface (Wienmaster, 2009), including the
modular trellis system, which holds the green facade off of the wall surface to keep the plants
detached from the building, and cable and wire-rope net system, a free standing structure
designed to support climbing plants that can be placed on rooftops or urban streets.
Figure 4-11 Patricl Blanc's Vertical Wall on Jean
Nouvel’s Musée du quai Branly , Paris Source: http://inhabitat.com/vertical-gardens-by-patrick-
blanc/
Figure 4-10 Free-Standing Green facade built with
Cable and Wire-Rope Net Systems Source:www.greenscreen.com
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The various public benefits of green walls include a reduction in the urban heat island
effect, improved exterior air quality, and aesthetic improvement (www.greenscreen.com, 2008).
Some private benefits of green walls are improved energy efficiency, building structure
protection, improved indoor air quality, noise reduction, LEED credits, and marketing
(www.greenscreen.com, 2008).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The practice of implementing green walls is still foreign in Nepal, with the exception of
ivy-covered buildings or boundary walls. One good example of such buildings is the Marco Polo
Business Hotel. The facade of the well-renowned three star hotel in Kathmandu is completely
covered with vegetation that in turn has made it a landmark.
Green facades in the form of vegetation covered boundary walls are being practiced in
Kathmandu, especially for the boundary walls of private buildings. The two pictures below
provide an example of green facades found in Kathmandu.
Figure 4-12 Typical green facades in the form of vegetation covered boundary wall being practiced in Kathmandu
Source: Author
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
A traditional building’s exterior walls
do not hold vegetation but provide some
similar benefits to that of green walls. The low
U-value and high resistivity of the mud brick
wall maintain a comfortable indoor environment,
keeping the building warm in winter and cool in
summer. During the day, the mud wall store heat from the sun radiates absorbed heat into the
room at night, maintaining a comfortable temperature inside. The 505mm thick exterior wall with
mud plaster has a U-value of 1.014 W/m2o
C with a time lag of 12.4 hours, averaging an indoor
surface temperature of 17.63 o
C. The thick (half a meter to a meter) external load-bearing walls
have double-leaved brick walls where the exterior leaf of the wall is constructed with burnt bricks
for weather resistance, while the interior wall is constructed with sun-dried bricks, which absorb
moisture and make indoor environment more comfortable. Broken pieces of bricks and clay fill
the gap between the two leaves. Therefore, the exterior brick wall, laid in mud plaster, provides
most of the private benefits of green walls, such improved energy efficiency, building structure
protection, improved indoor air quality, and noise reduction.
3. Feasibility Assessment
The practice of green facades is mostly seen in boundary walls Kathmandu but is still not
a common practice. As Kathmandu has limited space for planting trees and vegetation, an
alternative would be utilizing vertical space for greening (i.e. constructing green walls). The
green walls can be used for aesthetic purposes in the building entrance, boundary walls, and
rooftops, which will help improve the quality of the human experience in and around the built
environment. While the technology and expertise for constructing living walls are not available in
Figure 4-13 Traditional wall construction details
Source: (Korn, 1977)
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Nepal, green facades can still be created easily with cheaper materials found in local hardware
stores. As green facades are inexpensive, can be easily created and adopted, and already have
traces found in Kathmandu, efforts should be made to make people aware of green facades’
social, economic, and environmental benefits and the various ways or techniques of constructing
these facades. People should be encouraged to use green facades in their immediate interior and
exterior surroundings. For the interior, a simple form of a vertical garden can be created even by
stacking flower pots in a vertical supporting frame. Green facades would be an ideal way for
greening inner-narrow vehicular roads of Kathmandu where there is not enough space for
planting trees.
New Ideas: If the green walls that connect urbanities to plants could be a strategy for a
biophilic city, then vernacular mud walls should also be included in these strategies, as they
would also help people to connect with the soil.
4. Future Research
Analyzing the above studies, it has been observed that both the green wall, and the
exterior mud-brick wall used in Kathmandu’s traditional buildings, provide some similar benefits,
such as improved energy efficiency, building structure protection, improved indoor air quality,
and noise reduction. It is likely that a combination of these technologies might prove to be
integral for improving the thermal insulation of exterior walls, which will save tons of energy that
go wasted during heating and cooling. Furthermore, all of the green wall technologies currently
available are just attached to a building’s wall or structure to protect the facade but are not
integrated into the structure. Challenging future research would be the construction of a
vernacular-living building wall, with plants growing out of the actual building wall or structure
constructed using vernacular technology (i.e., a mud-brick wall).
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More specifically, for buildings in temperate zones, where a large amount of energy is
consumed in heating and cooling buildings, such an improved thermal insulated wall would be
very effective in saving energy. But vernacular mud walls still act as a good thermal insulator
only in areas where there is marked differences between day and night temperatures. For this
reason, a combination of the vernacular wall and vegetation would be an ideal building insulator
for temperate zones. In summer, vegetation could be made to grow out from the building wall,
which would limit the movement of heat through thick vegetation mass and hence would keep the
building cool during day and night time. While in winter, the vegetation could be made to dry out
so that the building temperature gets even warmer during night time.
4.1.5 Daylight Interior Spaces
Providing excessive natural light into interior spaces by placing windows, other openings,
or transparent medias and reflective surfaces is referred to as daylighting. Daylighting aims to
provide effective internal lighting, which maximizes visual comfort and reduces energy use.
1. Current Practices in Contemporary Kathmandu (Non-Western)
Consideration for the adequacy of light and ventilation has been given in the building
bylaws, which state that every habitable room within a building should have one or more
windows facing outwards for daylight and ventilation (Bylaws, 2006). The area of the opening
should be one third of the room’s floor area (Bylaws, 2006). Similarly, for daylighting and
ventilation, open space should be maintained around the building through minimum required
setbacks and ground coverage. However, as the existing authorized institution is weak in
implementing bylaws, not all buildings in Kathmandu are built following the building bylaws.
Even in some planned areas, the dwelling units are not climatically effective, as rooms are only
83
provided with a window on one side, and many spaces like staircases, lounges, and dining rooms
have no direct light or ventilation (Shrestha B. K., 2011).
In the core areas, buildings are built taller (up to the maximum allowable height of 18
meters) covering 100 percent of the land, making the most out of the narrow plots without taking
into consideration daylighting and ventilation for every room. As the current building bylaws are
largely based on the light plane concept, this has allowed for the proliferation of high-rises in
these core areas. Vertical expansion is on the rise in such areas, either by new high rise
construction or the addition of floors to existing buildings, often with a projection in the upper
floors and reduced lighting and ventilation on the streets as well as for adjacent buildings
(Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009). The unsystematic development of the built environment in these
dense areas leads to a lack of solar access and a reduction in lighting and ventilation, which have
made the area less hygienic and habitable and have ultimately decreased the quality of the living
environment.
2. Vernacular Architecture and City Design
In traditional Newari buildings, the openings are small and are about 10 percent of the
total floor area (Upadhyay, Yoshida, & Bahadur, 2006). The latticed wooden window allows
Figure 4-14Reduction of light and ventilation in public spaces and pedestrian lanes in historic core areas in Kathmandu
Source: (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009)
84
sunlight and 100% natural ventilation into the rooms. Huge windows on the second floor provide
ample light and ventilation during winter and summer. The urban fabric and street network were
oriented in such a way that it allowed maximum sunlight for buildings, streets, and community
spaces. The low-rise buildings of 3-4 stories lining 4-6m wide streets with a street width to
building height ratio within 1:1.5 ensured the maximum penetration of sunlight into the streets
and buildings (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009).
3. Feasibility Assessment
Even though building bylaws consider daylighting and ventilation, the authorized
institution has not been successful in its proper implementation. There are no planning standards
and urban design guidelines, and the existing building bylaws, which are the only legal tool to
regulate the urban growth of the capital, are only applicable for new construction with a focus on
only new individual buildings (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009). Also, the current bylaws only control
site coverage, floor area ratio (FAR), setbacks, right of way (ROW) and building height, but do
not take into consideration the built environment, the interrelation between the buildings, and the
impact of a building to its surroundings (Shrestha Joshi, 2007). Therefore, to ensure the proper
lighting and ventilation in the city’s dense areas, urban design guidelines should be formulated
Figure 4-15 Wide and narrow street allowing solar radiation from ground floor and first floor respectively
Source: (Korn, 1977)
85
for controlling the haphazard construction of buildings with no consideration given to the
surrounding built environment. Additionally, in the historic core areas (Mixed-Old Settlement
Sub-Zone), the allowable building height should be checked, as the unsystematic development of
high rises has not only destroyed the skyline and harmonious nature of the traditional street
facades, but has also degraded the quality of the living environment due to a lack of solar access
and reduction in lighting and ventilation in the buildings.
New Ideas: Here, in the compact traditional settlement of the Kathmandu Valley, which
was designed with passive solar techniques considering environmental aspects, the urban fabric
and streets were oriented in such a way that every building, street, and courtyard received
sunlight for the larger part of the day. Thus, a question arise here: Can such a solar responsive
city also be called a biophilic city? If a climate responsive building is called a biophilic design,
then a climate and solar responsive city should be also called a biophilic city.
4.2 Blocks Scale
Some strategies that could be practiced for greening blocks, as suggested by Beatley, are
greening courtyards, clustering houses around green areas, and providing yards for native species
(Beatley T. , 2010).
4.2.1 Green Courtyards
According to Beatley, courtyards could also be converted into green oases, which can be
called green courtyards.
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1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
In the historic core areas of Kathmandu, houses are either clustered along the streets and
lanes or are in open courts at the interior of the quarter. The streets and alleyways, often through
buildings, lead to the inner neighborhood courtyards. Comprised of residential buildings or
temples, these courtyards are the only open spaces in the compact historic core, with sizes
varying from a few meters to about 75 meters.
Acting as semi-private spaces with socio-religious structures, such as temples, shrines
(chaitya), wells, community taps, and rest houses, the courtyards serve as a place for worship
early in the morning for elderly people, to wash clothes and dry grains in the afternoon for
housewives, a playground for children, and gathering or interacting place for neighbors in the
evening. The people living around it also use these open spaces for conducting social, cultural,
and religious activities.
Figure 4-16 Park in Nag Bahal in Patan Source: Author
87
In some historic areas, haphazard urban transformation has led to the penetration of
business activities inside the courtyards, converting them into parking lots, stranger's gathering
places, and garbage dumping sites (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009). Even today, these community
spaces are stone or brick paved as they used to be in the ancient times and hardly any green
spaces can be found there. During the field observation, traces of initiation of greening courtyards
with flower pots were found in some residential neighborhoods. Small parks with flowers and
trees are also found in some large courtyards, such as Nag Bahal in Patan. The small park in the
rectangular courtyard (72.20m X 58.62 m) was created by the joint effort of the community and
the municipality and can be only used by the people living around the courtyard.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The gray urban landscape, with expanses of paved streets, squares, and courtyards,
defines the character of the compact settlement of the valley. In the past, these settlements were
surrounded by agricultural land, so there was no need of having green spaces within their town
precincts and hence they were developed without any green spaces (Korn, 1977).
The courtyards not only functioned as a space for multiple activities like domestic work
(e.g., drying grains, drying pots, and washing clothes) and social gatherings (e.g., feasts and
religious activities) but also created their own microclimate, giving much needed direct and
indirect heat from the sun and protection from cool breezes in winter (Bajracharya, 2008). In
addition, the stone or brick paved hard surfaces as thermal mass contributed to maximizing the
direct solar radiation received (Bajracharya, 2008).
3. Feasibility Assessment
The courtyards are the only possible places for bringing greenery into the historic core
areas of Kathmandu. Vegetation in the courtyards would be favorable for the health and well
88
being of the inhabitants and would contribute to various environmental benefits such as rainwater
retention, combating the urban heat island effect, and climate change mitigation. Conversely, the
urban design culture of solely using brick and stone pavement in the courtyards might not allow
for such a dramatic transformation. In order to identify the feasibility of transforming the
courtyards into green spaces, a field visit was carried out in one of the neighborhoods of the old
traditional town in Kathmandu.
During the field visit, a small survey interview and observation of the site (Bhimsenthan,
Ward No.20, Kathmandu Durbar Square, Kathmandu) was carried out. It was observed that some
initiation of greening the courtyards has already taken place in the courtyards by placing
flowerpots around or at the center of the community spaces. When the people living around the
courtyards were asked about their opinions on bringing vegetation into the courtyards, the
majority of them were for it. The house owners in some places were already practicing it, while
the tenants replied that they would do so if their house owner allows them to do so and if all the
tenants would work together for such a transformation. The majority of the people said that the
court should be remained paved, respecting their urban design culture, and the vegetation should
be done in such a way so that it could be moved easily during feasts and while carrying out other
social, cultural, and religious activities.
Figure 4-17 Initiation of greening courtyards observed in Bhimsenthan, Kathmandu Source: Author
89
The survey showed that the people living around courtyards in the traditional settlement
of Kathmandu were aware of the importance of having green spaces in the built environment and
desired to have green space in their surroundings. Courtyards can be made greener with movable
flower pots or container plantation without affecting the paved surfaces. These community spaces
are government property, accessible to the public and maintained by the joint effort of the
municipality and the community members. Hence, if the government would enforce a policy like
"one courtyard 15-20 flower pots" similar to that of the "one house two tree" policy recently
implemented by the Kathmandu Metropolitan City, then the community living in such
neighborhoods might be encouraged to do so. Vegetation in the courtyards would help to meet the
people's demand for urban parks and green spaces.
4.2.2 Clustered Housing Around Green Areas
Clustered housing around green areas refers to groups of housing developed around
shared green spaces.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Rapid urbanization, the government’s inability to cater to the demand of housing plots,
soaring land prices, and the delivery of improper plots by the informal sectors is the major causes
of the haphazard growth of settlements in the Kathmandu Valley (Pokharel, 2006). During the
process of rapid urbanization in the valley, a large share of the valley's predominated agricultural
land was haphazardly and informally transformed into built up areas, so patches of agricultural
land form the green spaces in between the new unplanned settlement areas within the valley’s
core areas and periphery.
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On the other hand, not all of the pockets of planned areas of the city developed through
land pooling, including sites, services, and comprehensive housing schemes, are provided with
sufficient green spaces. Open spaces allocated for greenery in such planned neighborhoods are
not satisfactory, are usually irregular in shape and size, and often are "left-over" open spaces after
plotting the street layouts and service areas in the best locations (Shrestha B K, 2013).
2. Vernacular Architecture and City Design
The traditional urban houses were also planned with a backyard kitchen garden or 'Keva'
(Tiwari, 2013). While hidden from the general public, kitchen gardens covered one third of the
total area of the town (Tiwari, 2013). The backyards were used to plant fruit trees, vegetables, and
flowers necessary for carrying out religious activities. However, the green spaces in between the
hardscaped traditional towns were only for private purposes.
Figure 4-18 Unplanned settlement dispersed in agricultural land in the periphery of Kathmandu Source: Author
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3. Feasibility Assessment
There is no legal apparatus for regulating the master plan layout of new planned
residential development at present except for the existing building bylaws (Shrestha B K, 2013).
The focus of the ownership of the Joint Housing Act, 2054 (1997) (Nepal Gazette, 15 April 2003)
has been only on the permission to build, sell, and transfer ownership (Shrestha B K, 2013). Due
to these reasons, open spaces for greeneries, street layouts, and land use allocation are carried out
on an ad-hoc basis, varying from project to project (Shrestha B K, 2013). For the integration of
green spaces into city planning, the five tiers of government responsible for land and urban
development should ensure that every new planned development has allocated enough open
spaces for greeneries.
In addition, guided land development (i.e., planned urban development) and land pooling
(i.e., readjustment of land ownership) has been implemented in order to mitigate the valley’s
unplanned urban growth (Karki T. K., 2004). In enacting these urban land development projects,
2.5%-5% of the developed land has to be separated as open spaces for greeneries. Such programs
have been helpful in providing public green spaces within the city’s unplanned areas. Besides, in
planned housing complexes, at least 20% open space has to be separated for greeneries. Still,
there is a need for strict implementation of these policies.
In order to move forward, the Kathmandu 2020 plan is being proposed for limiting urban
expansion to a certain level with the aim of preserving agricultural land (KVTDC, 2002).
According to the plan, 40% of the total area should be used for construction and the remaining
area should be left for open spaces such as public parks, forests, green belts, and agricultural land
(KVTDC, 2002). Additionally, in the new Outer Ring Road Development Project, residential
neighborhoods are planned around a central open green space (Shrestha B. K., 2013). Hence, it
seems that the new settlements in the periphery of the city will be developed with enough green
spaces in their vicinity.
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4.2.3 Native Species Yards and Spaces
Native species yards and spaces refer to areas separated for native plants and animals.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The Bagmati River Corridor of the Kathmandu Valley is covered with patches of forest
and grassland areas (Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008) and is the richest site and habitat for winter birds
(Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008). Unfortunately, the pollution and toxicity in the river and its banks
are affecting the biodiversity of bird species. The only best example of biodiversity conservation
of the river is the Bagmati River Nature Park (BNP) (Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008).
2. Vernacular Architecture and City Design
There were no native species yards and spaces within the settlement areas.
Figure 4-19 Residential neighborhoods planned around a central open
green space in Outer Ring Road Development Project
Source: (Shrestha B. K., 2013)
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3. Feasibility Assessment
As the Bagmati River Nature Park (BNP) is the only best example of biodiversity
conservation of the river, such a model should be expanded in other possible areas of the corridor
(Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008). The richest area of bird diversity in the valley, the Bagmati River
Corridor should be declared as a "Bagmati corridor bird conservation area", and the local people
residing along the river should be encouraged to do plantations in the area and conserve the river
(Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008). If the biodiversity is conserved, then the corridor could be developed
into a bird watching and hiking area (Thapa, Paudel, & K, 2008). Moreover, the Bagmati Action
Plan is also proposing to plant and protect indigenous plant species along the river and construct a
trail for bird watching areas along the riverside (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
4.3 Street Scale
According to Beatley, streets should not only be conceived as infrastructure for vehicles
but should be also taken as places for capturing stormwater and for flourishing plants and
biodiversity, bringing pedestrians in close contact with nature (Beatley T. , 2010).
