Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia - Weebly

Expansion and Isolationism in EurasiaHow did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?

Introduction

In 1279, under the leadership of Kublai Khan, the Mongols ousted theSong dynasty and completed their conquest of China. As they tookcontrol, they established the Yuan dynasty, with Kublai Khan serving asemperor. However, Mongol rule over China was relatively short lived.Within 100 years, the Yuan dynasty would be forced out by Chineserebels.

Under Mongol rule, the Chinese became increasingly angered bypolicies that favored Mongols and foreigners. This anger andresentment eventually resulted in unrest. Around 1350, small states inChina began to emerge to fight the Mongols. Chinese leaders turned tomilitary force to advance their interests and establish regional power.Some leaders were members of the upper class, and others werereligious leaders or bandits supported by peasants. By the middle of the1350s, these Chinese powers were united in their campaign to get rid ofMongol rule.

The years of ongoing warfare spurred military innovation among theChinese. Although the Mongols had access to gunpowder weapons,

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2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A

they did not develop new technologies. In contrast, the first largecannons in China were manufactured by the Chinese rebels. While theterm “Gunpowder Empire” is often associated with the OttomanEmpire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, the Chineseadvancements in gunpowder weaponry has led some historians toregard Ming China as the world’s first gunpowder empire.

In this lesson, you will learn about three countries in Eurasia that usedgunpowder to expand and maintain their control: China, Japan, andRussia. You will consider the rise and fall of the Ming and Qing dynastiesin China. You will examine the unification of Japan under the Tokugawa.Finally, you will explore the growth of the Russian Empire during theRomanov dynasty.

1. China Under the Ming andQingBetween the 14th and the early 20th centuries, two dynasties governedChina: the Ming and the Qing. Both dynasties took power during timesof upheaval. To restore order, they established strong, centralized ruleand revived traditional Chinese values, including Confucian ideals.


Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute

A statue of a scholar-officialguards the Ming tombs nearNanjing, China.

The Ming Revival By the mid-1300s, China was in turmoil. TheMongols’ hold on power had became unstable. Disease and naturaldisasters had weakened the Mongol grip. Additionally, feuds broke outwithin the government, leaving the countryside unprotected againstbandits and rebels.

As life became more dangerous and difficult, Chinese peasants grewincreasingly frustrated with the incompetence of their rulers. Led byZhu Yuanzhang, a peasant uprising successfully invaded the city ofNanjing. In 1368, aided by gunpowder weapons, Zhu and his armycaptured the city of Beijing, the Mongol capital in China. Afterdestroying the Mongol palaces and forcing the Mongol rulers to retreatnorth, Zhu took power and established the Ming dynasty. This namecomes from the Chinese word Ming, which means “brilliant.”

The new Ming emperor set out to restore traditional Chinese rule. Herevived the state examination system used to select officials for thecivil service. This system of tests was based on the Chinese classics,especially the works of the philosopher Confucius. Under Ming rule,



Confucian scholars were again elevated in Chinese society. Classical artand literature were held up as models for artistic expression.

The emperor also reformed the tax system and distributed land toChinese peasants. Under the Ming, agriculture prospered. New cropssuch as sweet potatoes and corn, brought from the Americas in the1500s, increased the food supply. As a result, the Chinese populationdoubled under the almost three centuries of Ming rule. Trade andcommerce also increased, although Ming rulers—in traditionalConfucian style—favored agriculture over business.

During his 30-year reign, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as Emperor Taizu,brought stability to China. However, he was also a despot who ruledwith an iron fist. While he recognized Confucian scholars’ role inadministering effective government, Zhu viewed the scholar class asdangerous and sought to curb scholars’ power and ensure that theywere working exclusively on his behalf. Fearing threats to his power, hehad thousands of officials executed for suspected wrongdoing. In oneinstance, he had the prime minister and 30,000 of his followersexecuted for a plot to overthrow him. He described his actions this way:“In the morning I punish a few; by evening others commit the samecrime. . . . Day and night I cannot rest. . . . To be a ruler is indeeddifficult.”

