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ExpertStatementtoWestGateTunnelProjectAssessmentCommittee

PreparedbyDrDianeKeogh

Summary

Duetothewell-knownandwidelypublicisedseverepotentialhealthrisksassociatedwithexposuretoparticulatematteranddieselexhaustgeneratedbymotorvehicles, it isessential that theWestGateTunnelProjectmeasurethefullsizerangeofparticlesgeneratedbymotorvehicles. Thissizerange spans from ultrafine size to PM2.5 and PM10 and measurements are needed close to thefreeway,inthetunnelsandatrelevantdistancesfromthesourcetoassessthepotentialhealthriskstohumanpopulations.Modellingoutputsareusefulhowevertheydonotquantifyactualparticulatematteremissionlevelswhencomparedtomeasurementsconductedclosetothesource.

Inaddition,implementationofeffectivemitigationstrategiesarealsocriticaltoreduceexposuretodust,airpollutionandnoisepreandpostconstruction.ItisunclearwhatspecificmitigationactionstheProjecthasplannedtooffsettheeffectsofadditionalparticulatematterandotherpollutionthisProject will generate in the region, aside from tunnel ventilation and advising people using thetunnelstowinduptheircarwindows.

World’s best practice for managing exposure to the detrimental health effects of vehicle-relatedpollutionincludesadoptionofambientairqualitystandards;installationofventilationandfiltrationsystemsintunnels;prescribingseparationdistancesfrombusyroadsforsensitivepopulations(eg.,schoolsandchildcarecentres);andadoptionoflowerpollutingvehiclestandardsandfuelstoreduceemissions.CitizensintheEuropeanUnionareevenentitledunderEuropeanlawtodemandactionplans be developed rapidly by local authorities to address air pollution (Wolff & Perry, 2010).Australia lags the developedworld in adopting themajority of these strategies to protect humanhealthfromparticulatematterpollution.

The Project’s Air Quality Impact Assessment (AQIA) forms the basis of its health impactassessment and the methodology used to predict PM2.5 and PM10 emissions generated by themotorvehiclefleetappearstobeseverelyflawed,callingintosignificantquestionthevalidityandaccuracyoftheirmodelledpredictions.

TheirmethodusedtoderiveemissionfactorsforPM2.5andPM10particulatematteremissionswere‘guess-estimated’usinginappropriateratios,multipliersandsummingofdistinctlydifferentparticlesize fractionswhichhavedifferentparticle sources. Theemission factorsusedwerenotbasedonrelevantmeasurementstudiesforthesetwodifferentsizedfractions.

Emission factors are values used to represent the amount of a particular pollutant a vehiclemaygenerateeg,foreachkilometredriven.Thisamountwillvarydependingonthevehicleandfueltypeandmaintenanceregime,amongstotherfactors.Formotorvehiclesexhaustemissionfactors(alsoreferredtoastailpipeemissions),andnon-exhaust(tyreandbrakewear)emissionfactorsareused.Emissionfactorsderivedfromon-roadmeasurementstudieswillgenerallyincludebothexhaustandnon-exhaustemissions.

Emission factors are a critical input to themodelling of theAQIA, and the Project has failed todisclose thevaluesofemission factorsused in theirmodellingwhichwerederivedusinganon-rigorous,non-scientificbasis.

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TheAQIAdidnotmodelnon-exhaustemissions,orin-tunnelemissions.ItusedobsoletebackgroundmonitoringdatafromtheFootscrayEPAmonitoringstationand2010Victorianfleetdata,which isnotlikelytorepresentuptodatecurrentbackgroundpollutionlevelsandvehiclefleetnumbers.Itdidnotpresentmeasurementdatatoenablecomparisonandassessmentof theAQIAmodelskill,amongstotherfactorsdiscussedbelow.

By not modelling non-exhaust particulate matter emissions the Project may have substantiallyunderestimated particulatematter pollution levels associatedwith the Project; as the AustralianMotorVehicleEmissionInventoryreportedthatnon-exhaustparticulatemattercancontribute26%oftotalemissionsfromroadtransport(Smit,2014).