4.3.1 Green Streets
Green streets should emphasize pedestrian circulation and open spaces through various
design and operational treatments such as landscaping, sidewalk widening, traffic calming, and
other pedestrian-oriented features, rather than on transportation use (Seattle.Gov, 2012).
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1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
On the basis of physical form, Kathmandu’s streets can be divided into three distinct
typologies: (1) narrow non-axial streets of the old settlement built during the Malla period, (2)
wide and straight streets extended outward from the historic town built during the Rana period,
(3) streets and narrow pedestrian alleys in peripheral areas developed in a piecemeal process on
an ad-hoc basis, and (4) streets in planned urban areas formed from the leftover spaces after
developing service plots with no sidewalks and public open spaces (Shrestha B. K., 2011).
Historically planned for pedestrians, the narrow streets in the old settlements are today
shared by both vehicles and pedestrians. In some commercial areas of the historic core like Ason,
streets are not pedestrian friendly but are dominated by vehicular movement, while in other towns
such as Bhaktapur, a portion of the town have been turned into a vehicle free zone. The streets
built during the Rana period are wide (12m with sidewalks) and straight with sidewalks on both
sides for pedestrians (Shrestha B. K., 2011). In contrast, streets developed in peripheral areas
after the Rana period vary in size, shape, and configuration and lack hierarchy, as they were often
developed in spaces left over after constructing buildings in desired locations and give priority to
vehicular traffic over pedestrian flow (Shrestha B. K., 2011). The inner streets in the peripheral
Figure 4-21 Typical main street of Kathmandu Source: Author
Figure 4-20 Typical inner streets of Kathmandu Source: Author
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areas are narrow, often unpaved, and were developed without footpaths, thus forcing pedestrian to
share the street with traffic. Similarly, streets in planned urban areas are developed without
sidewalks and public spaces.
All of Kathmandu’s different kinds of streets are not pedestrian friendly for both
ordinary and physically disabled people. In a city where most people prefer to walk, only 5% of
the total paved road lengths are provided with proper footpaths (ADB, 2007) and yet are still
narrow, discontinuous, and are often encroached by shopkeepers (to display goods), vendors, and
beggars in addition to even being used by bikers (both bicyclists or motorcyclists) during heavy
traffic (Sharma, 2010). While walking in the narrow footpath, pedestrian often stumble against
trees, electric poles, and parked motorbikes and bicycles. Consequently, the pedestrians'
environment in the streets of Kathmandu is congested, chaotic, and lacks pedestrian-oriented
features and amenities such as greenery, lamp posts, pedestrian sign boards, and crossing marks
(Cabrido, 2010).
Street landscaping is done only by planting trees on the sides of the main roads, while the
inner narrow roads do not have space for trees. Even with recent road improvements, priority has
been given to the expansion of roads over pedestrian movement. Many roadside trees were felled
Figure 4-23Pedestrians disrupted by venders and parked bikes in Bagbazar, Kathmandu
Source: Author
Figure 4-22 Narrow sidewalks with no space for tree plantation and also used by bikers in Putalisadak,
Kathmandu Source: Author
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during road expansion, and the sidewalks of the newly constructed roads are too narrow (less than
standard width, i.e., 2 meters) for planting trees (Shrestha B. K., 2011).
3. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The Kathmandu Valley’s ancient
settlements are compactly organized, which allowed
every part of the city to be reached within walking
distance. The networks of narrow non-axial streets
developed during the Malla period were traditionally
designed for pedestrian movement. The public
squares and courtyards formed part of the street
network and acted as shared community spaces
for socio-cultural activities. The 4 to 6 meter wide streets were paved with brick or stones, and no
green features were found in the streets and squares.
4. Feasibility Assessment
The absence of planned guidelines and policies for designing pedestrian space is the main
reason behind the difficult pedestrian environment in the streets of Kathmandu. The Nepal Road
Standard just specifies the required width of footpaths but does not provide any street-design
standards and guidelines that would be helpful for enhancing the street definition (Shrestha B. K.,
2011). As a response to these street problems, recently a street-improvement project, the
Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project (KSUTP), have been completed under the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), which has proposed a plan of pedestrianizing a part of the heritage
route in Kathmandu’s the historic core and improving the city center’s sidewalks, with
landscaped elements in some areas (ADB & MPPW, 2010).
Figure 4-24 Streets of old towns traditionally designed and
planned for pedestrians Source: https://www.facebook.com/VintageNepal/photos
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For turning the streets of Kathmandu into green streets, the government should first
strictly enforce traffic management guidelines (Shrestha B. K., 2011). After completing a study
on street typologies in Kathmandu, Shrestha B.K. (2011) suggests that the streets in the planned
and unplanned peripheral urban areas should be made free of street vendors, beggars, and shop
owners, have sidewalks installed on both sides, and have provisions for other pedestrian
amenities such as street signage and lighting. (Shrestha B. K., 2011). These design guidelines
would be very helpful for creating pedestrian friendly streets in Kathmandu, where the majority
of the population prefers to walk, as only less than 10% of the population owns private vehicles
(Shrestha B. K., 2011).
Figure 4-25 KSUPT proposes to pedestrianize a part
of the heritage route of Kathmandu's historic core and
improve sidewalks of the city center Source: (ADB,
2007)
Figure 4-26 Street landscaping being proposed in the heritage
route of Kathmandu's historic core in the KSUPT plan
Source: (ADB, 2007)
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In addition to these, street landscaping must also be given prime importance. In narrow
sidewalks where there is no space for planting trees, people should be encouraged to practice
other innovative ways (e.g., flower pots and green facades) to green the streets. Specifically, in
streets with narrow sidewalks, the "transitional space" between the front of the street or sidewalk
and the ground floor shops (i.e., building frontage zone) that is usually in the form of continuous
steps and landings can be taken as an opportunity for greening streets, leaving just the space
required for accessing the shops. Some examples of such practices that were observed during the
field visit are shown in the pictures below.
Figure 4-27 Different initiatives taken by the people for landscaping streets with narrow sidewalks Source: Author
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4.3.2 Sidewalk Garden
Thriving gardens created in the streets by replacing the concrete sidewalks are known as
sidewalk gardens (SFPUC, 2013). Sidewalk gardens not only contribute towards beautifying
streets and neighborhoods but are beneficial for capturing stormwater and reducing the burden on
the sewer system (SFPUC, 2013).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The practice of creating small gardens in front of the ground floor shops and banks was
observed only in some of Kathmandu’s main streets during the field visit. People were utilizing
the building frontage zone, the "transitional space" between the sidewalks or front of the street
and the ground floor shops (that are usually in the form of continuous steps and landing), in order
to create small sidewalk gardens to beautify their shop fronts and streets. Sidewalk gardens are
mostly seen in front of banks, luxury shops, boutiques, and commercial complexes in some major
streets of the city such as Kupandole, Pulchowk, and New Road.
Figure 4-28 Sidewalk gardens observed in streets of Kathmandu, in front of banks, stores, commercial
complexes etc. Source: Author
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
There were no such practices in old towns.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Even on Kathmandu’s streets with narrow sidewalks, the building frontage zone, or the
"transitional space" between the sidewalks or front of the street and the ground floor shops, could
be used for creating sidewalk gardens. Some people in the city are already practicing it to make
their shop fronts attractive. Also, the Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project is also
planning to improve the pedestrianization of the city’s historic core and the city center’s
sidewalks and has also proposed to provide other amenities such as sidewalk gardens, sign posts,
and street furniture (ADB & MPPW, 2010).
It's good to know that the practice of sidewalk gardens has already started in Kathmandu
and that the government has thought of providing sidewalk gardens in the city core areas.
However, sidewalk gardens are being created just with the intention of beautifying shop fronts
and streets. They are not taken as a means for capturing storm water, as in some cases the
sidewalk gardens are built above sidewalk level.
Figure 4-29 Possibility of creating sidewalk garden in streets with narrow sidewalks using the building frontage zone or the "transitional space" between the sidewalks or front of the street and the ground floor shops Source: Author
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Therefore, awareness of implementing sidewalk gardens in shop fronts and should be
increased, along with practical guidance on the appropriate ways of constructing them. Such
practices would not only contribute towards beautifying streets, but would also be helpful in
reducing the burden on Kathmandu’s decades old sewer system.
4.3.3 Urban Trees
Urban trees are trees in and around towns and cities. (Here, it is specifically being
referred as trees in the street).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Roadside tree plantation has been a common practice of greening streets in Kathmandu
since the olden days. Trees in the streets have considerably contributed toward increasing the
number of urban trees in the valley. However, the valley lost a large number of trees during the
recent road expansion drive. According to the Department of Roads (DOR), the valley lost around
2300 trees within the past few years for widening roads (DoR, 2013). It has been expressed in
many recent newspaper articles that the government felled trees in haste without considering the
deteriorating environment of the valley and envisioning a proper and sustainable planning for the
valley. The government has admitted that due to a lack of an adequate budget, there have been
delays in planting new trees, as they are unable to invest in new tree plantation programs (DoR,
2013). Besides, in this new undergoing road construction, priority has been given to the
expansion of the road only, not to the trees and the width requirements of sidewalks to hold trees.
Nevertheless, as a reaction to such devastation, many NGOs, are carrying out tree plantation
programs in newly expanded streets, to restore the valley’s lost urban trees. However, not all the
sidewalks of the newly constructed road are wide enough space for growing trees.
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3. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The streets and squares were hardscaped without greeneries or trees. Also, except in the
'divine domain' or ‘outer circle', there was no provision for planting trees (Poudel, 2010). The
kitchen gardens at the backyard of houses were the only areas where trees were planted (Tiwari,
2013).
4. Feasibility Assessment
With the absence of enough public open spaces, parks, and green hubs, streets are the
only suitable public spaces for planting trees in a densely urbanized valley. With active tree
plantation programs recently being carried out by various GOs and NGOs, there is hope that the
number of urban trees are likely to increase in Kathmandu, which will soon recover the hundreds
of trees that were lost during the road expansion drive.
4.3.4 Low-Impact Development
Low-impact development (LID) is a
method of controlling and treating storm-water
runoff at the source with the goal of preserving the
pre-development hydrology of the site (Dietz,
2007). The technique helps to enhance ground
water quality, reduce impacts on vegetation, soil,
and aquatic systems, and reduce pollution in the
receiving streams (Dietz, 2007). Some various LID
techniques are bio-retention, bio-swales, rain gardens, and
Figure 4-30 Cross section of Rain garden
Source: http://www.jkdirtworks.com/
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permeable pavements. LID techniques could be used to address stormwater in streets, alleys, and
yards (Beatley T. , 2010).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The only LID technique that is being practiced in Kathmandu is rainwater harvesting.
During the past 8-9 years, rainwater harvesting has been a popular practice in the city mainly to
meet water needs (Tuladhar, 2011). Such practices have not only helped to utilize collected
rainwater for domestic purposes, but also have reduced the burden on sewerage systems. Some
people have also started to channel rooftop water through pipes into a pit for ground water
recharge, thus lessening the stormwater load on the city’s sewers (Dixit & Madhukar, 2005).
However, in dense areas, care should be taken so that the collected water is not contaminated.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The traditional towns were built on high ground, which would automatically solve any
drainage problems (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2009). A buffer zone of agricultural land existed
between the settlements and rivers, and the waste water flowing out of the town was used for
irrigating agricultural land (Dixit & Madhukar, 2005). Hence, groundwater levels were
maintained by irrigation and rivers remained clean. Ponds in the towns helped in catching water
that would have flowed down the hill slopes as surface drainage (Dixit & Madhukar, 2005).
3. Feasibility Assessment
To address the current severe drainage problem in Kathmandu, LID methods like bio-
retention, rain gardens, and bioswales could be encouraged in the city, as such techniques would
facilitate treating and managing stormwater at the source, reducing the burden on the city’s
decades old sewer system and recharging ground water. Additionally, in the absence of effective
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treatment plants in the city, such practices would help treat storm water at the source, thus
preventing the contamination of ground water. Moreover, the current ongoing situation of
converting vast rural areas into urban areas, development activities in recharge zones of the river,
and the extensive pumping or extraction of ground water due to an inadequate supply of
municipal water supply have all had disproportionate effects on the ground water situation (Dixit
& Madhukar, 2005). Thus, in such a situation, the practice of LID techniques could also be
advantageous in recharging ground water.
LID techniques can be utilized in both small scale residential settings ranging to larger
commercial settings (Dietz, 2007). The trend of owning private vehicles has just started in
Kathmandu and henceforth, the concept of public parking is just being realized, so the
construction of new large parking lots is on the rise. These LID techniques could be applied to the
parking lots to manage stormwater. Also, they could also be beneficial in managing stormwater in
many parts of the city not served by any sewer system that often get waterlogged during the rainy
season. In addition, local people could also be encouraged to practice LID methods in their
individual residences by providing them training or experts to guide or provide services for them.
Furthermore, new creative ways of managing storm water by merging the traditional natural ways
and modern technologies could be developed.
4.3.5 Vegetated Swales and Skinny Streets
Vegetated swales are gently sloped open-channels with dense vegetation used to carry
stormwater runoff (EPA, 1999). They are a practical and effective technique of treating and
disposing stormwater runoff and can be used as an alternative to conventional storm sewers in
residential, commercial, and industrial areas with sparse populations (EPA, 1999). Swales can be
easily designed and incorporated into a site drainage plan (EPA, 1999) and are attractive and cost
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effective but require periodic maintenance (EPA, 1999).
Skinny streets are streets with a narrow width
that maintains a comfortable human scale for
pedestrians (Ewing, Stevens, & Brown, 2007). Such
streets reduce vehicle speed, encourage walking,
improve livability, reduce impervious surfaces
(minimizing stormwater runoff and reflective heat),
and lower street construction and maintenance costs
(Ewing, Stevens, & Brown, 2007).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Vegetated swales techniques have not been found to be practiced in Kathmandu. Unlike
the wide main streets, all other inner roads in the planned and haphazardly developed areas have a
narrow width often with no space for side parking and sidewalks.
Figure 4-31 Cross section of Vegetated Swales Source: http://www.portlandoregon.gov
Figure 4-32 An example of Skinny Streets
Source:http://streetswiki.wikispaces.com/Skinny+Streets
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The networks of non-axial streets developed during the Malla period were narrow, with
only 4 to 6 meters width, as they were traditionally designed for pedestrian movement.
3. Feasibility Assessment
In Kathmandu, the vegetated swales could be used for managing storm water in areas
where periodic maintenance service could be available such as individual residences, streets of
private housing developments, and commercial and industrial parking lots.
The narrow inner roads (9-24 meters wide) in Kathmandu could be considered as skinny
roads. The guidebook "Street Design Guidelines for Healthy neighborhoods" recommends a
width of at least 26 feet for residential areas with parking on both sides (Dan & Wallwork, 1999).
It seems then that the narrow width roads in the planned and haphazard settlement areas of
Kathmandu meet at least one requirement for healthy neighborhoods. Still, consideration should
be given to making these roads more pedestrian friendly.
4.3.6 Edible Landscaping
Edible landscaping is the planting of food plants integrating within a decorative setting
(RosalindCreasy, 2009). However, all of the plants do not have to be edible (RosalindCreasy,
2009).
1. Contemporary Architecture/Design
Edible landscaping is found to be practiced mainly in rooftops and backyards of
individual buildings in Kathmandu. New proposals have also been made by the Environment
Management Division of Kathmandu Metropolitan City to construct new green traffic islands in
different part of the city that will include bushes, flowers, and seasonal fruits (Kharel, 2014).
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2. Vernacular Architecture/ City Design
The backyard kitchen garden was used to plant fruit trees, vegetables, and flowers. The
gardens were used for planting flowers and fruits that would be necessary for carrying out
religious activities.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Edible landscaping is being practiced mainly in rooftops and back yards of individual
buildings in Kathmandu, and new proposal are being made to construct new traffic islands with
edible landscaping in different parts of the city. New green traffic islands are going to be built not
only with bushes and flowers but also with seasonal fruits. It would be a new initiation of edible
landscaping in the city. Similarly, edible landscaping could also be proposed in street medians
and green belts that are being built in some new road construction. Additionally, the plantation of
fruit trees could be encouraged in the streets. Sidewalk gardens in the streets could also be created
with this concept.
4.3.7 High Degree of Permeability
Permeable pavement infiltrates stormwater through the surface, reducing runoff. Some
various types of permeable pavements are concrete blocks or grids with open voids for
infiltration, plastic grids, pervious asphalt, and pervious concrete (Dietz, 2007).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The roads of Kathmandu are mainly paved either with asphalt or concrete as per the
requirement for urban roads in Nepal. In the historic core, the roads are paved with either stone,
brick, or asphalt. The sidewalks are often paved with concrete, interlocking concrete blocks,
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stones, or bricks. But, the sidewalks of the newly constructed roads are only paved with
interlocking concrete block without sealing joints.
The new Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project (KSUT) has proposed to pave
the pedestrian sidewalks of the central city area and the streets of the historic core with
interlocking paving stone (ADB, 2007) unlike the concrete block pavement developed in other
parts of the city.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The streets, courtyards, and squares of the traditional settlements used to be paved with
bricks and stones.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Due to poor drainage systems, water logging is a huge problem in the streets of the city
during monsoon season. Even the new and efficient drainage systems installed in the major roads
of the city are not capable of draining out the monsoon rain. In such situations, use of permeable
pavements, such as concrete blocks or grids with open voids for infiltration, would help to reduce
storm water runoff in the sidewalks and inner streets. The permeable pavements could be used in
paving sidewalks of streets and also to pave compounds of individual buildings.