Ming Expansion In 1402, the emperor’s son, Yong Le, took power.Like his father, Yong Le continued to strengthen the Chinese state. Healso built a new capital at Beijing, which was enclosed by high walls andfeatured a great palace—called the Forbidden City—at its heart. In itsgrand design, the new capital symbolized the power of the Chineseempire. Beijing’s location also allowed the emperor to focus on theongoing Mongol threat to the north.



Route of Zheng HeThe Ming emperor Yong Le sponsored the voyages of Admiral ZhengHe to Southeast Asia, India and Africa between 1405 and 1433. Thesevoyages were very successful, but still the Ming decided to end seatravel in the 1430s.

Later Ming emperors also rebuilt the Great Wall, an ancient defenseagainst nomadic invaders from the north. Construction of the wallrepresented a major change in Ming military strategy, from offence todefense. In the past, Ming military campaigns to the Mongolian steppehad been costly and failed, despite the Ming’s advanced gunpowderweapons.

In addition, Yong Le expanded China’s influence overseas. Hesponsored a series of great ocean voyages under the command ofAdmiral Zheng He. Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He led a large fleeton seven voyages to Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and Africa. He metwith foreign rulers and brought back exotic goods, including zebras andgiraffes. The main purpose of the voyages was to increase the flow oftribute to China. For the Ming, the tribute system demonstratedChinese power. It bolstered their age-old belief that China, which theycalled the “Middle Kingdom,” was the center of the world.



Although the Ming voyages were great successes, the governmentended sea travel in the 1430s. The expeditions were expensive, andChina decided to focus attention on defending its northern borderagainst Mongol invasions. The decision also reflected the conservativeChinese view that other cultures were inferior and had little to offerChina. Increasingly, the Ming rulers looked inward and isolated Chinafrom the rest of the world.

The Qing Dynasty Ming rule lasted for nearly three centuries. By theearly 1600s, however, the Ming dynasty had grown weak and corrupt.Famine and peasant rebellions ravaged the country. To the Chinesepeople, the Ming had lost the Mandate of Heaven , the traditionalright to govern.

In 1644, rebels invaded Beijing and overthrew the last Ming emperor.Ming officials sought assistance from the Manchus, a confederation oftribes from Manchuria, to fight the rebellion. However, the Manchustook advantage of the Ming dynasty’s weakness and seized the capitalinstead. They established a new dynasty, the Qing, which means“pure.”



Reintroduced by the Mingand retained by the Qing, thestate examination systemwas used to select officialsfor the civil service. Theexams were largely based onthe work of Confucius, whoseprinciples guided Manchurule. Upholding this aspect ofChinese culture helped theManchus win acceptancefrom the Chinese people.

The Manchus’ rise to power was anything but sudden. In the 1610s,they had begun to raid Ming territory. At the time, the Manchusdepended largely on cavalry forces, whereas the Ming fought withfirearms. Despite this, the Manchus were able to defeat the Ming inbattle thanks to their tactical maneuvering and the Ming’s ineffectiveuse of gunpowder weapons.

As the Manchus conquered Ming territory, they took gunpowderweapons from Chinese arsenals and recruited Chinese soldiers whoknew how to use them. Over time, and after some defeats, the Manchusbegan to develop a method of fighting that incorporated their highlyskilled cavalry as well as gunpowder weapons. Combining thesedifferent forms of fighting was essential in helping the Manchusultimately overcome the Ming.



By the time the Manchus officially formed the Qing dynasty in 1644,they had been gradually building their power in China. Though theManchus had long been influenced by Chinese culture and had adoptedmany Chinese customs, the Chinese still saw them as foreignbarbarians. Because of this, the Manchus met strong resistance to theirrule. Over subsequent decades, however, they brought all of Chinaunder their control.

To remain in power, the Manchus adopted policies that were both toughand generous. On the one hand, they forced Chinese men to submit totheir rule by wearing their hair in the Manchu style, with a shavedforehead and braided hair. They also kept control of the military byreserving the top positions for Manchus.