The AUSROADS model used to model surface roads in the Project did not include non-exhaustemissions in their modelling estimates, which suggests that pollution levels may be substantiallyunderestimated.

“A number of assumptions were made when modelling motor vehicle emissions usingAUSROADS ….. Motor vehicle emissions were from the tailpipe only. VOC evaporativeemissions and particulatematter from brakes, tyres and road dust resuspensionwere notconsidered”(Golders,2017).

• TheAQIA should be redone using relevant realworld particle emission factors for exhaust

and non-exhaust emissions and be subject to a rigorous independent reviewby a relevantacademicinstitution.

• ThisProjectisincreasingpollutionlevelsinaregionwhichalreadyexperiencesexceedancesof theambientairqualitystandards forPM2.5andPM10,eventhoughthestandards requiretherebenoexceedances,andthereforehighlyaccurateresultsarecriticaltoassesspotentialrisksandhealtheffects.

Particulatematteremissions

Motor vehicle fleets generate gaseous andparticulatematterpollution from theexhaust (tailpipeemissions) and non-exhaust emissions from brake and tyre wear. From a health perspectiveparticulate matter exposure poses the greatest risk to human health; and there is no thresholdbelowwhichdamagetohumanhealthfromexposuretoparticulatematter isnotobserved(WHO,2016).

Particlesgeneratedbymotorvehiclesspanaverywidesizerange,fromultrafinesize(particleswithdiameters less than 0.1µm) to PM2.5 and PM10 (particles with aerodynamic diameters less than2.5µmand10µmrespectively).Themajorityoftheseparticlesareultrafinesize.

Current worldwide ambient air quality standards, including in Australia, regulate PM2.5 and PM10

sizedparticles,howeverthereisgrowingevidenceofthehealtheffectsofultrafineparticleexposureandmovesinternationallytointroduceambientstandardsforultrafineparticles.

Mostultrafineparticlesaregenerated fromcombustion sources, suchasmotor vehicles, PM2.5from amix of combustion andmechanically generated sources, and PM10 fromnatural andman-mademechanical processes that break, wear or grindmaterial eg., brake and tyre wear or fromresuspendeddust.

• Asmotorvehiclesarethemainsourceofultrafineparticlesinurbanareas,andmost

• particlesgeneratedbymotorvehiclefleetsareinthissizerange,itisthereforeimportanttomeasurenotonlyPM2.5andPM10,butalsoultrafineparticlesinrelationtothisProject.

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• TheProjecthasnoknownplanstomonitorultrafineparticleemissions,whichwillprovidethemostinformativeandaccuratemeasurementdataonthelevelsofvehicleparticleemissionspollution, and contribute to development of ongoing scientific knowledge andepidemiologicalstudiesofhealtheffects.

• The Project has also no known plans to permanently monitor PM2.5 and PM10 to assesspotential health effects of the Project at the Donald McLean Reserve or other sensitivelocationsatSpotswood.

Dieselexhaustcancauselungcancer

Backgroundlevelsofairpollutantstendtooccur300-500metresfromtheroad,sopeoplelocatedwithin thesedistancescansufferhealtheffects fromexposure toparticulatematterundercertainconditions.

• Dieselexhaustisadeclaredhumancancer-causingagentandtheWorldHealthOrganizationhasconcludedthereissufficientevidencethatexposuretodieselexhaustisassociatedwithanincreasedriskforlungcancer(IARC,2012).

• The Project lacks effective planned actions to mitigate this risk and the risk posed byparticulatematteremissionsgeneratedbytheProject.

Mitigation activities planned by the project include ventilation in the tunnels and the Project’sHuman Health Impact Assessment report advises tunnel users wind up windows and switchventilationtorecirculation.Theseareverylimitedmitigationactivities.

TrucksusingtheHydeStreetrampwillcarrydangerousgoodsandasmostwillbediesel-fuelledthiswill bring diesel exhaust plumes 20metres closer to the DonaldMcLean Reserve,which isright next to the present freeway, and within 200 metres of the EmmaMcLean Kindergarten,whichisfartooclosefromahumanhealthperspectivetotheseexistingsensitivelandusesitesinSpotswood.