4.4 Neighborhood Scale
According to Beatley, having sufficient natural spaces and parks in and around urban
neighborhoods is integral to biophilic urbanism (Beatley T., 2009). Existing neighborhoods could
be incorporated with nature and natural features, and new neighborhoods could be designed with
direct access to nature as a central design element (Beatley T. , 2010). Some various urban
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greening techniques for retrofitting existing neighborhoods are the daylighting of streams, the
conversion of turfgrass lawns into native prairies, edible landscaping, and gardens, the
replacement of parking and hard surfaces with trees, vegetation, and permeable surfaces.
4.4.1 Stream Daylighting and Stream Restoration
The process of reversing environmental degradation and re-establishing streams in
natural ways is known as stream restoration and daylighting (Moran, 2007).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Bagmati river
Urbanization and industrialization has made a direct impact on the Bagmati River and
its tributaries, and therefore it faces a number of serious environmental and ecological
challenges (GoN/NTNC, 2009). A study has indicated that the river’s water flow and quality are
both in an alarming situation (KAPRIMO, 2007). Most parts of the rivers within the valley are
excessively polluted, which has made considerable impacts on the overall urban environment and
human health (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
The Bagmati River originates at Baghdwar, about 15 Km northeast of Kathmandu in
Shivapuri hill, and its tributaries originate from different parts of the valley. It is the principle
river of the Bagmati Basin in Nepal, which is characterized as a medium or dry basin fed by
springs and monsoon rainfall (WECS, 2008). The river merges with the Koshi River in the Terai
region of Nepal. The river is rich in both biodiversity resources as well as cultural heritage. Most
of the important temples, shrines, and ghats are located along the river banks, as the river has
spiritual and emotional significance to the Nepali people and is used for different cultural and
ritual purposes.
The Bagmati River is used for various purposes: being a major source for municipal,
industrial, and irrigation water for the Kathmandu Valley, being used for cultural and religious
practices, acting as a disposal of water-borne effluents, serving as a sewer drain out and
deposition of solid waste along the banks, the extraction of sand, being a space for public
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infrastructure, e.g. roads and water tanks, and being a preferred zones for squatters and other
encroachments (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Because of this wide range of actions and activities going on
in and by the river, it is facing a number of ecological and environmental challenges. Therefore,
the conservation of the river is very important for the protection of both natural resources and the
valley’s rich cultural heritage.
Various critical issues have been highlighted due to extent of the various activities going
on in and around the river. It has been observed that the water quality in rivers is degrading and
the degradation of the river water quality increases in the core area of the city. The tapping of
water for drinking and irrigation purposes from the main source of the river is a root cause of
decrease in water discharge. This has exerted an enormous impact on the overall river ecosystem
by damaging the habitat for aquatic life, exposing the river banks, and channeling the flow
(GoN/NTNC, 2009). The narrowing and deepening of the river way is another critical issue
caused by the unplanned construction of gabion structures along the bank, the encroachment of
the river bank, and sand mining (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Due to these factors, several bridges and
cultural heritages sites on the river banks are at high risk (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
The aggravated environmental degradation of the Kathmandu valley, in general, and the
Bagmati River, in particular, has been a concern for all. Several organizations have been
working to restore the Bagmati river and its tributaries, but due to a lack of coordination, the
interventions were not effective and the environmental pollution remains unabated. Currently, the
Bagmati Action Plan is under action with the commitment to clean, green, and enlivens the river.
The above side bar gives an overview of the Bagmati River and the various driving
factors for the river degradation.
Figure 4-33 Filthy Bagmati river in 2010 A.D.
Source:http://sorazora.blogspot.com
Figure 4-34 Clean Bagmati river in 1950A.D.
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagmati_River
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Currently, the Bagmati River and its tributaries are undergoing conservation and
restoration, which are taking place under the Bagmati Action Plan, implemented with joint efforts
from the government and the Asian Development Network in 2009 (Conner, 2012). The plan
prepared a framework of defined goals, objectives, and activities for five different zones of the
Bagmati River and proposed to implement the plan co-coordinating with various governmental,
non-governmental, and civil society organizations, and other stakeholders (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
Some objectives of the plan are to maintain and enhance river water quality, conserve
biodiversity and the riparian landscape, to protect riverside land and aesthetic value of rivers and
its surroundings, construct intercepting sewage systems along both the banks of the rivers,
promote on-site sanitation at household and community levels through measures such as fecal
sludge management and septic tanks, promote DEWATS in institutions such as schools, housing
colonies, and government offices, and promote rainwater harvesting at the household and
community level (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
Figure 4-36 Plan of proposed design for river banks of Bagmati riverside by UN-Habitat & Water for Asian
Cities Programme Nepal Source: (UNWAC, 2008)
Figure 4-35 Plan of proposed design for river banks of Bagmati riverside by UN-Habitat & Water for Asian Cities
Programme NepalSource: (UNWAC, 2008)
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The Bagamti River was clean and pristine in the past. The waste water running down
from the settlements irrigated the buffer strip of agricultural land before reaching the river (Dixit
& Madhukar, 2005), and the vegetable waste matter was decomposed for manure within the town
in a place called Sagah (Tiwar, 1999).
Bagmati as a holy river
From the beginning of civilization in the Kathmandu valley, the Bagmati River was
considered a holy and sacred river. When the valley was first inhabited by Buddhists, it was
comprised of seasonally fluctuating large lakes, and eventually, from these lakes, complex river
systems were formed, creating a unique land dimension. The specific location where the Bagmati
flows, cutting the rigid hills in half through rocky terrain, currently near an established Heritage
Site (one of the world heritage sites in Kathmandu), was the first place where settlement began.
Another specific site of religious importance was the place where the Bagmati and Vishnumati
River converge, as the connection of two points had a symbolic meaning for Buddhists.
Subsequently, the river gained tremendous respect by the Buddhist people because of the
mysterious and uniqueness of the river, which ultimately made Bagmati an inimitably sacred and
holy religious location.
On the other hand, the Hindus, who have inhabited the valley, also respected the
Bagmati's unique traits. They considered one side of the riverbank as one’s current life, while the
other side as one’s future life, and believed that one have to cross the river for moving into the
next life. Hence, development of shrines and temples was spurred along the Bagamti because of
this specific religious belief.
Adopted from (Conner, 2012)
Moreover, religious norms and values guided the protection of the river rather than
environmental standards (NWCF, 2009). People believed that the river had to be kept pristine and
hygienic, otherwise god would not reside in the sacred area (Conner, 2012). Such religious beliefs
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encouraged the inhabitants to keep the river and its surroundings clean and healthy (Conner,
2012). Local management customs like Sitthi Nakaha encouraged the cleaning of the river
(NWCF, 2009).
3. Feasibility Assessment
The undergoing restoration and conservation of the Bagmati River under the Bagmati
Action Plan is expected to be completed by 2015 (Conner, 2012). There is therefore hope that the
Bagmati will be cleaner, with a green belt alongside the river's tributaries (Conner, 2012). Still,
many experts believe that with a massive budget, short-term visual improvements, and lofty
goals, the Bagmati Action Plan might be a failure (Conner, 2012).
The biggest obstacle for cleaning the
Bagmati is the proper management of waste water
and solid waste (Conner, 2012). For preventing the
current practice of discharging waste water directly
into the river, an underground water sewage system
is being constructed along both sides of the Bagmati
(Conner, 2012). Despite this project, efforts and
supports are required from local level in order to
improve the river's quality. Lessons can be drawn from the Rhine River, as it was only because of
local volunteer efforts in building individual treatment plants that the once degraded Rhine River
came back to life (NWCF, 2009).
Therefore, every individual, institution, and community should comply with the
objectives of the Bagmati Action Plan by setting up DEWATS, waste water treatment plants,
septic tanks, and utilizing rain water harvesting techniques from the local level. Furthermore, for
managing solid waste, the Bagmati Action Plan is planning to invest in composting projects and
Figure 4-37 Direct discharge of waste water into the Bagmati river Source: (GoN/NTNC, 2009)
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provide organic waste pick-ups in the city, as more than 70% of the total waste generated from
the city is organic waste (Conner, 2012). The BAP plan is also investing in a plethora of solid-
waste management actions (Conner, 2012). The locals should also support the plan and also
should not throw solid waste directly into the river, which is a common practice in the urban zone
of the river.
Additionally, for the complete revival of the
Bagmati, cultural values and technological and
scientific approaches need to be assimilated together
(NWCF, 2009). A good beginning would be
building on the local management customs like
Sitthi Nakaha and Chhath Parba (NWCF, 2009).
The preservation of this unique culture by raising
awareness at local, national and international levels
could be very effective for the conservation and restoration of the Bagmati River (GoN/NTNC,
2009).
4.4.2 Urban forests
Urban forests are the collection of trees, pockets of woody vegetation, and forests found
within urban areas, forming an important part of the urban landscape and a place for recreation
(Miller, 1997).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
At the neighborhood level, urban forestry activities are mostly carried out at roadsides,
riverbanks, and parks. Patches of urban forests are also found at government institutions,
universities, schools, and religious sites.
Figure 4-38 New face of the Bagmati river near
Pashupatinath Source:http://www.stableglobalprogress.com/tag/b
agmati-river/
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Even though urban forests provide multiple benefits to society, they are often neglected
and poorly understood in the cities of Nepal (Gurung, Karki, Bista, & Sang-Eun, 2011). The
promotion and conservation of urban forestry has not been emphasized by the Ministry of Forest
and Soil Conservation or the Ministry of Environment of the Government of Nepal, and so cites
are not developing in an environmentally sustainable manner (Gurung, Karki, Bista, & Sang-Eun,
2011).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The limitations in design of the settlements of traditional towns prevented thick groves
from popping up within the towns (Poudel, 2010). Except in the 'divine domain' or outer circle',
there were no provisions for planting trees (Poudel, 2010).
3. Feasibility Assessment
The concept of urban forestry is well instituted in the developed world but it is still in its
infancy in Nepal. A study on urban forestry conducted by Gurung (2009) in Kathmandu
concluded that even if an understanding of the benefits of urban forestry is slowing gaining
awareness, it still needs to be integrated into the design, planning, and management of the urban
landscape in Nepal (Gurung, Karki, Bista, & Sang-Eun, 2011). Compared to the other forest
regimes in Nepal such as community forestry, private forestry, leasehold forestry, and protected
areas, the urban forest is the least researched aspect despite their extensive range of
environmental, social, and economic benefits (Gurung, Karki, Bista, & Sang-Eun, 2011).
Therefore, new plans and policies should be implemented in order to promote urban forests for
their conservation and management and for developing urban forestry as a part of the urban
infrastructure in the urban areas of Nepal.
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4.4.3 Ecology Parks
Ecology parks are parks that protect the ecosystem in which it develops and also serve as
a recreational space for the public.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Godavari Botanical Garden is the only ecological park in Kathmandu. It is located in
Godavari and covers an area of 82.14 ha (DUDBC, 2013). It was established in 1962 with the
main objective to maintain and collect indigenous and exotic plants and to impart conservation
education (DUDBC, 2013). The park also develops technologies for the production of
economically viable plants (DUDBC, 2013). It also serves as a recreation spot for naturalists.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
Forests within the Kathmandu valley and surrounding it, were the natural ecology parks
in ancient days.
3. Feasibility Assessment
There is only one ecology park in Kathmandu, but this park also lies in the outskirts of
the city. More ecology parks should be developed in the city, as they will not only conserve
biodiversity but also help to impart valuable knowledge about different species of flora and fauna.
4.4.4 Community Gardens
A public land in terms of access, ownership, and degree of democratic control, used by a
group of people collectively for gardening, is known as a community garden (Ferris, Norman, &
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Sempik, 2001). Community gardens provide fresh fruits and vegetables and also contribute to
building a sense of community, improving the neighborhood and connecting people to the
environment (Hannah & Oh, 2000).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Community gardens are mostly found in universities (around staff quarters), government
offices, embassies, and the banks of rivers. Some specific examples of community gardens in the
city are Pulchowk Campus, the US Embassy, and along Bishnumati River at Bhimsenthan.
Community gardening is not very popular in Kathmandu, which might be due to the
presence of vast swaths of agricultural land within the valley (See-Agricultural land chapter 3, Pg.
57) and the significant number of people in the valley involved in agriculture for economic
purposes. Also, there is a tradition of practicing kitchen gardening (Karesabari) in Nepal. The
Kathmandu Valley was predominantly covered by agricultural land (Thapa & Murayama, 2009).
Even today, patches of agricultural land are found within the haphazardly developed areas of the
valley and cover a large portion of the city's periphery. Cultivation is mostly done by the
indigenous farmers of the valley. These productive lands have traditionally provided the city
market with fresh vegetables.
Figure 4-40 Community Garden at US Embassy, Kathmandu
Source: http://www.leagueofgreenembassies.org
Figure 4-39 Community Garden at Pulchowk Campus,
Kathmandu Source: (Shrestha, 2011)
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The traditional towns were surrounded by agricultural land. Within the towns, houses
were planned with a backyard kitchen garden or 'Keva' where they planted fruit trees, vegetables,
and flowers (Tiwari, 2013).
3. Feasibility Assessment
Due to rapid urbanization in the valley, the agricultural land coverage is decreasing. This
has made the city depend on either rural areas of the country or imports from India or China.
Through the Kathmandu Valley 2020 Plan, the government is trying to preserve the agricultural
land by setting policies for limiting urban expansion to a certain extent (KVTDC, 2002).
Recently, the RUAF foundation, together with Kathmandu Metropolitan City, has
introduced the Rooftop Gardening Project into the city. But, until today no action has been taken
for promoting urban agriculture in Kathmandu in the form of community gardening and kitchen
Figure 4-41 Patches of agricultural Land within city core area, Thapathali, Lalitpur Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011)
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gardening. Under the Environment Policy and Strategies on Periodic Plans of the Government,
there is no policy and strategy for urban agriculture (NEFEJ, 2014). Also, the focus of the
Department of Agriculture has been on promoting kitchen gardening in remote areas (Pulami &
Paudel, 2004) but not in urban areas. A study carried out by Karki (2008) on urban agriculture in
Kathmandu suggested that urban agriculture should be integrated in planning and Kathmandu
could be developed as food green city (Karki M. , 2008).
Therefore, community gardening and kitchen gardening should be promoted in the city,
in the similar ways as rooftop gardening is being promoted in the city as such practices will help
in providing food security, in managing waste through composting organic household waste for
use in gardens, in improving environment, and with connecting people to the environment.
The government could provide public lands such as the banks of bagmati for setting up
community gardens for the interested communities.
4.4.5 Neighborhood Parks and Pocket Parks
Neighborhood parks are open spaces ranging from 1000 square meters to two hectares
with greenscape, park benches, a children's playground, a jogging track, and some exercise
equipment, in a neighborhood (Yuen, 1996). They serve as a place for recreation and social
gatherings.
Pocket parks are a type of neighborhood park. Although they are small in area, they contribute in
satisfying people's everyday need for contact with nature (Nordh & Qstby, 2013).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
For neighborhood parks and pocket parks in Kathmandu, see Chapter 3 page 51. In
addition to these parks, new parks are also being constructed in a part of the large preserved areas
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for temples, stupas, and holy ponds, such as Buddha Park in Swayambhu and the new park
constructed in the Pashupatinath complex. Some sites with religious structures (e.g., Lagan Stupa
in Patan) are also being conserved with landscapes and function as parks for the inhabitants of
Kathmandu. Likewise, most of the religious sites in the valley hold trees, flowering plants, green
spaces, and forests in and around their precinct. Large preserved areas around cultural, traditional,
and religious sites are the only remaining public spaces in the midst of the valley’s increasingly
urbanized landscape. These religious sites have also contributed to preserving a considerable
amount of nature and green spaces within the valley and have been a place for recreation and
social gatherings.
Religious Sites in Kathmandu
The presence of an immense number of religious structures has made Kathmandu also
known as the city of temples. A poet also claimed, "There as nearly as many temples as houses, as
many idols as inhabitant" (Kirkpatrick, 1969). Temples, shrines, stupas, and historical ponds
(mostly built during the Lichhavi (2nd to 9th century) and Malla (14th to 16th century) periods) are
the various kinds of religious sites found in the valley. Large preserved areas around cultural,
traditional, and religious sites are the only remaining public spaces in the midst of the
increasingly urbanized landscape of the valley. These religious sites have also contributed to
preserving a considerable amount of nature and green spaces within the valley.
Most of the religious sites in the valley hold trees, flower plants, green spaces, and
forests in and around their precinct. In Nepal, there is a tradition of conserving patches of forest
around religious sites, in the name of gods, goddesses, and religious beliefs (Devkota, 2013).
Swayambhunath, Pashupatinath, Dakshinkali, and Mhaipi are some examples of such religious
sites conserving patches of forest around them. Sacred forests in the Swayambhunath and
Pashupatinath are popular habitats for holy monkeys within the city. Parks are also being
constructed in a part of the large preserved areas of temples and stupas, for instance, Buddha
Park in Swayambhu and new park constructed in the Pashupatinath complex. Some sites with
religious structures (e.g., Lagan Stupa in Patan) are also being conserved with landscapes and
are serving as parks to the inhabitants of Kathmandu.
The valley consists of hundreds of historical ponds (Pradhan, 2003) that were mainly
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built as reservoirs to recharge aquifers for feeding stone spouts (hiti). Although a few
disappeared with the passage of time, many have survived and hold cultural significance. Some
good examples of historical ponds are Siddha Pokhari (in Bhaktapur), Nagdaha (in Dhapakhel),
Taudaha (in Chobar), Rani Pokhari (in Kathmandu), and Kamal Pokhari (in Kathmandu)
(Shrestha A. B., 2010). These ponds hold cultural and religious significance but are important
from an ecological perspective, too, preserving the rich diversity of flora and fauna (Shrestha A.