At the same time, the Manchus showed respect for Chinese traditions.They preserved the overall structure of Ming government and ruledaccording to Confucian principles. They supported the state examsystem and allowed Chinese officials to hold high positions ingovernment. They upheld the values of classical Chinese culture. In thisway, the Manchus gradually won acceptance from the Chinese people.

The Qing dynasty also benefited from having two outstandingemperors. The first, Kangxi, ruled from 1661 to 1722. Under Kangxi, theQing defeated the last of the Ming dynasty in 1683. His grandson,Qianlong, gained the throne in 1735 and held power just as long. Bothmen were wise and capable rulers. They expanded the boundaries ofthe empire and brought peace and prosperity to China. Qing Chinabecame the largest and richest empire in the world.

Isolation and Decline As in the past, most of China’s wealth camefrom agriculture. But trade and commerce also played an importantrole. Like good Confucian rulers, the Qing officially discouraged trade,while allowing it in limited form. They restricted European traders to theport of Canton, in southern China, and showed little interest inEuropean goods. In 1793, Emperor Qianlong wrote to King George III ofEngland: “Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in abundance. Wehave no need for barbarian products.” Nevertheless, the Qing agreed toexchange Chinese goods—including silk and tea—for silver from theAmericas.



In the 18th century, China restricted European traders to the port ofCanton (pictured). Foreign trade helped China’s economy grow.However, population growth outpaced economic growth. Chinaeventually lacked the resources to support its population.

As a result, China’s economy continued to grow, and so did itspopulation. Between 1650 and 1800, the population rose from 150million to 350 million, more than one-third of humanity. However, Chinacould not sustain such growth forever. In the 1800s, it began toexperience food shortages and famine. Once again, rebellions broke outand the dynasty faltered.

In some ways, China’s success under Qing rule also contained the seedsof its decline. For centuries, China had relied on its traditions to ensurestability, prosperity, and power. But as global interaction increased andthe world began to change, this conservative approach hinderedprogress. China rejected new ideas in science, technology, andeconomics that might have brought increased productivity and wealth.Similarly, because China entered a period of sustained peace in 1760,there was no drive or need for military innovation, and the strength ofits armed forces declined.



This reluctance to change left China vulnerable to the growing power ofEurope. The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912, but as a result of itspolicies, it was increasingly dominated by Western powers in the late1800s.

2. Tokugawa Japan

While the Ming dynasty ruled China, another strong dynasty—theTokugawa—took power in Japan. In the 1600s, the Tokugawa unifiedJapan and brought a long period of peace and stability to the country.

A Feudal System For centuries, Japan had been a feudal society,much like medieval Europe. Local lords, known as daimyo, controlledlarge landed estates. They relied on armies of samurai warriors todefend their land and settle disputes with other lords.

At the top of this feudal structure was the emperor, who claimeddescent from a mythical sun goddess. But real power rested in thehands of the shogun, a military leader who ruled on behalf of theemperor and demanded the allegiance of the daimyo. In theory, thedaimyo respected the shogun’s authority, but the system was unstable.Because power was decentralized and allegiance based on militarystrength, a lord who grew strong enough might challenge the shogunand seize power himself.

In the late 1400s, civil war broke out when a series of weak shogunslost control of the state. For the next century, the daimyo, backed bytheir samurai armies, battled each other for power. This period ofwarfare was known as the Age of the Warring States. It was during thisera that gunpowder weapons were widely introduced in Japan.

Gunpowder weapons had been used in Japan previously— albeit by theMongols during their failed invasions in the late 13th century. Duringthe 1400s and early 1500s, merchants and travelers brought someguns from China to Japan. However, gunpowder weapons, particularlyguns, did not gain wider attention—or use—until the arrival of thePortuguese in 1543.

In September 1543, a Chinese ship with a few Portuguese men onboardlanded on the Japanese island of Tanegashima. The men wereintroduced to the island’s lord and demonstrated how to use thestrange oblong objects they were carrying called muskets. Intrigued,the lord bought one or two guns and then decided that they should bemanufactured on iron-rich Tanegashima. A local blacksmith was taskedwith creating copies of the musket.