• Peopleexercising,suchasattheDonaldMcLeanReserve,willtendtohavehigherbreathingrateswhichmean they can inhalemorepolluted air andaremore susceptible to sufferinghealtheffects.

• Children’s lungs are underdeveloped and they have a faster breathing rate than adults(USEPA,2015),increasingtheirintakeofpollutedair.Theyareparticularlysusceptibletotheeffects of air pollution and studies have found such exposures in childhood can decreasechildren’slungfunction(HEI,2013,citedinUSEPA,2015).

• Due to their ability to penetrate cell members ultrafine particles are generally associatedwithmoreseveretoxicitycomparedtocoarseandfineparticles(PM10andPM2.5respectively)and children exhibit more susceptibility to these effects due to their inhalation rates andunderdevelopedrespiratoryandimmunesystems,amongstotherfactors(Rufoetal.,2015).

TheproblemisthattheHydeStreettruckrampwillnotbeenclosedandwillbeusedbyAustralia’sageingtruckfleet,whichisahighpolluterofparticulatematterandparticularlyofultrafineparticles.Thefleetisprincipallydiesel-fuelledandexaminationofvehiclekilometrestravelledbytheVictorianfleetin2016revealedthatlessthanathirdofrigidtrucksandlessthanhalfofarticulatedtrucksmetcurrentAustralianstandards(EuroVorhighercompliant)(ABS,2016).InEuropeEuroVI/6isalreadyin force which prescribes engine emission standards for particle number (ultrafine particles),howeverthisEurohasnotyetbeenadoptedbyAustralia.

• Given the unreasonably close proximity of theHyde Street truck ramp carrying dangerousgoods to theDonaldMcLeanReserveandEmmaMcLeanKindergarten, if theHydeStreettruck ramp is not enclosed and fitted with a full deluge system (to manage spills and

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accidents)usersof theReservewillbedirectlybreathingdieselexhaust,andthedieselandparticulatematterplumecanreachresidentsandchildrenattendingtheKindergarten,whoareagedonly3-5years,andwhocanspendupto10hoursperdayoutsideattheCentre.AttheveryleastadecentbarrierandtreeplantingshouldbeconstructedonthesouthernHydeStreetRampasbarrierscombinedwithtreeplantingcansignificantlyreducepollution.

• GiventheexpectedincreaseintrafficvolumesontheWestGateFreewaywestofMelbourneRoad of 37,000 vehicles per day the temporary monitoring station on Donald McLeanReserveshouldbemadepermanentandhandedover to theEPA. It is imperative that thecurrentdata from thismonitoring stationbemadepubliclyavailable immediately.A studyinvolving respiratoryphysiciansandairqualityexpertsshouldbedeveloped tomonitor thechildren’s health at the Kindergarten. All this data should bemade publicly available in atimelymanner.

• Giventhe largenumberoftrucksforecasttousethetunnels, it iscriticalthatfiltrationandventilationsystemsbe installed, regularlymaintainedandcleaned inthetunnels toprotectthe health of tunnel users and ensure best practice in management. This should becomplemented by the introduction of PM2.5 and PM10 air quality standards for tunnelsadministeredbytheVictorianEPA.

• The Project’s Human Health Impact Assessment report advises that tunnel users wind upwindows and switch ventilation to recirculation (AECOM, 2017). These are insufficientmitigation strategies from a public health perspective to manage particulate matteremissions. Filtration systems that are regularly cleaned, in addition to planned ventilation,areessential toensureahealthyenvironment for tunnelusersandwillbringtheProject inlinewithworld’sbestpractice.

Lack of adequate separation distances for sensitive populations from veryhightrafficvolumes

Little effort is expended in Australia on protecting sensitive populations, such as schools andchildcare centres, from the harmful effects of exposure to air pollution generated on busy roads.SomeexamplesincludeinitiativesimplementedinNSW,suchasNSWLocalGovernmentcontrolsforchildcare centres near roadswhich include installing double glazing onwindows, air conditioning,locatingplayareasawayfromnoise,restrictingplacementofchildcarecentreswithin200metresofa service stationor100metresofmobilephone towersorhighvoltage transmission lines ‘or thelike’unlesshazardriskassessmentsareundertaken(Wickham,2012).