B., 2010). Also, they serve as a recreational locale for the locals. Some ponds like Nag Pokhari
are well preserved with parks built around it (Shrestha A. B., 2010), and new parks are also
being proposed around some ponds like Kamal Pokhari. Authorities have made efforts to
conserve and maintain these historical ponds (Shrestha A. B., 2010).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
Within the settlements of the ancient towns, there were not any parks or public green
spaces. The courtyards, temple squares, and ponds served as places for recreation, social
gatherings, and as a play area for children. The dense towns did not have greenery inside due to
their location on fallow ridges. But as the towns grew in size, this was not acceptable, and hence
towns provided space through several khyos (i.e., large open green spaces) within the perimeter of
the towns.
3. Feasibility Assessment
There are only a few neighborhoods and pocket parks in Kathmandu. Moreover, the
majority of these parks are not in good condition, while those places that are in a fair state are
mostly locked with heavy metal locks for protection, even preventing the community and the
local people from using the place. Therefore, people in Kathmandu need more new neighborhood
and pocket parks. The few public spaces found in some neighborhoods could be converted into
parks. If the government does not have a budget for this, then initiation can be made with support
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from the communities. There are many instances of the creation of new parks with the support
from community dwellers as well as with the assistance of various agencies and departments of
Nepal’s government. Some examples of such parks are the park in Nag Bahal in Patan (created by
community effort) and the park in Gyaneshwor. The government should encourage additional
interested communities or local clubs to build new parks in possible areas in their locality. Parks
created with the community's effort are likely to be more maintained, as in most cases the
communities take responsibility for maintenance.
Overall, parks built near stupas, temples, and holy ponds have been valuable in
preserving green spaces and serving as a place for recreation and social gatherings. These sites
are in better condition than the other neighborhood parks of Kathmandu, as the religious beliefs
of the people refrain them from throwing litters in religious sites. New parks are also being
constructed in the Pashupatinath complex and have been proposed around some ponds like Kamal
Pokhari. Still, the government could give more emphasis for creating more parks in the preserved
areas around cultural, traditional, and religious sites, which are the only remaining public spaces
in the midst of the valley’s increasing urbanized landscape.
4. New Biophilic Elements or Strategies
In Kathmandu, religious sites have been valuable in preserving a considerable amount of
nature, green spaces, and biodiversity within the valley. So, religious sites could be new a
biophilic strategy for Kathmandu.
4.4.6 Greening Grayfields and Brownfields
Greening gray fields and brown fields refers to enlivening grayfields and brownfields by
planting trees and vegetation.
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1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
There are few gray fields and brown fields in Kathmandu. Some examples of large gray
fields and brown fields are the Himal Cement Factory in Chovar and the Brighter Toothpaste
Factory in Thimi.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
There were no gray fields and brown fields in the past.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Although Kathmandu’s gray fields and brown fields do not have large paved parking lots,
they could still be used as community gardens or can be converted into parks, ecology parks, or
native species yards.
4.5 Community
Communities could be made more greener through community forests, greening utility
corridors, urban ecological networks etc.
4.5.1 Urban Creeks and Riparian Areas
Urban creeks are streams smaller than a river flowing through urban areas. The areas
between land and flowing waters such as streams, wetlands, lakes, and shorelines are known as
riparian areas. In urbanizing areas, the protection of creeks and vegetation in riparian areas is
important for conserving native species biodiversity (White & Geer, 2006).
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1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
Within urban areas of the valley, the riparian areas are used for socio-economic and
infrastructural purposes (GoN/NTNC, 2009). The riparian areas in suburban areas are being
occupied by small scale industries for different purposes, such as dyeing and cleaning materials,
the collection of construction materials, and small workshops (GoN/NTNC, 2009). While the
condition of the riparian areas worsens in the core areas, these areas are even encroached upon
permanently by schools, offices, private residences, business complexes, squatter settlements,
public toilets, road construction, and new temples (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Some examples of the
roads constructed in riparian areas are Bagmati Link Road, Dhobikhola Link Road, and
Bsihnumati Link Road (Paropakar-Gongabu Bus-Park) (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
Figure 4-42 The riparian area of Bagmati encroached by squatter settlement Source: http://fpgm.org/blog-archive/2012-travel-blog/farewell-to-nepal/
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2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The riparian areas within the valley were once mostly used for agricultural lands days
(NWCF, 2009). Some parts of the riparian areas traditionally consisted of temple complexes and
stone stepped Ghat for cremation and ritual bathing (NWCF, 2009).
3. Feasibility Assessment
The Bagmati Action Plan aims to prepare and implement landscape plans for riparian
areas in order to maintain a green corridor and conserve aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity in the
Bagmati’s five different zones (GoN/NTNC, 2009). The Action Plan is also planning to control
and relocate squatter settlements from the riverbanks (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
4.5.2 Urban Ecological Networks
Urban ecological networks are systems of interconnected nature reserves that
ecologically, physically and visually connect built-up areas of the city with the surrounding
Figure 4-43Banks of Bagmati with Ghats and agricultural fields (1921 AD) Source: https://www.facebook.com/photo.php
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natural areas and green spaces, (Beatley T. , 2000), providing an opportunity for connectivity and
wildlife movement in a fragmented urban landscape (Ignatieva, Stewart, & Meurk, 2011).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
There are no ecological networks within the Kathmandu Valley.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
There were not any ecological networks in the past.
3. Feasibility Assessment
The banks of the Bagmati River and its tributaries are a potential area for developing
ecological networks in Kathmandu. If such an ecological network is developed along the
Bagmati, then it will help connect large swaths of forest in the surrounding hills with other
patches of sacred or religious forests, as the river passes along most of the valley’s groves.
A number of government and private organizations have shown interest in carrying out
plantations, developing parks, and completing maintenance work to riverside areas. There is then
hope to see a green corridor along the bank of the Bagmati and its tributaries in near future.
4.5.3 Green Schools
Green schools are energy efficient, healthy, and environmentally friendly schools
(Whitehead, 2010). The main aim of green schools is to educate children about environmental
sustainability to keep the planet healthy over a long period of time (Whitehead, 2010). Green
schools are built with passive solar design and constructed with natural building materials as well
as preserve significant natural areas (Beatley T. , 2010). These schools’ curriculum includes
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environmental sciences courses and school activities that impart knowledge about nature, the
environment, and natural processes to teach students to grow and to impart knowledge about local
and organic food (Beatley T. , 2010).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
There are no green schools in Kathmandu, but a number of non-government
organizations and local clubs are conducting environment education programs and activities in
schools. Some examples of such organizations are the Nepal Nature School (NNP),
Environmental Camps for Conservation Awareness (ECCA), and the Children for Green New
Nepal (CGNN). These organizations mostly conduct tree plantation programs in schools,
educating children about the importance of trees and involving them in tree plantation.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
There were no green schools in the past.
3. Feasibility Assessment
As schools are the best platforms for imparting knowledge about the importance of nature
to the country’s upcoming youth, the government should encourage schools to provide practical
environmental education. In addition, the government can encourage new schools to be built to
include some passive design techniques such as maximum daylight and natural lighting into
rooms, teaching students about the importance of energy conservation, or to use local, natural
building materials, which teaches students about the environmental and the cost benefits of using
it.
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4.5.4 City Tree Canopy
City tree canopy refers to the percent of tree coverage in a city, as seen in an aerial view.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
No data exists about Kathmandu’s city tree canopy. However, some data were found
about the percent of plantation in the city and the percent of forest in the whole valley. The
percent of plantation is 4.56% (416 ha) of the total area of the city, which is 9104.6 ha including
Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Thimi. Of the total area of the valley, forests
covers 19.43% (Thapa & Murayama, 2009).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
Very few area of the towns were covered with trees.
3. Feasibility Assessment
There is no data for city tree canopy of Kathmandu, so future studies could be carried out
to determine the percent of city covered by trees. The measurement of city’s tree canopy would
be very helpful to find out the existing amount of tree canopy and the amount that could exist.
4.5.5 Community Forests and Community Orchards
The collection of all vegetation, green spaces, and trees growing within communities of
urban or suburban areas is known as the community forest. The development, conservation,
management, and utilization of forests within towns, suburbs, and urban areas by local group of
people or communities is called community forestry. A community orchard is a collection of fruit
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trees grown within communities in urban or suburban areas. Community orchards are places for
people to come together to plant varieties of fruit trees, to hold festivals and picnics, and to learn
and exchange knowledge.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
There are a number of patches of religious forests standing as vegetated islands within the
valley. They are important repositories for religion and culture and have survived within the
valley because of the religious beliefs of the people. These religious forests can be considered
community forests, as they are managed either by a religious body, indigenous group,
community, or by the joint effort of religious bodies and communities (Wagle & Ojha, 2002). In
such type of forests, the community or religious body is allowed to utilize the forest’s products
for religious purpose but not for any commercial purposes (Wagle & Ojha, 2002). The concept of
creating a community orchard has not yet been seen in Kathmandu.
Figure 4-44 Swayambhunath Religious forest standing within the urban landscape of Kathmandu Valley Source:http://www.merodeshnepal.com/
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Religious Forests in Kathmandu
Within three district of the valley, there are 12 sacred groves or forests covering an area
of 226.18 ha (Devkota, 2013). As the remnants of the forest that once dominated the valley after
undergoing a series of decline and re-growth, these centuries old sacred groves and forests are
the only natural vegetation left within the valley (Devkota, 2013). They are considered as
birthplaces of strong religious and socio-cultural practices (Mansberger, 1991). Nepalese people
have a tradition of conserving patches of forest around religious sites, in the name of gods,
goddesses, and religious beliefs, and the removal of even a twig is considered taboo. If it was not
for such religious beliefs, these remnants would not still be standing as vegetative islands in the
intensively used urban landscape of the valley. They are important because of their long history,
the willingness of the local people to conserve them, and for conserving the biological diversity of
a particular region that has vanished from other surrounding areas (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006). In
the case of Kathmandu, sacred forests have informally helped to preserve biodiversity within the
urban landscape by being a storehouse of a variety of species, providing a space for carrying out
religious rituals, acting as a recreational area for people, providing necessary plants and herbs
for carrying out important rituals, and providing medicinal herbs.
Majority of the sacred forest have taken local character providing them favorite
"worship (Puja) and picnic" places for many families of the urban Kathmandu Valley.
Additionally, the religious gathering also takes place every year in such forests lasting for a day
to a month, providing opportunities for the people of the valley to visit the forests at least once a
year, to engage in personal spiritual renewal, and to participate in communal renewal of spirit of
place (Mansberger 1991). For a city like Kathmandu that has few parks and open green spaces,
such sacred forests have remained as the only large preserved green urban landscape in the
valley where the people can feel nature nearby and have the benefits of maintaining the ecology
of the city to a great extent. In Nepal, any religious body, group, or community wishing to
manage a forest for its religious value (Wagle & Ojha, 2002) is allowed to utilize the forest’s
products for religious purpose but not for any commercial purposes (Wagle & Ojha, 2002).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
Previously, indigenous systems were used to conserve natural resources. The forests
around the towns are protected and managed under the power and responsibility of the local
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communities through unwritten laws and rules (Mishra, 2003). Such systems have been
successful in conserving forests for centuries in Nepal.
In addition, the ancient rulers and
communities of the valley were always
encouraged to establish, protect, and conserve
forests surrounding a religious site due to the
deeply rooted religious and cultural values and
associated taboos related to Hindu and Buddhist
religions (Devkota, 2013). As the groves were
considered so sacred, people would not fell
trees or use even the fallen wood. These religious and cultural beliefs also contributed to
conserving the patches of forest within the vast agricultural landscape around old settlements of
the Kathmandu Valley.
Within the traditional settlement boundary of Kathmandu, there were no community
orchards.
3. Feasibility Assessment
Religious forests can be considered as community forests, as they are managed by either
religious bodies, indigenous groups, communities, or by the joint effort of religious bodies and
communities. The indigenous way of managing and conserving forests through communities has
always been successful in Nepal since the olden days. Because of this, the government has
recognized community forests and religious forests and their participatory management as
priority areas for contemporary forest management (Wagle & Ojha, 2002). The government can
encourage communities to set up community forests and orchardson potential lands in the valley
such as on university and school grounds, hospital grounds, government offices, army and police
Figure 4-45 Swayambhunath Sacred forest in the mid of the agricultural land Source: (Shrestha S. , 2011)
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barracks, housing colonies, industries, monasteries, along the bank of river, the edges of forests,
and alongside paths.
4. New Biophilic Elements or Strategies
In the case of Kathmandu, sacred forests or religious forests have informally helped to
preserve biodiversity within the urban landscape, provide a space for carrying out religious
rituals, act as a recreational area, provide necessary religious and medicinal plants and herbs, and
help people carry out important rituals. For a city like Kathmandu with few parks and open green
spaces, such sacred forests have remained as the only preserved green urban landscape in the
valley where people can feel nature nearby and have the benefits of maintaining the ecology of
the city to some extent. Some biophilic qualities achieved with the presence of sacred forests in
Kathmandu include:
o The people of Kathmandu have opportunities to experience nature within the city.
o Sacred forests rich in biodiversity and the plants and herbs used from these forests to help
carry out important religious rituals, have made the people aware of the significance of nature
and biodiversity within cities.
o As the plants and herbs from sacred forests are used in the daily people's daily life for
religious purpose, they have instilled people with a strong affinity to these flora and fauna to
some extent and have helped them gain knowledge of certain common species of flora and
fauna.
o Religious gatherings that take place every year in such forests, lasting for a day up to a
month, provide opportunities for the city's people to visit the forests at least once a year, to
engage in personal spiritual renewal, and to participate in the communal renewal of the spirit
of place. These gatherings also indirectly help the city’s residents to spend more time outside
and enjoy nature within cities
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As such sacred or religious forests tend to make people more biophilic and conserve
greenery and biodiversity through associated religious and cultural beliefs, they can be considered
as a biophilic urban design elements especially in the Eastern world.
4.5.6 Greening Utility Corridors
Using utility corridors for plantation (e.g., planting vegetables) is known as greening
utility corridors.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
There are no separate utility corridors in Kathmandu.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
There were no such utility corridors in the olden days.
3. Feasibility Assessment
This is not applicable in Kathmandu, as there are no such separate utility corridors.
4.6 Region
Beatley suggests giving importance to the preservation and restoration of large regional
and urban scale interconnected green networks or systems such as rivers, forests, farmlands, and
riparian networks. These networks and systems not only serve many functions, such as habitat
conservation, sustainable wood production, water quality protection, climate modification, and
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the urban heat island effect, but they also attain the main goal (i.e., access to nature and the
recreational benefits for urban nature).
4.6.1 River Systems and Flood Plains
Systems of connected river channels are known as river systems. The low or flat land
areas adjacent to rivers and streams that are periodically flooded are known as floodplains (Junk
& Welcomme, 1990). Flood plains form complex biological and physical systems that support a
variety of natural resources (Tockner & Stanford, 2002). These areas percolate water back into
the ground and thus contribute in replenishing groundwater (Tockner & Stanford, 2002).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The Bagmati River systems of the Kathmandu valley are comprised of seven
tributaries—Bagmati, Bishnumati, Dhobikhola, Nakkhu, Manahara, Balkhu and Tukucha
rivers—and five sub-tributaries- Godavari, Sangla, Hanumate, and Kodhku Khola. Unplanned
urbanization has accelerated the environmental degradation of the river system (GoN/NTNC,
2009), and the issue is more or less similar in the Bagmati River and its tributaries (GoN/NTNC,
2009). Some major issues are the decrease in water discharge and the degradation of the river’s
ecosystem (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Other critical issues of the Bagmati River system are the
degradation of catchment quality and water quality, riverside land use changes, the narrowing and
deepening of water ways, and eroding aesthetic and cultural values (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
The changes in the use of floodplains are also the main causes of the degradation of the
river system. The flood plains of the river system are being used for settlements, sand mining, the
disposal of solid waste, and road construction (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Because of the highly
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polluted water and the changes in the land use of the flood plains, terrestrial and aquatic
biodiversity is decreasing significantly in the Bagmati River system (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
Previously, the river systems were clean and healthy, and the floodplains were mostly
used for agriculture (see Stream daylighting and stream Restoration, Pg 121).
3. Feasibility Assessment
Several organizations have been working for the restoration of the Bagmati River and its
tributaries, but due to a lack of coordination, the interventions were not effective and the
environmental pollution in the river remained unabated. Currently, the Bagmati Action Plan
(BAP) is under action with the commitment to clean, green, and enlivens the river.
For the restoration and conservation of the Bagmati River and its tributaries, the BAP introduced
a concept of the zonation of the river system within the Kathmandu Valley in order to address the
key issues more effectively from the micro level (See figure 4-46) (GoN/NTNC, 2009). As the
issues that might be critical in the upstream might not be critical for downstream, the BAP
defined goals, objectives, and activities for each zones in order to develop and implement the plan
more effectively at the zone level (GoN/NTNC, 2009). Some major objectives of the plan to
improve the degradation of the river systems are to enhance water flow in the river, to improve
river water quality and quantity through proper water and waste management, to conserve,
regenerate, and renovate culture and heritage, to control and relocate squatter settlements from
the river banks, to improve the riparian landscape, and to protect riverside land, aquatic
biodiversity, and the aesthetic value of the rivers and its surroundings (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
For restoring the floodplains, the BAP aims to relocate squatters from the river bank and
control further encroachment of the river banks by squatters and others (zone-3 & zone-4) by
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constructing chain-link fences (zone-3 & zone-4) to prevent the disposal of solid waste in the
river and its banks and to create parks on the banks with access to roads (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
4.6.2 Riparian Systems
The areas between land and flowing waters such as streams, wetlands, lakes, and
shorelines are known as riparian areas. Riparian systems have a range of functioning systems that
provide habitat for wildlife, physically filter water, recharge underground aquifers, give bank
stability, and help with water storage (Elmore, 1989).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
The condition of the riparian areas of the Bagmati River varies at different parts of the
valley's region in the five different zones, which are described below:
Figure 4-46 Map showing different zones and quality of river in different zones of the valley Source: (GoN/NTNC, 2009)
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In the upper hilly areas or Natural Conservation Area (zone-1) from where the Bagmati
River and its tributaries originate, the riparian areas are mostly covered with forests.