This 19th-century workdepicts Japanese soldiersduring shooting practice.Their guns are similar to themuskets brought to Japan byPortuguese sailors. In Japan,these guns are known astanegashima for the islandwhere they were introducedand then manufactured.

News of this weapon spread around Japan. Muskets were soonmanufactured in many parts of the country, and saltpeter forgunpowder became an important import from China. Within decades ofthe musket’s introduction, thousands of guns were being producedannually in Japan. Daimyo eagerly sought these new weapons as theconflicts of the Age of the Warring States intensified.

By the late 1500s, a series of powerful daimyo had emerged. Aided bymuskets and field artillery, the first two each defeated their rivals,consolidated their power, and worked to unify Japan. But it was a thirdlord, Tokugawa Ieyasu, who finally ended the wars and united Japan. In1603, he became shogun. He created a dynasty and a government thatruled Japan for the next 250 years.



Tokugawa Rule To ensure stability, the Tokugawa rulers formed astrong, centralized government. They established controls on thedaimyo and on Japanese society that allowed them to governeffectively. Scholars have referred to the Tokugawa system ascentralized feudalism.

To curb the power of the daimyo, the Tokugawa rulers created a secretpolice force to root out opposition. They restricted the production ofgunpowder weapons, prohibited their import, and controlled theproduction of gunpowder and ammunition. They banned theconstruction of new castles. They also restricted the movement ofsamurai and forced the daimyo and their families to live as virtualhostages in Edo, the capital city now known as Tokyo. Thisarrangement placed a great financial burden on the daimyo whilecurbing their power and helping ensure their loyalty.

The Tokugawa also established a rigid social structure, consisting offour social classes. At the top was the warrior class of lords andsamurai, which made up about 7 percent of the population. Next camefarmers, considered the most productive part of society. Artisans madeup the third social class. At the bottom were merchants. An elaboratecode of etiquette laid out rules for the dress and behavior of each class.

In principle, social mobility was rare in Japan. This rigid structure wasdesigned to ensure social order and respect for authority. In this way, ithelped reinforce Tokugawa rule.



This detail from a folding screen depicts Lord Tokugawa’s armyattacking Osaka Castle in 1615 to eliminate a rival leader. Tokugawarule had been established through military dominance in the late1500s. However, the Tokugawa still had to work to control rivalwarlords, or daimyo, throughout the country. Note that the soldier inthe upper left corner is a carrying musket.

Chinese Influence Long before the rise of the Tokugawa, Japanesesociety and culture had reflected Confucian values from China. As anisland nation, Japan had never been conquered by China. However,Japan was still heavily influenced by Chinese civilization and culture.

As early as 500 C.E., Chinese culture was making its mark on Japan.However, the Japanese did not simply adopt Chinese culture; rather,they had their own interpretation of it. Over time, the Japanesecombined Chinese customs with their own traditions to form a uniqueJapanese culture. For example, in the mid-500s, some Japaneseadopted Buddhism, which arrived from Korea via China. Yet they did notabandon their original religion, Shinto. Instead, each religion thrivedand embraced elements of the other.



China’s influence on Japan greatly increased after Empress Suiko andPrince Shotoku came to power in 593. In particular, Shotokuencouraged the Japanese to embrace cultures from mainland Asia,especially from China and Korea, and subsequent rulers did as well.Knowledge of mainland culture came from Japanese travelers returningfrom China, as well as from items sent from the mainland to Japan.Sometimes, it came from Korean workers who settled in Japan, bringingtheir knowledge and skills with them.

In addition to Confucian thought, the Japanese borrowed their politicalstructures from China. Previously, Japanese rulers shared power withthe leaders of clans throughout the nation and depended on them togovern. This began to change under Shotoku. He created ranks forgovernment officials based on Confucian ideas. In 604, he issued a setof guidelines called the Seventeen Article Constitution, which statedthat the emperor was the supreme ruler. Later in the 600s, the emperortook control of the land from the clans and redistributed it. By the 700s,Japan’s government was very much like China’s, with centralizedleadership supported by a large bureaucracy.