The West Gate Tunnel Project is a massive project that is expanding the freeway and buildingtunnelsandtruckrampsinanareathat,onoccasion,alreadyexceedsambientairqualitystandardsforparticulatematterinVictoria,evenwithouttheadditionofthisProject.

Traffic volumes on theWest Gate Freeway close to Spotswood exceed 200,000 vehicles per daywhich is a very large volume of traffic, and widening of the freeway is predicted to attract anadditional37,000vehiclesperday(GHD,2017).

In theUnitedStateswhentrafficvolumesexceed50,000or100,000vehiclesperday, this triggersrecommendedseparationdistancesforschoolsof500-1000feet(152-305metres)(Wickham,2012).In California it is recommended that schools be located at least 1,500 feet (457 metres) fromroadways transporting diesel, propane, gasoline, oxygen, chlorine, pesticides, or other poisonousgasesorcombustible(USEPA,2015).

• Existing traffic volumes on the West Gate Freeway are more than double these trafficvolumesandyetthereisnolegislationinVictoriatoprotectthesesensitivepopulationsfrom

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theharmfuleffectsofexposuretotrafficemissions,bywayofrecommendingorprescribingseparationdistancesfrombusyroads,orrequiringhealthassessmentstudies.

• Sensitive populations located within 300-500 metres of busy roads require individual airquality impact assessments and mitigation strategies to protect the health of thesepopulations from the detrimental effects of exposure to traffic pollution, including for theDonaldMcLeanReserveandtheEmmaMcLeanKindergarten.

It is noted that at the time of writing the Project has not made publicly available the results oftemporaryairpollutionmonitoring,includingofparticulatematteremissions,attheDonaldMcLeanReserve.

FlawsintheAirQualityImpactAssessmentMethodology

The most concerning aspect of the Project’s Environment Effects Statement is their Air QualityImpactAssessmentwhichIbelievehasseriousflaws,andlackscredibilityandscientificrigourinitsPM2.5andPM10emissionpredictions.

Thisairqualityassessmentislikelytohavesignificantlyunderestimatedparticulatematterpollutionlevelsintheregionforallscenariosmodelled.Anumberoftheseseriousflawsareoutlinedbelow:-

1. TheAQIAdidnotreporttheactualvaluesoftheemissionfactorsusedtomodelsurfaceroadsandemissionsfromtunnelventilationstructures.Theassessmentlackstransparency.

2. Thesameemissionfactors(unpublished)wereusedtomodelsurfaceroadandtunnelemissionsattheventilationstacks,eventhoughthesearetwodifferentenvironmentswhichrequiretheuseofemissionfactorsbasedonmeasurementstudiesrelevanttothesedifferentconditions.

3. Forsurfaceroadsonlytailpipe(exhaust)emissionsweremodelled,non-exhaustemissions(brakeandtyrewear)werenotmodelledwhichcanaccountforaround26%oftotalvehicleemissions.

4. Mostconcerningwashowtheyderivedemissionfactorstouseinthemodelling.Themethodused‘guess-estimated’PM2.5andPM10emissionfactorswhichishighlyinappropriateandlacksscientificrigour.TheyextrapolatedandcalculatedvaluesforemissionfactorsbyapplyingratiosandmultiplicationfactorstoemissionfactorsforunrelatedvehiclefueltypesanddifferentparticlesizefractionswhenrealworldemissionfactorvaluesforPM2.5andPM10emissionfactorsareavailableinthepublishedliterature.

5. TheAQIAreportstatesthattheyderivedtheirownemissionfactorsforpetrolfuelledpassengercars(PCP)anddieselfuelledpassengercars(PCD)asfollows:

a. Emissionfactorsforpetrolpassengercarswerederivedfromdieselpassengercaremissionfactors,scaledbyaratio,basedona2008emissionestimationmanualpublishedbytheNationalPollutantInventory.