The riparian areas of the Rural Zone (zone-2) are mostly covered with agricultural land.
Due to the loss of riparian vegetation and changes in use of riparian areas for agriculture, road
construction, dyeing and cleaning materials for cottage industries and workshops, and the
dumping of solid waste along the riverbanks, the water quality and aquatic diversity is degrading.
In the Peri-Urban Zone (zone-3), some parts of the riparian area are covered with
agricultural land while others are encroached by permanent residences, commercial use such as
schools, private institutions, and animal farming, and temporary sites for collecting construction
materials, road construction, and dumping sites. Due to these reasons, the riparian vegetation is
degrading, thus depleting aquatic diversity and water quality.
In addition to the riverside land uses mentioned in the Peri-Urban Zone, the riparian areas
of the Urban Zone (Zone-4) have also been encroached upon and used by squatters. In this zone,
the riparian vegetation is also degrading and the water quality and aquatic diversity are depleting.
The riparian areas of the Downstream Zone (zone-5) are covered with agricultural lands.
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The riparian areas within the valley were mostly used for agricultural lands in the olden
days (NWCF, 2009). Some parts of the riparian areas traditionally consisted of temple complexes
and stone stepped Ghat for cremation and ritual bathing (NWCF, 2009).
3. Feasibility Assessment
The Bagmati Action Plan aims to prepare and implement a landscape plan of riparian
areas for maintaining a green corridor and conserving aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity in the
138
five different zones of the Bagmati (GoN/NTNC, 2009). The Action plan is also planning to
control and relocate squatter settlements from the riverbanks (GoN/NTNC, 2009).
4.6.3 Regional Green Space Systems
Large interconnected green systems preserved and restored at regional, bioregional, or
metropolitan levels (Beatley T. , 2010), regional green space systems serve many functions such
as habitat conservation, carbon sequestration, water quality protection, urban heat island effect,
climate modification, and recreational benefits (Beatley T., 2009).
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
In Kathmandu, agricultural land and forests form the regional greening system.
Agricultural land and farmland have historically been the of the city's prosperity. Agricultural
land covers half of the valley (54% in 2000) (Thapa & Murayama, 2009). The agricultural land
decreased by one third from 1980 to 2000, and, if the trend continues, it will be gone by 2050
(Zurick & Rose, 2009).
The steeper slopes of the surrounding hills above the terraced farms are dominated by
forests of mixed hardwood and shrubland (Zurick & Rose, 2009). Even though over the centuries
the forests were damaged by heavy use, the forests conserve endangered plants, protect
watersheds, provide wildlife habitat, and supply the valley farmers with livestock fodder and
wood for fuel in a regulated way (Zurick & Rose, 2009). Nagarjun, the Shivarpuri watershed, the
Gokarna reserve, and the Phulchowki ridge hold the largest tracts of forests (Zurick & Rose,
2009). Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, the country's ninth national park established in 2002, is
located on the northern fringe of the valley (Shakya & Bajracharya, 2013). There are a number of
sacred groves and small parks within the valley floor. Forests cover 19.43% of the total area of
139
the valley (Thapa & Murayama, 2009) and are under protected status of some kind (Zurick &
Rose, 2009). Yet, forest declined by 40% in the latter half of the 20th
century (Zurick & Rose,
2009).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
The closed compact settlement pattern of the ancient towns maximized the land suitable
for agriculture. Within the valley floor, patches of sacred forests existed and the surrounding hills
were covered with forest.
In pre-modern times, the people's culture and religious belief protected the fertile
agricultural fields from encroachment. The town boundary was demarcated by Pith, which
limited the expansion of the towns. The pith was considered as the out of town symbol and a
nature protector. In order to ensure that the piths remained in the perimeter of the town, religious
rituals, taboos, and festivals were charted and popularized. Subsidiary temples were dispersed at
important micro-ecological locations (see Chapter 3, Pg. 39 for more details).
3. Feasibility Assessment
Because of urbanization, most agricultural lands are being transformed into urban/built-
up lands near existing built-up areas, whereas forests and shrubs in the rural periphery are being
converted into agricultural lands (Thapa & Murayama, 2009).
The government is trying to preserve agricultural land by setting policies for limiting
urban expansion to a certain level through the Kathmandu Valley 2020 Plan (KVTDC, 2002).
The forests covering the surrounding hills of the valley, such as Shivapuri-Nagarjun National
Park, Gokarna, Phulchowki, and Nagarkot, are managed under formal conservation laws followed
by well-developed policies and institutions (Chalise, Ogaqa, & Panday, 2013). The sacred groves
or religious forests within the valley are managed by a religious body, group, or communities
140
(Wagle & Ojha, 2002). Yet, since forest declined by 40% in the latter half of the 20th century,
there is a need for the proper enforcement of conservation laws (Zurick & Rose, 2009).
4.6.4 Greening Major Transport Corridors
Providing greeneries and green belts along the transport corridors is called the greening
of major transport corridors.
1. Contemporary Architecture/City Design
As the Kathmandu Valley is undergoing road expansion, hundreds of trees have been cut
down. When the Araniko Highway, a stretch of one of the major transport corridors of the valley
(Koteshwore to Suryavinayak), was re-constructed, hundreds of trees were felled. Efforts have
now been given to plant trees along the sides of the highways.
The twenty-six and a half kilometer three lane long Ring Road was constructed in the
1980s with a three line green belt concept on both sides of the circular way (Poudel, 2010).
Currently, the 9.5 kilometer stretch of Ring Road from Koteshwore-Kalanki is under
construction. The green belt on both sides of Ring Road were cut down for the reconstruction,
and the new eight-lane Ring Road will have trees planted on both the sides of the road in areas
spanning 5 meters width (Kharel S., 2013).
2. Vernacular Architecture/City Design
In pre-modern times, various settlements were interlinked with pedestrian and wheeled
traffic paths. There was a practice of planting trees alongside these paths and whoever cut those
roadside (sadaks) trees were sent to prison (see chapter 4).
141
3. Feasibility Assessment
Efforts for tree plantation along roadsides have only been given in the newly
reconstructed highways in Kathmandu. Roadside tree plantation should also be encouraged for
the existing highways.
142
Summary Table
Scale Biophilic
Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu
Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-
consciousness
Biophilia
feasibility
New Ideas
Building
Green
rooftops
Flat or Sloped rooftop supporting
vegetation
Benefits- Air quality improvement,
reduced urban heat island effects,
reduction in storm water flow, increased
roof life, increased urban wildlife habitat
- Green roof not kicked off due to impediments
concerned construction
-Only one residence building attempted using
combination of easily available local materials.
But, yet to see, the functioning of these layers or
the need of introducing any new materials for
improving existing techniques
-Sloped roof donot hold
vegetation
-But, construction technology
used provides similar of green
rooftops
-Roof maintains comfortable
indoor temperature
-Might possibly work
-Large amount of research required to
gain insight of green roof technology
suitable for local context
-Vernacular
mud roofs help
people to
connect with
soil -why
cannot it be a
Biophilic city
design
strategy?
Sky garden
and green
atria
-Green spaces on rooftops or on the
intermediate floors of high-rise buildings
-Eg. plantation in walls, railings,
balcony, raised planting beds, window
asiles, rooftops etc.
- Planted pots in rooftops and balconies, a
common practice
-Mostly done due to lack of space for garden in
front or back of their homes and to use flowers for
cultural and religious purposes
-"One house Two Tree" policy newly
implemented by KMC
-Attic terraces often seen with
flowerpots
-Being practiced
-But, new policy "One House Two
Tree" (or rooftop plantation), is only for
residential buildings.
-The policy should also apply to other
buildings
Rooftop
garden
-Container plantation on roofs
- advantageous in mitigating storm-water
run-off, fostering local wildlife and
hence contributing in urban sustainability
-rooftop Gardening in the form of growing
vegetables and flowers in pots or containers,
common practice
-rooftop gardening promoted and implemented
by ENPHO and KMC with the technical support
of RUAF Foundation and UN-Habitat
-Attic terraces of the traditional
buildings are also used for
growing flowers and vegetables in
containers
-Being practiced
-Recently promoted by implemented in
Kathmandu by ENPHO and KMC with
the technical support of RUAF
Foundation and UN-Habitat
Green walls -Two types: Living Wall and Green
Facades
-Living wall are "self-sufficient vertical
gardens that are attached to the interior
and exterior wall of a building"
-In Green Facades, the vegetative layers
trained to cover or grow along specially
designed vertical supporting structure
-Practice of Green wall is still foreign in Nepal
with the exception of ivy-covered building or
boundary walls
-Green facades in the form of vegetation covered
boundary walls are seen being practiced in
Kathmandu.
-Exterior walls do not hold
vegetation but provides some
similar benefits of that of green
walls.
-Mud brick wall maintained,
comfortable indoor environment
-Only green facades practiced in some
parts, mostly in boundary walls but not
a common practice.
-Encourage use of green facades as it
can be created easily with cheaper
materials found in local hardware stores
-Vernacular
mud walls help
people to
connect with
soil -why
cannot it be a
Biophilic city
design
strategy?
Day light
Interior
Spaces
-Providing excessive natural light into
the interior spaces placing windows or
other openings or transparent medias and
reflective surfaces
-The aim is to provide effective internal
lighting maximizing visual comfort and
reduce energy use.
-Consideration for the adequacy of light and
ventilation has been given in the building by laws
-But, not all the buildings in Kathmandu are built
following the building bylaws.
-Unsystematic development of built environment
in the dense areas leading to lack of solar access
and reduction of lighting and ventilation into the
buildings
-The latticed wooden window
allowed sunlight and 100 %
natural ventilation into the rooms.
-The urban fabric and street
network were oriented in such a
way that it allowed maximum
sunlight in the buildings, streets
and community spaces.
-Authorized institution not been
successful in proper implementation of
byelaws regarding daylighting
-Urban design guidelines should be
formulated
-In the historic core areas, the allowable
building height should be checked
143
Scale Biophilic
Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu
Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-
consciousness
Biophilia
feasibility
New Ideas
Blocks Green
Courtyards - According to Beately, courtyards could
also be converted into green oasis. Such
courtyard can be called green courtyards.
-Courtyards are stone or brick paved with no green
spaces as they used to be in the ancient times
-The haphazard urban transformation has led to the
penetration of business activities inside the
courtyards converting them into parking lots,
stranger's gathering places and garbage dumping
sites
-Traces of initiation of greening courtyards with
flower pots can be seen in some residential
neighborhoods.
-Small parks with flowers and trees are also found
in some large courtyards such as Nag Bahal in
Patan.
-The gray urban landscape with
expanses of paved streets,
square and courtyards
-The courtyards as a community
space
-It also created their own
microclimate giving the much
needed direct and indirect heat
gain from the sun and protect
from cool breeze from outside
in cold winter
-Stone or brick paved hard
surfaces as thermal mass
contributed in maximizing the
direct solar radiation received
-Courtyards are only possible places for
bringing greenery into the grey
landscaped of historic core areas
-Conversely, the urban design culture
of profusely using brick and stone
pavement in the courtyards might not
allow such dramatic transformation
-Survey showed that the people living
around courtyards in the traditional
settlement were aware of the
importance of having green spaces in
built environment and also desires to
have them in their surroundings.
-From the survey, it was found that
courtyards can be made greener with
movable flower pots without affecting
the paved surfaces
Clustered
Housing
around
green areas
-Group of housing developed around
shared green spaces. -Patches of agricultural land form the green spaces
in between the new unplanned settlement areas
within the core areas and in the periphery of the
valley
-Not all the pockets of planned areas of the city
developed though land pooling, sites and services
and comprehensive housing schemes are provided
with sufficient green spaces
-Traditional urban houses were
also planned with a backyard
kitchen garden or 'Keva'
-Gardens were used for planting
flowers and fruits that would be
necessary for carrying out
religious activities
-The only green spaces in
between the grey landscaped
traditional towns were only for
private purposes
-No legal apparatus for regulating the
master plan layout of new planned
residential development at present
except for the existing building byelaws
-For integration of green spaces into
city planning, the five tiers of
government responsible for land and
urban development should ensure that
every new planned development have
allocated enough open spaces for
greeneries.
Native
species
yards and
spaces
-Areas separated for native plants and
animals -Bagmati river corridors of the Kathmandu valley
are covered with patches of forest and grassland
areas
-It is the richest site and habitat for winter birds
-The only best example of bio-diversity
conservation of river is the Bagmati River Nature
-There were no such native
species yards and spaces within
the settlement areas.
-Construction of trail for bird watching
area along the bank is going to be
constructed under Bagmati Action Plan
-BAP will Plant and protect indigenous
plant species along the river.
144
Scale Biophilic
Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-consciousness
Biophilia feasibility
New Ideas
Streets Green streets -Emphasizes on enhancing pedestrian
circulation and open spaces through
various design and operational
treatments such as landscaping, sidewalk
widening, traffic calming and other
pedestrian-oriented features, rather than
on transportation uses are
-All of these different kinds of streets of
Kathmandu are not pedestrian friendly for ordinary
and physically disabled people
-Pedestrian environment in the streets of
Kathmandu is congested, chaotic and lacks
pedestrian oriented features and amenities such as
greenery, lamp posts, pedestrian sign boards,
crossing mark etc.
-Street landscaping are found to be done only by
planting trees on the sides of the main roads while
the inner narrow roads do not have space for trees.
-The networks of narrow non-
axial streets developed during
Malla period were traditionally
designed for pedestrian
movement.
-The 4 to 6 meters width streets
were paved with brick or stones
and no green features were
found in the streets and
squares.
-The main reason behind awful pedestrian
environment in the streets is the absence of
planned guidelines and policies for designing
pedestrian space in Kathmandu
-The Nepal Road Standard just specifies the
required width of footpaths but does not
provide any street-design standards and
guidelines
-For turning the streets of Kathmandu into
green streets, first of all the government
should strictly enforce traffic management
guidelines
-Street landscaping must also be given prime
importance
Side walk
garden
-Thriving garden created in streets by
replacing the concrete sidewalks
-Sidewalk garden not only contribute
towards beautifying streets and
neighborhoods but are greatly beneficial
for capturing stormwater and reducing
burden on sewer system
-Practice of creating small gardens in front the
ground floor shops, banks etc. were observed only
in some main streets of Kathmandu during the field
visit.
-Side walk gardens mostly seen in front of
commercial complex, banks, luxury shops and
boutiques in some major streets of the city such as
Kupandole, Pulchowk, New road, etc.
-There were no such practices
in old towns.
-Even on the streets with narrow sidewalks
of Kathmandu, the building frontage zone or
the "transitional space" between the
sidewalks or front of the street and the
ground floor shops could be used for
creating side walk gardens.
- Some people are already practicing it. But,
are not taken as a means for capturing storm
water -
The wider group of people should be made
aware of practicing sidewalk garden and
guided with appropriate ways of constructing
it.
Urban trees Urban trees refers to trees in and around
towns and cities.(Here, specifically is
being referred as trees in street)
-Roadside tree plantation, a common practice of
greening streets from the olden days.
-Trees in the streets have been considerably
contributing towards for increasing the number of
urban trees in the valley.
-The valley lost a large number of trees in the
recent road expansion drive. Although new tree
plantation programs have been carried by GOs and
NGOs in various roads widened areas, not all the
sidewalks of the newly constructed road are wide
enough space for growing trees
-The streets and squares were
paved with no greeneries or
trees.
-Also, except in the 'divine
domain' or outer circle', there
were no provision of planting
trees (Poudel, 2010)
-The kitchen gardens at the
backyard of houses were the
only areas were tree were
planted (Tiwari, 2013).
-With absence of enough public open spaces,
parks and green hubs, streets are only the
suitable public spaces for planting trees in a
densely urbanized valley.
-With active tree plantation programs carried
out by various GOs and NGOs recently,
there is a hope that the number of urban trees
are likely to increase in Kathmandu,
145
Low-impact development
-Method of controlling and treating storm-water runoff at the source with the
goal of preserving the pre-development
hydrology of the site
-The LID techniques could be used to
address stormwater in streets, alleys and
yards
-The technique helps to enhance ground
water quality, reduce impact in
vegetation, soil and aquatic system and
reduce pollution in the receiving
streams.
-Some various LID techniques are bio-
retention or rain gardens, bio-swales,
rain garden, permeable pavements etc.
-The only LID technique that is being practiced is rainwater harvesting.
-Since last 8-9 years, rainwater harvesting has been
a popular practice in the city mainly to meet water
needs. Such practices have not only helped to
utilize collected rain water for domestic purposes,
but also have reduced burden on the sewerage
systems.
-Besides, some people have also started to channel
the rooftop water through pipes into a pit for
ground water recharge, thus preventing the storm
water load on the city sewerage. However, in dense
areas care should be taken so that the collected
water is not contaminated.
-Traditional towns were built on high ground which
automatically solve the
drainage problem
-Further, there existed a buffer
zone of agricultural land
between the settlement and
rivers and the waste water
flowing out of the town were
used for irrigating of the
agricultural land.
-As well, ponds in the towns
helped in catchment of water
that would have flown down the
hill slopes as surface drainage.
-To address the current severe drainage problem in Kathmandu, LID methods like
rain gardens, bioswales etc. could be
encouraged in the city.
-LID techniques could be applied in the
parking lots and in many parts of the city
that are not served by any sewer system and
often get waterlogged during rainy season to
manage stormwater.
-Local people could also be encouraged to
practice LID method in their individual
residences by providing them trainings or
experts to guide them or provide services to
them.