Between the 600s and 900s, China continued to influence Japanculturally. Japan sent officials, students, translators, and monks onships across the sea to China. These people often remained in China foryears before returning home with what they had learned. As a result ofthese contacts, the Japanese acquired new ideas about government,the arts, architecture, and writing.



During the Tokugawa era, various art forms native to Japan flourished.Kabuki is a form of theater that combines elaborate costumes, music,and dance. It became popular in Japanese cities. Visual artists createdbeautiful woodblock prints showing scenes from urban and rural life.Writers and poets explored new forms of literature, including shortverse called haiku.

A Policy of Isolation Leads to Decline Not long before theTokugawa took power, European traders and missionaries had arrivedin Japan. At first, the Tokugawa rulers remained open to foreigninfluence. They took an interest in Western goods and welcomed newideas in science, mapmaking, and shipbuilding. They even allowedCatholics to set up missions. They became alarmed, however, when theJapanese began to convert to Catholicism. Religious intolerance spreadin the form of expelling the missionaries and cracking down on Christianconverts.

This xenophobia, or fear of foreigners, started to affect commercialexchange when the government also began to restrict trade. By 1638,it had expelled most European traders, limiting trade to just one port.Only the Dutch were allowed to visit, and only once or twice a year. Thegovernment also prohibited the Japanese from traveling abroad andoutlawed the building of large ships.



For the next two centuries, Japan was effectively isolated from the restof the world. This policy of isolation was beneficial in that it helped theTokugawa rulers preserve Japanese traditions and maintain control. Butthe negative impact was that it also prevented Japan from gaininguseful knowledge from abroad. Like China under the Qing, Japan did notbenefit from developing ideas in science, technology, and other fieldsthat would have helped the country develop. Ultimately, this lack ofprogress left Japan vulnerable to foreign powers.

Additionally, Japan did not have modern weaponry to defend itself. Afterrestricting production of firearms to prevent the daimyo from obtainingthem, the Tokugawa government had minimal need for such weapons.Restricting access to information about new gunpowder technologyfrom abroad became a priority. The government maintained amonopoly on firearms, but over time, production more or less ceased.

By the 19th century, many, including the shogun, began to worry aboutJapan’s lack of modern weaponry. They feared that another countrywould try to gain control of Japan. Attempts to restart weaponproduction were made but largely failed because the weakenedTokugawa government could not obtain the necessary funds. In themid-1800s, foreign powers, including the Dutch, French, and English,repeatedly attempted to open the country and develop commercialrelations. Then, in 1853, lacking the defenses to resist, Japan wasforced to open up to foreign trade by U.S. warships.

Subsequently, violence erupted over whether Japan should expelforeigners or continue to open. However, those seeking to rid thecountry of foreigners realized that they did not have adequate meansto do so by force. Some then turned to overthrow the Tokugawagovernment. As this movement gained power, the last shogunresigned, ending the Tokugawa period.



After Japan opened to foreign trade in the 1850s, it began to makediplomatic missions to other countries. In 1860, Japan sent adelegation to the United States to ratify a treaty that opened its portsto foreigners. Here, the delegation is pictured in Washington, D.C., withrepresentatives from the U.S. Navy and U.S. government.

3. The Russian Empire

In the 1500s, Russia formed a powerful state and began to expand itsterritory. Over the next few centuries, it built a great empire thatstretched across Eurasia. Unlike China or Japan, however, Russia madeefforts to modernize by adopting Western ideas.



Ivan the Terrible had St.Basil’s Cathedral built inMoscow as a religiousoffering for his militaryvictories over the Mongols.Legend has it that Ivan hadthe architect blinded after thebuilding was completed sothat he could never createanything as beautiful.However, most historiansbelieve this to be false.

The Rise of Russia The origins of the Russian state go back to thelate 1400s and the rise of Prince Ivan III of Moscow. At the time, theMongols still controlled Russia, but they were divided and their powerwas waning. To maintain control, the Mongols allowed Russian princesto govern their own cities in return for tribute payments. They alsoallowed Russians to practice their Orthodox Christian faith, whichhelped bolster Russian identity under Mongol rule.