“PCPPM2.5emissionfactorswerederivedfromthePIARCPCDPM2.5emissionfactors,scaledbytheratioofPCPtoPCDPM2.5emissionfactorscontainedintheNationalPollutantInventory(NPI)EmissionEstimationTechniqueManualforCombustionEnginesVersion3.0,June2008(NPI2008)”.(Golders,2017)

Thesederivedvaluesforemissionfactorslackscientificrigourandareinappropriateformodelling PM2.5 and PM10 emissions. Diesel and petrol vehicles have differentengineprocesses,usedifferentfuelsandgeneratedifferentquantitiesofparticulatematter size fractions. PIARC emission factors are used tomodel tunnel emissionsandPIARCdonothave,orpublish,exhaustemissionfactorsforPM2.5andPM10for

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motorvehicles.PIARConlypublishnon-exhaustemissionfactorsformotorvehiclesandPM (particulatematter) emission factors for different vehicle typeswhich arenotsegregatedintoPM2.5andPM10sizefractions(PIARC,2012).

b. TheProject’semissionfactorsarenotbasedonmeasurementstudiesandarenotscientificallyrobustorrelevant.

c. PM10emissionfactorswerederivedfromthesumofPIARCPM2.5exhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactors,multipliedbyafactorof1.8whichwasbasedonin-stackemissiondataforoneexistingAustralianroadtunnel.

“PM10emissionfactorswerederivedfromthesumofPIARCPM2.5exhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactors,multipliedbyafactorofapproximately1.8.Thisfactorwasbasedonin-stackemissiondataforanexistingAustralianroadtunnel.”(Golders,2017)

AddinganyPM2.5exhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactorsthenmultiplyingthembyafactorof1.8toderiveemissionfactorvaluesforPM10istotallyinappropriate,asPM2.5andPM10areparticlesgeneratedfromdifferentprocessesandsourcesandindifferentquantities.

Asmentionedabove,PIARCdoesnotpublishemissionfactorsforPM2.5exhaustemissionsformotorvehicles,sowhataretheyreferringtointheirmethod?

Again,theseemissionfactorsarenotbasedonmeasurementstudiesforthesetwodifferentsizefractionsandarenotscientificallyrobust.

AcomprehensivereviewbytheauthorsoftheAQIAofthepublishedliteraturewouldhaveidentifiedsuitable,realworldemissionfactorsforsurfaceroadsandtunnelsthatincludeexhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactorsthataresizesegregatedforPM2.5andPM10suitableforuseintheirmodelling.

6 ObsoletebackgroundmonitoringdataforpollutionlevelsattheFootscraymonitoringstationfortheperiod2009-2013wereused,eventhoughmorerecentdatafortheperiod2013-2017isavailableattheVictorianEPA.Thismeansthatthedatauseddoesnotrepresentuptodatebackgroundpollutionlevelsinthatarea.

2010Victorianfleetdatawasusedwithcopertemissionfactorsforairtoxicsalthough2016ABSvehiclecensusdataisavailable.Again,thisisoutofdatedatausedinthemodellingwhichcouldhavesignificantlyunderestimatedpollutionlevels.“… the West Gate Tunnel Project model was configured on a state based level, including vehicle fleet mix and mean fleet mileage statistics for Victoria in 2010. This information developed as part of the NPI Australian Motor Vehicle Emissions Inventory (MVEI) and compiled in a COPERT Australia input file.” (Golders, 2017)

7 No historical measurement data was presented in the assessment to compare model

predictionswithhistoricaldatatoassessmodelskill.

GiventhattheoutputsfromtheAQIAformthebasisforconclusionsintheProject’sHealthImpactAssessment,andtheseriousnessoftheflawsinthemodelling,itishighlyrecommendedthattheAQIAassessmentberedone,takingaccountofissuesidentifiedinthisstatementandothersubmissionsreceivedbytheCommittee,andtheremodellingbeindependentlyreviewedbyanappropriateacademicinstitution.

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FurtherdetailandrecommendationsarecontainedinAppendixB.