-New creative ways of managing storm
water merging the traditional natural ways
and modern technologies
Vegetated
Swales and
skinny
streets
-Vegetated swale are gently sloped
open-channels with dense vegetation
used to convey stormwater runoff
-Swales can be easily designed and
incorporated into a site drainage plan. ---
They are attractive and cost effective but
requires periodic maintenance
-Skinny streets are streets with narrow
width that are more that maintains a
comfortable human scale for
pedestrians.
-The vegetated swales techniques are not been
found to be practiced in Kathmandu till date.
-Unlike the wide main streets, all the other inner
roads in the planned and haphazardly developed
areas have a narrow width and often with no space
for side parking and sidewalks.
-The networks of non-axial
streets developed during Malla
period were narrow with only 4
to 6 meters width as they were
traditionally designed for
pedestrian movement.
-Vegetated swales could be used for
managing storm water in areas where
periodic maintenance service could be
available such as individual residence, streets
of private housing developments,
commercial and industrial parking lots etc.
-In the context of Kathmandu, the narrow
inner roads (9-24 meters wide)could be
considered as skinny roads. Still,
consideration should be given to make these
roads more pedestrian friendly.
Edible
landscaping
-Edible landscaping is the planting of
food plants integrating within a
decorative setting.
- However, all the plants do not have to
be edible
-Edible landscaping is found to be practiced mainly
in rooftops and back yards in Kathmandu.
-New proposal have also been made by
Environment Management Division of Kathmandu
Metropolitan City to construct new green traffic
islands in different part of the city that will bushes,
flowers and seasonal fruits
-The back yard kitchen garden
were used to plant fruit trees,
vegetable and flowers .
-The gardens were used for
planting flowers and fruits that
would be necessary for carrying
out religious activities.
-Being practiced at private gradens and
proposed in new traffic islands
-Edible landscaping could also be proposed
in street medians and green belts of new road
construction. -
Plantation of fruit trees could be encouraged
in the streets and sidewalk gardens.
High degree
of
permeability
-Permeable pavement infiltrates
stormwater through the surface, reducing
run off.
-Some various types of permeable
pavements are Concrete blocks or Grids
(with open voids for infiltration), Plastic
Grids, Pervious Asphalts, Pervious
Concrete
-Roads are mainly paved either with asphalt or
concrete as per the requirement for urban roads of
Nepal.
-The roads in historic core area are paved with
either stone, bricks or asphalt.
-The sidewalks are often paved with concrete,
interlocking concrete block, stones, bricks etc. But,
the sidewalks of the newly constructed roads are
only paved with interlocking concrete block
without sealing joints.
-Streets, courtyards and squares
of the traditional settlements
used to be paved with bricks
and stones.
-Could be practiced
-Use of permeable pavements such as
concrete blocks or Grids (with open voids
for infiltration), would help to reduce storm
water run-off in the sidewalks and inner
streets.
146 Scale Biophilic
Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-consciousness
Biophilia feasibility
New Ideas
Neighbour-
hood
Stream
daylighting,
stream
restoration
-The process of reversing
environmental degradation and re-
establishing streams in natural ways
-Because of the wide range of actions going on
in the Bagmati river, it is facing a number of
ecological and environmental challenges
- Currently, the Bagmati river and its tributaries
are undergoing conservation and restoration.
under the Bagmati Action Plan.
-The river was clean and pristine
in the past.
-The waste water running down
from the settlements irrigated
the buffer strip of agricultural
land before reaching the river
and the vegetable waste matters
were decomposed for manure
within the town in a place called
Sagah
-Religious norms and values
guided the protection of the
river rather than environmental
standards
- Local management customs
like Sitthi Nakaha encouraged
cleaning of the river
-Undergoing restoration and conservation
of the river under BAP is expected to be
completed by 2015
-Still, many experts believe that massive
budget, short-term visual improvements and
lofty goals, the BAP might be a failure
-Biggest obstacle is the proper management
of waste water and solid waste
-For improving the river's quality, efforts
and supports are required from local level
-Preservation of the unique culture by
raising awareness at local, national and
international level, could be effective for
conservation and restoration of the river
-A good beginning would be building on
the local management customs like Sitthi
Nakaha and Chhath Parba
Urban forest -Collection of trees, pockets of woody
vegetation and forests found within
urban areas forming an important part
of the urban landscape and a place for
recreation
-At the neighborhood level, urban forestry
activities are mostly seen to be carried out in
roadside, river banks and parks.
-Patches of urban forests are also found in
government institutions, universities, schools,
religious sites etc.
-Even though urban forests provide multiple
benefits to the society, they are often neglected
and poorly understood in the cities of Nepal
-The limitations in the design of
the settlements of traditional
towns prevented thick groves
from popping up within the
towns
-Except in the 'divine domain' or
outer circle', there were no
provision of planting trees
-Concept of urban forestry is still infancy in
Nepal unlike in developed countries.
-A study on urban forestry conducted by
Gurung (2009) in Kathmandu, concluded
that even if the understanding of the
benefits of urban forestry is slowing gaining
awareness, it yet needs to be integrated into
the design, planning and management of
urban landscape in Nepal
-Compared to the other forest regimes in
Nepal such as community forestry, private
forestry, leasehold forestry and protected
areas, the urban forest is the least
researched aspect, despites of their
extensive range of environmental, social
and economic benefits
-New plans and policies should be
implemented for promoting urban forests,
for their conservation and management and
for developing urban forestry as a part of
urban infrastructure in the urban areas of
Nepal.
Ecology Parks Parks that protect the ecosystem in
which it develops and also serve as a
recreational space for public
-Godavari Botanical Garden is the only
ecological park in Kathmandu.
-Established with the main objective to maintain
and collect the indigenous and exotic plants and
impart conservation education
-Also serves as a recreation spot for naturalist.
-There were no ecology parks in
ancient days.
-Only one ecology park in Kathmandu but
this park also lies in the outskirt of the city.
-More of such parks should be developed in
the city as it will not only conserve
biodiversity but also helps to impart
valuable knowledge about different species
of flora and fauna.
Community
gardens
-A public land in terms of access,
ownership and degree of democratic
control, used by a group of people
-Found in universities, government offices,
embassies, banks of rivers etc.
-Not so popular in Kathmandu.
-The traditional towns were
surrounded by agricultural land.
-Within the towns, houses were
-No actions has been taken for promoting
urban agriculture in the form of community
gardening and kitchen gardening.
147
collectively for gardening -Community garden not only provide
fresh fruits and vegetables but also
contribute in building sense of
community improving neighborhood
and connecting people to environment
-Might be due to the presence of vast swathes of agricultural land within the valley and
involvement of significant number of people of
the valley in agriculture for economy. Also,
there is a tradition of practicing kitchen
gardening (Karesabari) in Nepal.
planned with backyard kitchen garden or 'Keva' where they
planted fruit trees, vegetable and
flowers
-Community gardening and kitchen gardening should be promoted in the city as
such practices will help in providing food
security, in managing wastes through,
improving environment, connecting people
with environment etc.
Neighborhood
parks and
pocket parks
-Open spaces ranging from 100 square
meters to 2 meters with greenscape,
park benches children's playground,
jogging track some exercise equipment,
jogging track etc. in a neighborhood.
-They serve as a place for recreation
and social gathering.
-Pocket parks are a type of
neighborhood parks.
- Although they are small in area, they
contribute in satisfying people's
everyday need for contact with nature
-Neighborhood parks are fewer in number,
smaller in area, and are often overcrowded with
visitors. Except for a few parks where an entry
fee is charged, the rest are not in good condition
due to a lack of budget for maintenance and
overutilization by the growing population of the
valley.
-There are smaller parks (pocket parks) in the
form of traffic islands, open spaces, and public
gardens. Such parks are mostly maintained by
local clubs and communities but are either non-
existent or do not serve the purposes of the vast
population living in the core area
-New parks are also being constructed in a part
of the large preserved areas of temples, stupas
and holy ponds, for instance, Buddha Park in
Swayambhu .
-Religious sites also have contributed to
preserving a considerable amount of nature and
green spaces within the valley and have also
been a place for recreation and social gathering.
-Within the settlements of the
ancient towns, there were not
any parks or public green
spaces.
-The courtyards, temple square,
ponds etc. served as a place for
recreation, social gathering and
play area for children
-The dense town had a no-
greenery inside situation due to
its location on fallow ridges. But
as the town grew in size, this
was not acceptable and hence
towns provided lung of space
through several khyos (large
chunk of open green space)
within the perimeter of the
town.
-Need more neighborhood/pocket parks.
-The few public spaces found in some
neighborhoods could be converted into
parks with joint effort of the government
and communities. Some examples of such
parks is Park in Gyaneshwor.
-The government should encourage more
other interested communities or local clubs
to build new parks in the possible areas of
their locality. Such parks are likely to be
more maintained with community's effort.
-Parks built near stupas, temples, holy
ponds etc. have been valuable in preserving
green spaces, serving as a place for
recreation and social gathering and are in
good condition than the other neighborhood
parks as religious belief of the people
refrain them from throwing dirt there. For
instance, Buddha Park in Swayambhu - New parks are also being constructed in
Pashupatinath complex and proposed
around some ponds like Kamal Pokhari.
-Still, government could give more
emphasis in creating more parks in the
preserved areas around cultural, traditional
and religious sites ,that are the only
remaining public spaces in the midst of the
increasing urbanized landscape of the
valley.
-Religious
sites could
be new
biophilic
strategy for
Kathmandu
-As they
have been
preserving
green
spaces and
biodiversity
within the
valley.
(See
Survey
results-
Chapter 3-
pg....)
Greening
grayfields and
brownfields
-Enliving grayfields and brownfields by
planting trees and vegetation
-There are only few grayfield and brownfields
in Kathmandu.
-Some examples are Himal Cement Factory in
Chovar and Brighter Toothpaste Factory in
Thimi
-No such fields in the past -Although the grayfields and brownfields of
Kathmandu donot have large paved parking
lots, still they could be used as community
gardens or can be converted into public
parks, ecology parks, native species yards.
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Scale Biophilic Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-consciousness
Biophilia feasibility
New Ideas
Community Urban creeks and riparian areas
-Urban creeks are streams smaller than river flowing through urban areas -Riparian areas are areas between land and flowing waters such as streams, wetlands, lakes, shorelines etc. - In urban areas, protection of creeks and riparian vegetation is important for conserving native species biodiversity
-Riparian areas are found to be used for socio-economic and infrastructural purposes - In sub-urban areas, riparian areas are being occupied by small scale industries for different purposes such as small workshops -Condition of riparian areas gets worst in core areas being encroached permanently by public buildings, residences, squatters, roads etc
-Riparian areas within the valley were mostly used for agricultural lands -Some parts of the riparian areas traditionally consisted of temple complexes and stone stepped Ghat for cremation and ritual bathing
-Bagmati Action Plan aims to prepare and implement landscape plan of riparian areas for maintaining green corridor and conserving aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity in the five different zones of Bagmati -It is also planning to control and relocate squatter settlement
Urban ecological networks
-Systems of interconnected nature reserves that connect built-up areas of the city with surrounding natural areas and green spaces, ecologically, physically and visually -Provide opportunity for connectivity, wildlife movement and connectivity in fragmented urban landscape
-There are no ecological networks within the Kathmandu valley
-There were not any ecological networks.
-Banks of Bagmati is a potential area for developing ecological network. -A number of government and private organizations have shown interest to carryout plantation, develop parks in river side areas. So, there is a hope to see green corridor along Bagmati in near future.
Green schools
-Energy efficient, healthy and environmentally friendly school
-No green schools in Kathmandu, Number of NGOS conducting environment education programs and activities in schools.
-No green schools in the past -Government should encourage schools to provide practical environment education.
City tree Canopy
-City tree canopy refers to the percent
of tree coverage in a city, as seen in an
aerial view
-No data exists about city tree canopy -4.56% covered by plantation in the city -19.43 % covered by forests in the whole valley
-Very few area of the town was covered with trees
- Future studies could be done to find out the percent of city covered by trees.
Community forest and community orchards
-Collection of all vegetation, green spaces and trees growing within communities of urban or suburban areas are known as Community forest. -Community orchard is a collection of fruit trees grown within communities of urban or suburban areas. -Community orchards are places for people to come together to plant varieties of fruit trees, to hold festivals, picnics etc. and to learn and exchange knowledge.
-A number of patches of religious forests stand as a vegetated island within the valley. - They are important repositories for religion and culture and have survived till date because of the religious belief of the people. -Religious forests can be considered as community forests as they are managed either by religious body, indigenous group, community or by the joint effort of religious bodies and communities -Community or religious body is allowed to utilize the forest products for religious purpose but not for any commercial purpose. -The concept of creating community orchard is not yet seen in Kathmandu.
-Forests around the towns protected and managed under the power and responsibility of the local communities, through unwritten laws and rules (indigenous system) -Ancient rulers and communities were always encouraged to establish, protect, and conserve forests surrounding a religious site due to the deeply rooted religious and cultural values and associated taboos related to Hindu and Buddha religions -There were no such community orchards in old towns.
-The indigenous way of managing and conserving forests by communities have always been successful in Nepal from the olden days.So, the government has recognized, community forests and religious forests and their participatory management as priority areas for contemporary forest management. -Government can encourage communities to set up community orchards in possible lands such as on university and school grounds, hospital grounds, government offices, army and police barracks, housing colonies, industries, monasteries, along the bank of river, edges of forests, etc.
- Religious forest incline cities people to be more biophilic, helps to make cities greener maintaining biodiversity -So, it can be a new strategy of Biophilic cities in Eastern World.
Greening utility corridors
-Using utility corridors for plantation (e.g. planting vegetables) is known as greening utility corridors
-There are no separate utility corridors in Kathmandu.
-There were no such utility corridors in olden days
-It is not applicable in Kathmandu as there are no such separate utility corridors in Kathmandu.
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Scale Biophilic
Strategies
(Western)
Functions Contemporary Kathmandu
Current practices (non-Western)
Vernacular Unself-
consciousness Biophilia feasibility
New Ideas
Regions River systems
and
floodplains
-Systems of connected river channels
are known as river system.
-The low or flat land areas that are
adjacent to rivers and streams that are
periodically flooded are known as
floodplains
-Flood plains forms complex biological
and physical system that supports
variety of natural resources
-These areas percolate water back into
the ground and thus contribute in
replenishing groundwater
-Bagmati river systems is comprised of seven
tributaries and five sub-tributaries.
-Unplanned urbanization has accelerated
environmental degradation of the river system
-Some major issues are the decrease in water
discharge and degradation of river ecosystem
-Flood plains are being used for settlements,
sand mining, disposal of solid wastes, road
construction etc.
-Because of highly polluted water and changes
in land use of flood plains, terrestrial and
aquatic biodiversity is decreasing
-Back in the days, river systems
were clean and healthy, and
floodplains were mostly used for
agriculture
-BAP is under action to clean, green and
enliven the river.
-For restoration and conservation of the
river system, BAP introduced a concept
of zonation inorder to address the key
issues more effectively from micro level.
-For restoring floodplains,BAP aims to
relocate qualified squatters from river
banks and control further encroachment
,construct chain-link fences for
preventing disposal of solid wastes in the
river and its banks, create parks etc.
Riparian
systems
-The areas between land and flowing
waters such as streams, wetlands, lakes,
shorelines etc. are known as riparian
areas. -
Riparian systems have range of
functioning systems that provide habitat
for wildlife, physical filtering of water,
recharge underground aquifers, bank
stability, water storage, etc.
-Condition of riparian areas of Bagmati varies:
-Zone-1: covered with forests.
-Zone-2: mostly covered with agricultural land
and other encroached. Loss of riparian
vegetation due to changes in land use
-Zone-3: partly covered with agricultural land
and others encroached. Riparian vegetations
degrading due to changes in land use, thus
depleting aquatic diversity and water quality
-Zone-4: mostly encroached by squatters and
others. Riparian vegetation degrading and water
quality and aquatic diversity depleting.
-Zone-5: covered with agricultural land
-Riparian areas within the valley
were mostly used for agricultural
lands in the olden days
- Some parts of the riparian areas
traditionally consisted of temple
complexes and stone stepped
Ghat for cremation and ritual
bathing
-BAP aims to prepare and implement
landscape plan of riparian areas for
maintaining green corridor and
conserving aquatic and terrestrial
biodiversity in the five different zones of
Bagmati.
- It is also planning to control and
relocate squatter settlement from the
river banks
Regional
green space
systems
-Large interconnected green systems
preserved and restored at regional,
bioregional or metropolitan levels
-Regional green space systems serve
many functions such as habitat
conservation, carbon sequestration,
water quality protection, urban heat
island effect, climate modification,
recreational benefits, etc.
-Agricultural land and forests form the regional
greening system.
-Agriculture land covers half portions of the
valley (54% in 2000)
-Agricultural land decreased by one third from
1980 to 2000 and if the trend continues it will
be gone by 2050
-Forests covers 19.43 % of total valley area and
are under protected status of some kind.
-Compact towns with boundary
demarcated by pith, maximized
the land suitable for agriculture.
-Culture protected agricultural
field fromm encroachment
-Within valley floor patches of
sacred forest existed and the
surrounding hills were covered
with forest.
-Government trying to preserve
agricultural land, through Kathmandu
Valley 2020 plan
-Forests managed under formal
conservation laws followed by well-
developed policies and institution.
-Forest decline by 40% in latter half of
the 20th C. and there is a need of proper
enforcement of conservation laws
Greening
major
transport
corridors
-Providing greeneries and green belts
along the transport corridors
-When stretch of Araniko Highway constructed,
hundreds of trees were cut down and now given
to plant trees along the highway sides
-Stretch of Ring Road under construction.
Green belt of Ring Road were cut down for the
reconstruction and the new eight-lane Ring road
will have trees planted on both the sides of the
road in areas spanning 5 meters width
-Various settlements were
interlinked with pedestrian and
wheeled traffic path.