Ivan III—also known as Ivan the Great—came to power in 1462 andbegan to conquer lands around Moscow and build up his strength. Atthis time, Ivan III was a tributary of the Mongols. However, the Mongols



were in decline. Their population had been reduced by disease, andtheir military remained dependent on cavalry forces and failed toeffectively employ guns. These weaknesses enabled the Russians totake large portions of Mongol territory. By 1480, Ivan III had thrown offMongol control, although some Mongol elements remained a threatuntil 1502.

Over the next two decades, Ivan the Great continued his conquests.With the aim of uniting Slavic peoples, he tripled the size of Moscow’sterritory and made it the dominant power in Russia. He also began tocall himself czar, the Russian form of “caesar.” He saw Russia as the“Third Rome”: the heir to the Roman and Byzantine empires and thedefender of Christianity.

Ivan the Great’s successors continued to expand the Russian state. Themost powerful of the early czars was his grandson, Ivan IV, who gainedthe throne as a child in 1533. During his reign of about 50 years, IvanIV took three steps to strengthen the central government andmodernize Russia. First, he conquered Mongol lands to the south andeast, incorporating them into Russian territory. Second, he institutedreforms, including a uniform code of laws, to make the state moreefficient. This was especially important given the difficulty of controllingRussia’s expanding territory. Third, he fought feudalism and took stepsto curb the power of the boyars, Russia’s landed nobility. In turn, heincreased the power of military leaders who were loyal to him.

In centralizing power, Ivan IV also worked to strengthen the military.When he ascended the throne, the army was largely a cavalry force. Tosupport a more modern military, Ivan IV expanded the training ofRussian soldiers to include skills such as engineering and gunsmithing.These developments laid the groundwork that enabled the formation apermanent infantry force, field artillery force, and combat engineercorps.

Ivan is best remembered, however, as a cruel tyrant who terrorizedRussian society. Midway through his reign, he became obsessed withthreats to his rule. Suspecting that the boyars were plotting againsthim, Ivan established an oprichnina, territory directly under his control,in an attempt to further reduce their power. The oprichnina enabled himto force boyars from their land, reducing their political and economicpower.

Within the oprichnina, Ivan had a personal bodyguard of up to 6,000men drawn from the lower gentry. Known as the oprichniki, thisbodyguard was loyal to Ivan. It functioned as a secret police force that



arrested, tortured, and killed those suspected of resisting orchallenging his authority, including its own members. For example, in1570, Ivan and the oprichniki sacked the city of Novgorod and executedpeople of all classes because he questioned the city’s loyalty. Ivan andthe oprichniki conducted a reign of terror, earning him the nicknameIvan the Terrible.

Rule of the Romanovs After Ivan’s death in 1584, his son Fyodorbecame czar. Fyodor was a weak ruler, however, who failed to mendthe divisions caused by his father. In the early 1600s, after Fyodor’sdeath, Russia was engulfed in a 15-year period of civil war known asthe Time of Troubles.

In 1613, however, a new czar, Michael Romanov, came to power.Gradually, Russia began to recover from the social divisions Ivan hadcreated. The Romanov family would rule Russia for the next 300 years.

Under the Romanovs, Russia continued to expand its empire. It movedeast, taking in the lands of Siberia—a huge portion of the Asiancontinent—and extending Russia’s borders to the Pacific Ocean. Siberiawas rich in resources, including furs. During the 1600s, Russiancolonizers settled in Siberia and established a lucrative fur trade.



In 1613, Michael Romanovbecame the first tsar ofRussia. His ascension to thethrone marked the end of theTime of Troubles. Hisdescendants ruled Russiauntil 1917.

The Modernizing Czars The Romanovs continued to reform andmodernize the Russian state. The leaders in this effort were Peter I, alsoknown as Peter the Great, and Catherine the Great. Their rule markedthe golden age of Russia’s enlightenment.