-There was a practice of planting
trees alongside these paths and
whoever would cut those
raodside (sadaks) trees were sent
to prison.
-Efforts for tree plantation along roadside
have only been given in the newly re-
constructed highways -
Roadside tree plantation should also be
encouraged in the existing highways of
Kathmandu.
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Chapter 5
Conclusion
The following research questions were presented at the beginning of the thesis: “What
aspects of biophilic city design principles and strategies can be applied in the city of
Kathmandu?” and "What new knowledge can be gained studying biophilic city design in a non-
Western context?"
The first part of the conclusion summarizes the some recommendations developed in
Chapter 4 for incorporating nature in Kathmandu; the second part imparts some new knowledge
to biophilic city design theory.
5.1 Recommendations for Biophilic City Design Strategies in Kathmandu
With an escalating population, rapid urban growth, haphazard development, and a lack of
proper planning, Kathmandu faces serious environmental problems. As an attempt to address the
city's degrading urban nature, this applied research project has generated some recommendations
for integrating, restoring, and returning nature to the city's urban environment by completing a
feasibility assessment of biophilic urban design strategies. The feasibility assessment examined
each Western biophilic city design strategy across scales (from buildings to region) in order to
determine what aspects of the biophilic city design principles or strategies can be feasible,
applicable, and appropriate in Kathmandu. Some recommendations for Kathmandu across scales,
from building to region, are as follows:
151
1. Buildings
Sky Gardens
The new "one house two trees" policy should also apply to other buildings generally
employed for commercial purposes. Implemented by the KMC, the "one house two trees" policy
has made it mandatory to arrange a plantation of two trees when planning a new house to be built
and in possible areas for existing buildings or to plant at least five flower posts on the verandah.
But, currently this policy only applies to residential buildings but not to other buildings that have
been or will be converted into other purposes such as commercial complexes, schools, and health
centers.
Green Facades
The practice of green facades should be encouraged when greening people's immediate
interior and exterior surroundings, such as when greening inner-narrow vehicular roads. As green
facades are cheap, can be easily created and adopted, and also traces of them are already found in
Kathmandu, efforts should be made to make people aware of the social, economic and
environmental benefits of green facades and the various ways or techniques of constructing them.
Daylight Interior Spaces
In order to ensure proper lighting and ventilation into buildings, urban design guidelines
should be formulated for controlling the haphazard construction of buildings with no
consideration given to the surrounding built environment. The current bylaws do not take into
consideration the built environment, the interrelation between the buildings, and the impact of a
building to its surroundings (Shrestha Joshi, 2007). Additionally, in the historic core areas
(Mixed-Old Settlement Sub-Zone), the allowable building height should be checked for proper
solar access, lighting, and ventilation in the buildings.
152
2. Blocks
Green Courtyards
Similar to the "one house two trees” policy recently implemented by the KMC, the
government should enforce policies like "one courtyard 10-15 flower pots” in order to green the
courtyards of the historic core areas. It was discovered from the field observation and survey
interview that some initiation of greening courtyards has already been taking place in the
courtyards; and that the people respect their urban design culture of using brick and stone
pavement in the courtyards. Due to this traditional design, plantation should be done in pots or
container that can easily be moved during feasts and while carrying out other social, cultural, and
religious activities.
Clustered Housing around Green Areas
For integrating green spaces into city planning, the government responsible for land and
urban development should strictly ensure that every new planned development such as land
pooling, sites and services, and comprehensive housing schemes have implemented the required
open green spaces policies.
3. Streets
Green Streets
Design guidelines should be formulated for creating pedestrian friendly streets in
Kathmandu with an emphasis on street landscaping as well. The Nepal Road Standard specifies
the required width of footpaths but does not provide any street design standards and guidelines
that would be helpful for enhancing the street definition (Shrestha B. K., 2011). In addition, the
153
majority of the population prefers to walk, as less than 10% of the population owns private
vehicles (Shrestha B. K., 2011).
Sidewalk Gardens
A larger number of people can be encouraged to practice sidewalk gardens in streets.
Sidewalk gardens could be created in building frontage zones, utilizing the "transitional space"
between sidewalks or the front of the street and ground floor shops, which are usually in the form
of continuous steps and landings. People can also be guided with the appropriate ways of
constructing a sidewalk garden, such as utilizing a sidewalk garden as a means for capturing
storm water.
Low Impact Development
The government should encourage using LID techniques to manage storm water at its
source in the new public parking lots that are on the rise lately in a city with an increasing trend
of owning private vehicles. Also, such practices can also be encouraged in individual residences
by providing training or experts for guidance or providing services.
Vegetated Swales and Skinny Streets
The government can promote using vegetated swales for managing storm water in areas
where periodic maintenance service could be available, such as individual residences, streets of
private housing developments, and commercial and industrial parking lots.
Edible Landscaping
Edible landscaping can be proposed in street medians and green belts being built in some
new road construction. It should also be encouraged in sidewalk gardens.
154
High Degree of Permeability
The government can employ permeable pavements such as concrete blocks or grids (with
open voids for infiltration) for paving sidewalks to reduce storm water run-off in sidewalks and
inner streets. Residents can also be encouraged to use permeable pavements for paving their
individual building compounds.
4. Neighborhoods
Urban forests
New plans and policies should be implemented in order to promote urban forests for their
conservation and management and for developing urban forestry as a part of the urban
infrastructure in the urban areas of Nepal. Compared to the other forest regimes in Nepal such as
community forestry, private forestry, leasehold forestry, and protected areas, the urban forest is
the least researched aspect despite their extensive range of environmental, social, and economic
benefits (Gurung, Karki, Bista, & Sang-Eun, 2011).
Ecology Parks
More ecology parks can be developed in the city, as such parks will not only conserve
biodiversity but also help to impart valuable knowledge about different species of flora and fauna.
There is only one ecology park in Kathmandu, but this park also lies in the outskirts of the city.
Community Gardens
The government can provide public lands, such as the banks of the Bagmati, for setting
up community gardens for interested communities. Currently, community gardening is not very
popular in Kathmandu, but could be promoted in ways similar to how rooftop gardening is now
being promoted in the city with the aim of promoting greenery and food security.
155
Neighborhood Parks and Pocket Parks
There are few parks in the city which are also not in good condition mainly due to the
government's lack of a budget for maintenance and reckless actions of the visitors, such as
throwing litter, plucking flowers, and destroying plants. Parks created with the community's effort
are likely to be more maintained, as in most cases the communities take responsibility for
maintenance. There are many instances of the creation of new parks with the support from
community dwellers as well as with the assistance of various agencies and departments of
Nepal’s government. Some examples of such parks are the park in Nag Bahal in Patan and the
park in Gyaneshwor. Therefore, the government should encourage additional communities or
local clubs to build new parks in possible public spaces found in their own neighborhood.
On the other hand, parks or green spaces built in and around stupas, temples, monasteries
and holy ponds have been valuable in preserving greeneries and serving as a place for recreation
and social gatherings. Such parks and green spaces are in good condition, as the religious and
cultural beliefs of the people refrain them from throwing dirt, plucking flowers, or destroying
plants. Furthermore, it was found from the survey questionnaire conducted in Kathmandu that
religious sites are the only immediate green spaces. Participants perceive religious places also as
parks and visit them not only for religious purposes but also for green relief and physical and
leisure activities. Hence, religious sites provide inhabitants with the opportunity to spend time
outside and in close proximity to nature within the city. Yet, not all religious sites in Kathmandu
have green spaces. It was discovered from the survey that people expect to see greenery in and
around every religious site so that the site will serve both functions of worship and recreation.
Some initiation of greening has already been observed in some public spaces and squares around
temples, which traditionally used to be paved, in the historic core. Therefore, the government
should also emphasize creating more parks or green spaces in other religious sites, which are the
only remaining public spaces in the midst of the city.
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The parks or green spaces in and around religious sites are better maintained, which is
mainly due to the spiritual reverence people have for the site. People do not throw litter, pluck
flowers, or destroy plants in parks or green spaces of religious sites, which is a common
phenomenon in Kathmandu’s parks. Therefore, future research could be carried to study how
such cultural and religious aspects have worked in maintaining religious sites and how these can
be applied to the city’s other parks so that people will also value parks.
Greening Gray Fields and Brown Fields
Kathmandu’s grayfields and brownfields, can potentially be used as community gardens
or converted into parks, ecology parks, or native species yards.
5. Community
Green Schools
As schools are the best platforms for imparting knowledge about the importance of nature
to the country’s upcoming youth, the government should encourage schools to provide practical
environmental education.
Community Forests and Community Orchards
The government should encourage communities to set up community forests and
orchards on land in the valley, such as on university and school grounds, hospital grounds,
government offices, army and police barracks, housing colonies, industries, monasteries, along
the bank of river, the edges of forests, and alongside paths.
157
6. Region
Greening Major Transport Corridors
Roadside tree plantation should also be encouraged for the existing highways as efforts
for tree plantation along roadsides have only been given in the newly reconstructed highways in
Kathmandu.
5.2 New Knowledge to Biophilic City Design Theory
This thesis has addressed two larger underdeveloped issues in biophilic city design
theory: non-Western approaches and the spiritual aspects of biophilia within biophilic city design
theory. From this applied research project, a case study of Kathmandu, I have developed two new
aspects that could contribute to broadening biophilic city design theory. The first is additional
biophilic urban design strategies for non-Western contexts, and the other is the importance of the
spiritual aspects of biophilia for assessing the biophilic qualities of cities.
5.2.1 Non-Western Biophilic Urban Design Strategies
In studying biophilia in Kathmandu, a non-Western context, the thesis has identified
some new strategies being practiced in Kathmandu not included in Beatley's biophilic urban
design strategies list. In addition to these strategies, it was found from the feasibility analysis that
some strategies were being practiced in the city, some could be applicable in future, and some
needed modification. Thus, from this analysis, this thesis has put forward a reviewed list of
biophilic urban design strategies that would be appropriate for non-Western cities. Table 5-1
shows the new list.
158
Table 5-1 Biophilic urban design strategies for non-Western cities
Scales Strategies being
practiced
Strategies applicable
in future
New identified
Strategies
List of Strategies for
non-Western cities
Building Green rooftops Green rooftops
Sky gardens and green atria
Sky gardens and green atria
Rooftop garden Rooftop garden
Green Facades Green Facades
Daylit interior spaces Daylit interior spaces
Blocks Green courtyards Green courtyards
Clustered housing around green areas
Clustered housing around green areas
Native species yards
and spaces
Native species yards and
spaces
Street Green streets Green streets
Sidewalk garden Sidewalk garden
Urban trees Urban trees Low impact
development (LID)
Low impact development
(LID)
Vegetated swales and
skinny streets
Vegetated swales and
skinny streets Edible landscaping Edible landscaping
High degree of
permeability
High degree of
permeability
Neighborhood Stream daylighting,
stream restoration
Stream daylighting,
stream restoration
Urban forests Urban forests Ecology parks Ecology parks
Community gardens Community gardens
Neighborhood parks/
pockets parks
Neighborhood parks/
pockets parks Religious Sites Religious Sites
Greening grayfields
and brownfields
Greening grayfields and
brownfields
Community Urban creeks and
riparian areas
Urban creeks and riparian
areas
Urban ecological networks
Urban ecological networks
Green schools Green schools
City tree canopy City tree canopy
Community forest Community orchards Community forest/ community orchards
Religious
Forests
Religious Forests
Greening utility corridors
Greening utility corridors
Region River systems/ floodplains
River systems/ floodplains
Riparian systems Riparian systems
Regional greenspace
systems
Regional greenspace
systems Greening major
transport corridors
Greening major transport
corridors
159
In Kathmandu, it was found that religious forests and religious sites have been
contributing to conserving nature within the city. Within the city, there are 12 religious forests,
although the number is greater when the whole valley is considered. Additionally, Kathmandu
has an immense number of religious structures and sites, which has also made it known as the city
of temples.
As the remnants of the forest that once dominated the valley, the centuries-old religious
forests are the only natural vegetation left within the valley (Devkota, 2013). Patches of forest are
traditionally conserved around religious sites in the name of gods, goddesses, and religious
beliefs, and the removal of even a twig from the forest is considered taboo. If it was not for such
religious beliefs, then these groves would not have been standing as vegetative islands today in
the midst of the valley’s intensively used urban landscape. Such forests are managed either by
religious bodies, indigenous groups, communities, or by the joint effort of religious bodies and
communities, which are allowed to utilize the forest’s products for religious purposes but not for
any commercial purposes (Wagle & Ojha, 2002)
Kathmandu was quoted by a poet as, "There as nearly as many temples as houses, as
many idols as inhabitant" (Kirkpatrick, 1969). The various kinds of religious sites found in the
city are temples, shrines, stupas, and historical ponds. Large preserved areas around religious
sites are the only remaining public spaces in the midst of the valley’s increasingly urbanized
landscape. Most of these religious sites hold trees, flowering plants, green spaces, parks, and
forests in and around their precinct.
Furthermore, the survey questionnaire carried out in Kathmandu also revealed that the
city’s residents prefer religious sites and forests for green relief than parks. The survey showed
that religious sites and forests are the only immediate public green spaces in the majority of the
participants’ neighborhoods, and participants perceive such religious sites and forests as parks
and visit them not only for religious purposes but also for green relief and physical and leisure
160
activities. Additionally, participants commented that religious sites and forests were better
maintained compared to city parks. Hence, although Kathmandu’s city planners have not been
successful in providing parks and public green spaces in every urban neighborhood, the number
of religious forests and sites spread throughout the city has been beneficial in conserving patches
of green spaces within the city.
5.2.2 Moralistic (Spiritual) Aspects of Biophilia for Assessing the Biophilic Qualities
of Cities
Kellert (1993) emphasized that moralistic affinity for nature imbued with spiritual
reverence in humans could also produce the desire to conserve and protect nature. But this
spiritual aspect of biophilia has been not been considered as an indicator for assessing biophilic
quality of a city (See Table 2-3). From the study of biophilia in Kathmandu, it was revealed that
the religious beliefs of residents have contributed to conserving trees and natural spaces within
the city, instilling in them a biophilic spirit, sensibilities, attitudes, and knowledge, and even
encouraging biophilic behavior.
With the objective of assessing the biophilic qualities present in the city, a survey
questionnaire was carried out in Kathmandu. The survey revealed that religious beliefs play a
significant role in physically, spiritually, and emotionally connecting the residents with nature.
The survey showed that the majority of respondents visited religious places for green relief and
recreation along with religious purposes. In Kathmandu, there are an enormous number of
religious sites and forests conserving nature within the city than other public green spaces. The
survey also showed that there were a greater number of religious sites in close proximity to the
respondents’ homes than parks, and they visited them more often than parks. So, either for
religious purposes or due to the existence of more religious sites in their surroundings, the
161
religious beliefs of the people have motivated them to visit these religious sites, which in turn
direct them to spend more time outdoors close to nature, encouraging biophilic behavior.
Furthermore, majority of the people of Kathmandu follow Hinduism. In Hindu theology,
specific plants and trees species are worshiped, as they are esteemed incarnations or symbols of
deities and other supernatural forces. For performing every religious festival and ritual, plants and
their products are required, as they have spiritual and cultural significance. In the survey, many
respondents said that they practice religious rituals such as worshipping trees and animals and
planting holy trees. Having respect for the trees deemed as gods and understanding their necessity
for performing various religious and cultural rituals and festivals encourages these people to
engage with nature, enticing them to learn more about nature and to show reverence to nature,
and teaching them about the importance of the nature around them. Ultimately, these people have
been instilling with biophilic spirit, sensibilities, and knowledge. Therefore, Nepalese peoples'
culture and religion of respecting nature or their spiritual reverence to nature is reflected in their
behavior, practices, and lifestyles, making them biophilic.
5.2.1 Conclusion
In today’s current climate where nature is in decline globally, Beatley has done an
incredible service by introducing the concept of re-imagining cities as biophilic cities by
suggesting that integrating nature into the design, planning, and management of cites also shows
concern for the overall welfare of human beings. Through this applied research of biophilic city
design theory in Kathmandu, I discovered several contributions that could be added to the theory:
non-Western biophilic urban design strategies and the importance of the spiritual aspects of
biophilia for assessing the biophilic qualities of cities. Through this applied research project of
biophilic urban design principles on Kathmandu, it was found that some were practiced, some
could be applicable in future, some were modified, and some new strategies have been identified
162
in the city; therefore a new list of biophilic urban design strategies for non-Western contexts has
been put forward. Further, the tie between religion and biophilia is much stronger in non-Western
cities, which has been contributing not only in conserving nature within the city but also in
instilling biophilic spirit, attitudes, and knowledge in people and encouraging biophilic behavior
within people. Consequently, such spiritual aspects of biophilia tied with religion, which have
been overlooked in the list of indicators of a biophilic city, also play a significant role in
enhancing the biophilic qualities in non-Western cities. These two new findings from this
research could be added to the theory for developing a well-rounded definition of this theory.
163
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173
Appendix A
Climatic Data of Kathmandu Airport, Kathmandu
Table1- Average Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature (1997-2008) Source: Department of
Hydrology and Meteorology, Kathmandu, Nepal
174
Table2- Average Relative Humidity (RH) for Kathmandu Airport (1997-2008) Source: Department of
Hydrology and Meteorology, Kathmandu, Nepal
175
Table 3- Average Annual Rain Fall (1997-2008), Kathmandu Airport, Nepal Source: Department
of Hydrology and Meteorology, Kathmandu, Nepal
176
Appendix B
IRB Application Form
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
The Office for Research Protections
The 330 Building, Suite 205
University Park, PA 16802 | 814-865-1775 | [email protected]
Submitted by: Moti Gurung
Date Submitted: June 3, 2014 11:02:22 AM
IRB#: 43916
PI: Moti Maya Gurung
Review Type: Exemption
Protocol Subclass: Social Science
Approval Expiration: -pending-
Class Project: No
Study Title
1>Study Title
Expanding Biophilic City Design Theory: A study of Incorporating Nature into the
Urban Design Elements of Kathmandu
2>Type of eSubmission
New
177
Home Department for Study
3>Department where research is being conducted or if a student study, the department
overseeing this research study.
Architecture (UNIVERSITY PARK)
Review Level
4>What level of review do you expect this research to need? NOTE: The final
determination of the review level will be determined by the IRB Administrative
Office.
Choose from one of the following:
Exemption
5>Exempt Review Categories:
Choose one or more of the following categories that apply to your research. You
may choose more than one category but your research must meet one of the
following categories to be considered for exempt review.
Information about the review categories can also be found in the Code of Federal
Regulations Title 45 Part 46 Subpart A Section 101:
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/45cfr46.html#46.101.
Information that is bolded below is additional clarification provided by Penn State,
as allowed by federal law.
[X] Category 2: Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive,
diagnostic, aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or
observations of public behavior unless:
178
Basic Information: Association with Other Studies
6>Is this research study associated with other IRB-approved studies, e.g., this study is an
extension study of an ongoing study or this study will use data or tissue from
another ongoing study?
No
7>Where will this research study take place? Choose all that apply.
[X] University Park
[X] Other Site(s)
8>Specify the building, and room at University Park where this research study will take
place. If not yet known, indicate as such.
Graduate Studio, Stuckeman Family Building, University Park
You have indicated that the research study location will include an outside laboratory or
other non-PSU site(s).
9>List each site and provide contact information [name & address] for each site.
Site: Bhimsensthan, Ward No.: 20, Kathmandu, Nepal
10>Do any of these sites have an IRB?
No
If you answer "No" to the above question, provide a letter of agreement/permission from
an individual in a decision making position indicating their willingness to
participate in the research study.
179
11>Does this research study involve any of the following Penn State Research Centers?
[X] None of these centers are involved in this study
12>Describe the facilities available to conduct the research for the duration of the study.
Basic study table in the Graduate studio, computers, camera and audio recorders.
13>Is this study being conducted as part of a class requirement? For additional
information regarding the difference between a research study and a class
requirement, see IRB Policy I – “Student Class Assignments/Projects” located at
http://www.research.psu.edu/policies/research-protections/irb/irb-policy-1.
No
Personnel
14>Personnel List
PSU User ID Name
Department Affiliation
Role in this study
Added
mmg270 Gurung, Moti Maya Architecture
(UNIVERSITY
PARK)
Principal
Investigator
120456
04/01/2014
pja12 Aeschbacher, Peter J Landscape
Architecture
Advisor 120456
04/01/2014
pzs18 Sherpa, Pasang
Yangjee
Anthropology Other 120456
06/03/2014
180
Gurung, Moti Maya , MD (Principal
Investigator)
PSU User ID: mmg270 Phone: 980 305 6678
Email: [email protected] Alt:
Email Notifications: Yes Pager:
PSU Person Type: Graduate Student Fax:
Dept: Architecture (UNIVERSITY PARK)
Address 1: 950 West Aaron Drive Apt#D8
Address 2:
Mail Stop:
City, State, Zip: State College, PA 16803
Procedures: Administering the study
Experience: None
Aeschbacher, Peter J (Advisor)
PSU User ID: pja12 Phone: 814 865 0685
Email: [email protected] Alt:
Email Notifications: Yes Pager:
PSU Person Type: Faculty Fax:
Dept: Landscape Architecture
Address 1: 228 Stuckemann Family Building
Address 2:
Mail Stop:
City, State, Zip: University Park, PA 16802
Procedures: Thesis Advisor
Experience: Associate Professor Landscape Architecture & Architecture
181
Sherpa, Pasang Yangjee , PhD (Other)
PSU User ID: pzs18 Phone: (814) 863-4388
Email: [email protected] Alt:
Email Notifications: No Pager:
PSU Person Type: Faculty Fax:
Dept: Anthropology
Address 1: 318 Carpenter Building, Penn State University
Address 2:
Mail Stop:
City, State, Zip: State College, PA 16802
Procedures: Administer the Study
Experience: She has conducted surveys during her Master's thesis and PhD thesis.
Funding Source
15>Is this research study funded? Funding could include the sponsor providing drugs or
devices for the study.
No
NOTE: If the study is funded or funding is pending, submit a copy of the grant
proposal or statement of work for review.
16>Does this research study involve prospectively providing treatment or therapy to
participants?
No
Conflict of Interest
17>Do any of the investigator(s), key personnel, and/or their spouses or dependent children
have a financial or business interest(s) as defined by PSU Policy RA20, “Individual
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Conflict of Interest,” associated with this research? NOTE: There is no de minimus
in human participant research studies (i.e., all amount must be reported).
No
Exemption Prescreening Questions (Prisoners)
18>Does this research study involve prisoners?
No
19>Does this research study involve the use of deception?
No
20>Does this research study involve any FDA regulated drug, biologic or medical device?
No
21>Does this research study involve the use of protected health information covered under
the Health Insurance Portability & Accountability Act (HIPAA)?
No
22>Does this study involve any foreseeable risks and/or discomforts (i.e., physical,
psychological, social, legal or other) to participants?
No
23>Will information collected from participants during the research study be recorded in
such a manner that participants can be identified directly or indirectly through
identifiers linked to the participants?
No
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Exemption Questions: Objectives
24>Summarize the research study’s key objectives, aims or goals.
The research aims:
• to identify biophilic elements present in the historical urbanization of
Kathmandu and how they are related to social-cultural practices
• to analyze which of the Western biophilic city design principles are appropriate
for Kathmandu
• to develop strategies for a biophilic critical regionalist design approach for
Kathmandu
25>Provide the background information and rationale for performing the research study.
As nature in urban area make a vital contribution to the quality of urban life, the
importance of preserving and infilling nature in cities is increasing worldwide. Humans
have an innate inclination to affiliate with nature, and this hypothesis is referred as
Biophilia. Recognizing the innate need of human being to connect with nature, Biophilic
city design theory suggests integrating nature into the design, planning and management
of the city through various biophilic strategies across scales ranging from buildings,
streets to regions. However, the theory was the result from strategies and tools developed
in places with similar Western contexts (America &Europe).This research, presented
here, considers biophilia and biophilic city design strategies in non-Western contexts,
specifically Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal.
Kathmandu city, with rapid increase in population in recent years and unmanaged
urbanization, has developed into a dense urban area with less or no open spaces, narrow
roads and lack of adequate greeneries, consequently hampering the urban climate and the
urban environment severely. Observing Kathmandu through biophilic lens, it lies far
behind and in biophilic integration, it still has a long way to go.
On the other hand, analytical review of the history of urban development of Kathmandu
shows that despite of ecological imbalances and 'small scale' parallel problems in the
past, the society was able to deal with them and have sustained development for more
than a millennium. The main reason behind such resiliency was the development and
application of social-cultural practices of the native people based on a perception that
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delicate continuum existed between nature and town.
Therefore, the research aims to (1)identify biophilic elements present in the historical
urbanization of Kathmandu and how they are related to religious and social-cultural
practices; (2)analyze Western biophilic city design principles that are appropriate for
Kathmandu and (3)develop strategies for a biophilic critical regionalist design approach
for Kathmandu
It is argued here that the examination of biophilia and biophilic city design in
Kathmandu, a non-western context that has a historic form not based on Western models
and a different cultural and environmental background will assist in developing a more
well-rounded definition of biophilia and biophilic city design.
26>Summarize the research study’s procedures by providing a step-by-step process of
what each group of participants will be asked to do after informed consent has been
obtained.
Participants will be asked to take part in one interview regarding their experience of
nature in the city and their opinion about converting the courtyard in traditional
settlement area into green spaces like parks.
And, the survey questionnaire will be given to the interested visitors coming to the
Kathmandu Metropolitan Office, Ward 20. The interested participants will be asked to fill
up survey to find out the relationship of inhabitants of Kathmandu with nature.
27>List the data collection measures/instruments that will be used in this study. Upload all
instruments, measures, interview questions, and/or focus group topics/questions for
review. Data collection instruments are a required element of the review process.
Interviews will be uploaded into the Data Collection Instrument folder and Survey
questionnaires will be kept in a locked cabinet
28>Provide the age range of the research participants. Check all that apply.
[X] 18 - 25 years
[X] 26 - 40 years
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[X] 41 - 65 years
[X] 65 + years
29>Provide a brief description of the participant population.
Individuals who is 18 or older, residing and visiting, Ward 20 area of the Kathmandu
Metropolitan area of Kathmandu
30>Does this research exclude any particular gender, ethnic or racial group, and/or a
person based on sexual identity?
No
31>Describe the steps that will be used to identify and/or contact prospective participants.
If applicable, explain how you have access to lists or records of potential
participants. During this process, participants must be informed of the following
information:
• The researcher identifies him/herself as a Penn State researcher; and
• The study is being conducted for research purposes.
For the survey through interview, the principal investigator will combine recruitment and
consent into one process for the interview. She will approach individuals who may be
outside their homes and inform them about the research study, If an individual is not
outside, she will knock on the door and ask to speak to an individual over the age of 18.
Verbal consent will be obtained and the conversation will contain the 6 items listed in the
question above.
For the survey through questionnaire, the principal investigator will obtain verbal consent
from the interested visitors over age 18 coming to the Kathmandu Metropolitan City
Office, Ward no.20, Bhimsensthan, Kathmandu, Nepal and the interested visitors will be
asked to fill up the survey. A short description about the research (i.e. Research topic,
objective etc.) will be given in the survey questionnaire to make the participants know
186
about the purpose of the research.
PLEASE NOTE: Submission of recruitment materials is not required for review,
but may be requested on a case-by-case basis.
32>Explain how permission to take part in this research study will be obtained from
potential participants (and parents, if minors are participants). During the consent
process, participants must be informed of the following basic ethical principles of
human participant research:
• The researcher identifies him/herself as a Penn State researcher;
• The study is being conducted for research;
• A description of the procedures that the participant will undergo as part of
the study;
• The individual’s participation is voluntary;
• They may end their participation at any time; and
• Participants may choose not to answer specific questions.
PLEASE NOTE: Submission of consent/assent forms is not required for review, but may
be requested on a case-by-case basis.
For the survey through interview, the principal investigator will combine recruitment and
consent into one process for the interview. She will approach individuals who may be
outside their homes and inform them about the research study, If an individual is not
outside, she will knock on the door and ask to speak to an individual over the age of 18.
Verbal consent will be obtained and the conversation will contain the 6 items listed in the
question above.
For the survey through questionnaire, the principal investigator will obtain verbal consent
from visitors over age 18 coming to the Kathmandu Metropolitan City Office, Ward
no.20, Bhimsensthan, Kathmandu, Nepal, and interested visitors will be asked to filled up
187
the survey. A short description about the research (i.e. Research topic, objective etc.) will
be given in the survey questionnaire to make the participants know about the purpose of
the research.
33>Will any type of recordings (e.g., audio, video, digital or photographs) be made during
the conduct of this research study?
Yes
PLEASE NOTE: If audio or video recordings with audio are made, Pennsylvania state law
requires agreement from all parties.
34>Describe how recordings will be utilized in your research study (e.g., what parts of the
study will be recorded/photographed, etc.).
The interviews will be recorded and the site area will be photographed.
35>Is compensation being offered (e.g., money, extra/course credit, gift certificates, etc.)?
No
36>Are student records (e.g., coursework, grades, test scores, etc.) being collected as part of
this research study?
No
37>Please check the "I Agree" box below to confirm that all data (and recordings if
applicable) are stored securely (e.g., locked cabinet, password protected computer,
etc.) and accessible only to the research personnel listed on this application.
[X] I agree
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38>Please describe how data confidentiality (including recordings/photographs, if
applicable) will be maintained AND how data will be reported when writing the
results (use of code numbers, pseudonyms, without names attached, etc.). All data is
to be stored in a confidential manner (even if identifiers are not connected to the
responses), in locked locations, on password protected computers.
Data will be stored on the principal investigator's password-protected computer and
locked cabinet. Data will be reported using pseudonyms instead of the participant's real
identity.
Document Upload
CORRESPONDENCE
Document 1001 Received 06/03/2014 10:13:29 - Certificate of Translation
Document 1002 Received 06/03/2014 10:14:34 - Letter of Permission from Kathmandu
Metropolitan Office
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
Document 1001 Received 04/01/2014 12:10:30 - This document consist of written
survey questionnaire in English
Document 1002 Received 04/01/2014 12:18:13 - This document consist of survey
questions for interview with their corresponding translation
REVIEW - REQUEST INFO
Document 1001 Received 04/11/2014 07:14:14 PM - Returned for Additional
Information
SUBMISSION FORMS
Document 1001 Received 04/11/2014 07:03:48 PM - Application Auto-generated by
eSubmission Approval
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Appendix C
IRB Approval Letter
Date: June 16, 2014
From: The Office for Research Protections - FWA#: FWA00001534
Tracie L. Kahler, Compliance Coordinator
To: Moti M. Gurung
Re: Determination of Exemption
IRB Protocol ID: 43916
Follow-up Date: June 15, 2019
Title of Protocol: Expanding Biophilic City Design Theory: A study of Incorporating
Nature into the Urban Design Elements of Kathmandu
The Office for Research Protections (ORP) has received and reviewed the above
referenced eSubmission application. It has been determined that your research is exempt from
IRB initial and ongoing review, as currently described in the application. You may begin your
research. The category within the federal regulations under which your research is exempt is:
45 CFR 46.101(b)(2) Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic,
aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures or observation of public
behavior, unless: (i) information obtained is recorded in such a manner that human subjects can
be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects; and (ii) any disclosure of the
human subjects' responses outside the research could reasonably place the subjects at risk of
criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects' financial standing, employability, or
reputation.
Vice President for
Research
Office for Research Protections
The Pennsylvania State University
The 330 Building, Suite 205
University Park, PA 16802
Phone : (814) 865-1775
Fax: (814) 863-8699
Email : [email protected]
Web : www.research.psu.edu/orp
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Given that the IRB is not involved in the initial and ongoing review of this research,
it is the investigator’s responsibility to review IRB Policy III “Exempt Review Process and
Determination” which outlines:
What it means to be exempt and how determinations are made
What changes to the research protocol are and are not required to be reported to the ORP
Ongoing actions post-exemption determination including addressing problems and
complaints, reporting closed research to the ORP and research audits
What occurs at the time of follow-up
Please do not hesitate to contact the Office for Research Protections (ORP) if you have
any questions or concerns. Thank you for your continued efforts in protecting human participants
in research.
This correspondence should be maintained with your research records.
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Appendix D
Survey Written Questionnaire
Purpose:
This questionnaire is a part of Master's thesis on the topic of "Extending Biophilic City
Design Theory: A Study of Incorporating Nature into the Urban Design Elements of
Kathmandu". A part of the thesis is to get feedback from the inhabitants of Kathmandu to find out
the relationship of people of Kathmandu with nature- plants, trees, animals and water.I kindly
request you to support the thesis by filling this questionnaire. Overall, there are 11 questions and
might take around 15 minutes.
General questions-background
1. In what age group do you fall into?
(a) 10-20 (b) 20-30 (c) 30-40 (d) 40-50 (e) 50and above
2. Where do you live in Kathmandu?
................................................................................................................................................
3. Do you have any parks or green spaces nearby your house where you go to feel nature?
YES............................ NO ...........................
If YES- Please name them, mention how long does it take you to reach them on foot
and its present state.
Name Time (on foot) Comments ( Pls give your
opinion about the place
................................................ .......................... ..............................................
................................................ .......................... ..........................................
................................................ .......................... ..........................................
................................................ .......................... ...........................................
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4. How often do you go for walks/joggings (During mornings or evenings hours or any
other time of a day)? ( E.g. ......2times....... Day)
....................... Day .......................Week ......................Month ..........................Year
Please also mention where do you go for walks and joggings.
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
5. How often do you visit city parks or green spaces like Pashupati area? ( E.g.
......2times....... Day)
....................... Day ......................Week ......................Month .........................Year
Please list the names of parks or green spaces you visit and also describe the purpose of
visiting them.
Name Purpose Comments about the place
.................................. .................................................................. ..................................
.................................. .................................................................. .................................
.................................. .................................................................. ..................................
.................................. .................................................................. ..................................
.................................. .................................................................. ............... ...................
6. Where else do you go for green relief or to be close to nature? (For e.g. To
agricultural land)
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
7. Do you have care and concern for nature?
YES............................ NO ...........................
If YES- Please justify it expressing your concern towards nature.
............................................................................................................................. ...................
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List the specific names of at least 5 each common species of plants and insects found in
your surroundings.
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
8. Does your culture support nature? Please justify your answer in brief. (E.g. Tradition
of worshipping tree)
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ...................
9. Are you involved with any local nature clubs or organization? (for e.g clubs
encouraging tree plantation or any other clubs working for environment conservation )
YES............................ NO ...........................
If YES- Please give brief description about it.
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
10. Do you know any local nature clubs or organization? Please list their names and
explain their activities.
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ...................
................................................................................................................................................
11. Kathmandu which was once known for its natural beauty has now been converted
into a concrete jungle. What do you think can be done to infill the city with more greenery?
................................................................................................................................... .............
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ...................
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Appendix E
Survey Interview Questions
(Survey through Interview in Traditional Settlement area in Kathmandu)
1. Where do you go to be close to nature or greenery? How often do you visit?
क) क क क ?
2. Why are there no trees in the courtyard?
ख) ख क क क क क ?
3. For what purpose are the courtyards used today?
ग) क ग ग क ?
4.Do you think these courtyard can be converted into a green public space like
parks? If so what are the things would you like to see in it?
घ) क क ?
क ख क ?