When Peter took power in 1682, Russia was still largely isolated fromEurope. But Peter was determined to open Russia up to the West. Hetook a long journey through England and France to absorb new ideas.He visited factories and museums, and even worked for a time in ashipyard. He returned home with plans to transform Russia into amodern nation.

Peter also sought to gain access to a coastline. At this time, Russia’sonly seaport was at Archangel on the White Sea, along the northerncoast. Gaining access to ports on the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, andespecially the Baltic Sea was seen as crucial for Russian trade. In 1696,he defeated Ottoman-backed forces to gain access to the Black Sea,and in 1723, Persia ceded Caspian coastline in exchange for military



aid. However, it was taking territory from Sweden on the Baltic Sea in1721 that changed Russia. It emerged as a European power.

The territory gained from Sweden became “Russia’s window into theWest.” There, Peter built a modern new capital named after himself—St. Petersburg—based on European designs. He brought in Europeanadvisers and specialists, set up schools to teach technical subjects, andestablished an academy of sciences to promote new learning. Under hisrule, Russia built factories and roads and established a professionalarmy and civil service on the European model. The governmentrequired officials to dress in the Western style and to shave off theirbeards.

Russia’s modernizing efforts continued under another ruler, CatherineII, who led from 1762 to 1796. She was also known as Catherine theGreat. Like Peter the Great, Catherine also founded schools andsupported the arts and sciences. She promoted Enlightenmentprinciples of justice and good government. But like her predecessors,she was an absolute ruler who governed with an iron fist, allowing fewfreedoms and forcing Jews into a limited area called the Pale ofSettlement.



Peter the Great, who ruledfrom 1682 to 1725, worked tomodernize and westernize hisempire. In this painting ofPeter the Great’s court, youcan see the western style ofdress Peter encouraged.Previously governmentofficials had dressed in amore uniquely Russian style,wearing robes and longbeards.

The End of Monarchy By the time of Catherine’s reign, Russia faceda looming crisis that would eventually bring down the czars. For morethan a century, Russia’s serf population had been growing. WhenCatherine came to power, there were about 10 million serfs serving thecrown, the state, the church, private owners, and industrial and miningenterprises.

Although this system had ceased to exist in western Europe by the 14thcentury, serfdom first emerged in Russia during the Time of Troubles.Fleeing famine, peasants went to towns and cities to find food. With adecreasing number of laborers to tend to the fields, Russian leadersdecided to tie peasants to the land.

Initially, serfs had some rights, but as landowners gained power, serfslost what little they had. Ultimately, they had no rights and lived in



terrible poverty. By the mid-1700s, they were regarded as property.Those who worked in industry were treated like machinery thatbelonged to the business. Sometimes serfs revolted, but their uprisingswere brutally repressed. For example, in 1762, Catherine sent troopswith cannons to force serfs to end an industrial strike. In 1800, aroundhalf of all Russian peasants—around 10 million people—were tied to thesoil.

Although Russia was taking steps to modernize, its social system wasstill mired in the past. Russia was the last European country to outlawserfdom, in 1861, and by then it was too late. In 1917, a revolutionerupted and brought an end to the Russian monarchy as a result. TheRomanovs’ attempt to modernize Russia had been too concentrated onscience and technological developments and ignored socio-politicaldevelopments. This unbalance brought about the last of the Europeanrevolutions.

Lesson Summary

In this lesson, you learned about three powerful empires thatruled in Eurasia during the period from 1400 to 1800. Theseempires responded to outside influences in different way.

Cultural Interaction The Russians modernized by opening up to theWest. The Chinese and Japanese held fast to their own traditions andresisted cultural change.

Political Structures All three empires built strong, centralized statesto govern their territory. They created official bureaucracies and codesof law to make government more effective. Nevertheless, most rulers—such as the Russian czars—held absolute power.

Economic Structures Trade and commerce became increasinglyimportant across Eurasia. However, both China and Japan turnedtoward isolation. In doing so, they greatly restricted foreign trade. Theyalso lacked access to new ideas and innovations that would supportdevelopment.

Social Structures Eurasian states imposed class structures designedto maintain social and political order. But rigid social systems, such asthose in Japan and Russia, left empires unprepared for change.



How Did the Policies of theTokugawa Change Life inFeudal Japan?During the 1600s, the Tokugawa shogunate made sweepingchanges. Their rule was characterized by rigid social order andisolationism, but also internal peace and cultural and economicgrowth. You will examine four primary sources to make anargument about how these policies affect life in Japan.

Before Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate, Japanfaced a period of violence known as the Age of the Warring States.Tokugawa Ieyasu, along with another daimyo Toyotomi Hideyoshi,worked to unify Japan and end the constant violence of the time. AfterHideyoshi died, Ieyasu was the strongest daimyo and assumed powerover Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was established, and Japanentered a period of peace and stability that was also called the Edoperiod.

One approach to Japanese stability was the implementation of a rigidsocial order with four social classes. Each class had strict rules andbehavioral codes. According to the following excerpt, how was societystructured in Tokugawa Japan? How were these roles justified? Whatpart did this structure play in creating stability and order?



As part of rigid societal roles, only certain people in Japan were allowedto have weapons. Previously, during the Age of the Warring States,people used guns. Daimyo fought each other for power and control.Once the Tokugawa shogunate established peace, however, there wasnot as much need for people to own weapons.

Mitsui Takatoshi, a shopkeeper that lived under the shogunate, said ofthis period, “A great peace is at hand. The shôgun rules firmly and withjustice at Edo. No more shall we have to live by the sword.” Hecontinued, “I have seen that great profit can be made honorably. I shallbrew sake and soy sauce and we shall prosper.”

In 1588, Hideyoshi issued an edict, or statement, stating that onlysamurai could have weapons. He further ordered that the daimyocollect all swords from non-samurai.

In the edict, Hideyoshi further explained that any swords collected fromfarmers would be repurposed as nails. These nails would be used inbuilding a statue of the Buddha, which would enrich the lives of farmersthrough religion. Some scholars, however, argue that the main focus ofthis edict was to prevent farmers from armed uprisings. Why might theshogun have issued this edict? How do these purposes promotestability? What were the possible consequences of farmers having gunsand other weapons? How does this edict impact the social order?



Another important policy in Tokugawa Japan was a focus onisolationism. The shoguns limited contact with foreigners, specificallymissionaries. Prior to the Tokugawa shogunate, Portuguese traders hadintroduced Catholicism to Japan. These Japanese leaders also allowedmissionaries to enter the country, which led to the conversion of anumber of Japanese.

Tokugawa leaders, however, felt differently. They viewed Christianmissionaries as a particular threat since missionaries were oftenfollowed by European attempts at colonial expansion. To prevent this,the shoguns simply banned Christianity and other foreign religions, andalso outlawed foreign trade.

Read this excerpt from the Closed Country Edict of 1635. As you read,think about how the policies laid out here are part of an isolationistfocus. What was the purpose of isolating Japan from the rest of theworld? How do these policies help create stability?



As part of the isolation policy, the Tokugawa shogunate limited whereforeign traders could go. For much of the Tokugawa shogunate, theartificial island of Dejima was the only point of contact between Japanand foreign traders. Dejima was constructed from a small peninsula andwas originally intended to house Portuguese traders. During theTokugawa period, it became a trading post for Chinese and Dutchtraders. These traders were not allowed to enter Japan and were thusalmost entirely limited to the island.

This image is a map of the Dutch factory on the island of Dejima. Howdoes the island contribute to a policy of self-isolation? In what waysmight this promote stability in Tokugawa Japan?

Consider the texts and image that you’ve just examined. Howdid these policies help stabilize Japan during the Tokugawashogunate? Using these primary sources, make an argumentabout how policy promoted stability in Tokugawa Japan.



This 1825 map of Dejima Island shows a Chinese and Dutch tradingpost. It was the only place where direct trade could occur betweenJapan and other countries during Tokugawa Japan.



Documents

Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia - Weebly