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IdeclarethatIhavemadealltheenquiriesthatIbelievearedesirableandappropriateandthatnomattersofsignificancewhichIregardasrelevanthavetomyknowledgebeenwithheldfromtheCommittee. DrDianeKeogh2/6-8MayfairRoadPortMacquarie,NSW,244420July2017

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References

AECOM. (2017).WestGateTunnelProject: TechnicalReport J-HumanHealth ImpactAssessment.Melbourne,Australia.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2016). 9208.0 - Survey ofMotor Vehicle Use, Australia, 12monthsended30June2016.Datacubes.GHD.(2017).WestGateTunnelProject,AirQualityPeerReview.GolderAssociatesPty.Ltd(Golders).(2017).WestGateTunnelProject.TechnicalreportG-AirqualityImpactAssessmentReport.(ReportNo.1521107-6002-R-Rev0).InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC)WHO.(2012).IARC:Dieselengineexhaustcarginogenic(PressreleaseNo.213ed.).PIARC (2012). Road Tunnels: Vehicle Emissions and Air Demand for Ventilation, World RoadAssociation.

Rufo,J.C.,Madureira,J.,Paciência,I.,Slezakova,K.,Pereira,M.,Pereira,C.,...Fernandes,E.(2015).Exposureofchildrentoultrafineparticles inprimaryschools inPortugal.JournalofToxicologyandEnvironmentalHealth,PartA,78(13-14),904-914.Smit,R.(2014).AustralianMotorVehicleEmissionInventoryfortheNationalPollutantInventory(NPI).PreparedforDepartmentoftheEnvironment.DrRobinSmit.UniQuestProjectNo:C01772.UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA).(2015).Bestpracticesforreducingnear-roadpollutionexposureatschools.WHO.(2016).Ambient(outdoor)airqualityandhealth.Factsheet.Wickham,L.(2012).Separationdistancesforroads,adiscussiondocumentpreparedforAucklandCouncil.Wolff,H.,&Perry,L.(2010).PolicymonitortrendsinCleanAirlegislationinEurope:Particulatematterandlowemissionzones.ReviewofEnvironmentalEconomicsandPolicy,4(2),293-308.

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ExpertEvidence

1.ThisreportispreparedbyDrDianeKeoghofPortMacquarie,NSW,2444.2.Ihavethefollowingqualifications;

a.PhDAerosolScience,QueenslandUniversityofTechnologyb.BachelorofBusiness,UniversityofSouthernQueensland

3.Mycurrentappointmentsare:a.AcademicBoardMember,RoyalWinthropeCollege,Brisbaneb.SessionalAcademic,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,OodgerooUnit,Brisbanec.SessionalAcademic,CharlesSturtUniversity,IndigenousStudentSupportUnit,Port

Macquarie4.Myareaofexpertiseisinparticulatematterpollutionrelatedtomotorvehiclefleets.

Idevelopedtheworld’sfirstcomprehensiveparticleemissionsinventoryforamotorvehiclefleetcoveringthefullsizerangeofparticlesgeneratedbymotorvehicles,fromultrafinetoPM10-sizedparticles,andacomprehensivesetofaverageparticleemissionfactorsfordifferentvehicletypessuitableforuseindevelopinginventoriesandhealthimpactassessmentsindevelopedcountries,basedonalargebodyofpublishedemissionfactordata.

5.Myexperienceincludes;a.11years’researchexperienceinacademiaandgovernment,Australiab.Closeto2years’experienceasanAirQualityScientist,NewZealandc.7.5yearsteachingatUniversityandCollege,Australiad.24publicationsincludinginhighimpactinternationaljournalsrelatingtoparticulate

matterairpollution,airquality,evaluationofappliedclimateforecastsinagricultureandclimatechangeadaptation

6.AspertheinstructionsoftheSpotswoodSouthKingsvilleResidentsGroup(attached).

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LetterofEngagement

DearDrKeogh,

RE:EXPERTOPINIONONTHEPOTENTIALHEALTHIMPACTSOFTHEWESTGATETUNNELPROJECTONLOCALRESIDENTSANDAMENITYUSERS–INCLUDINGUSERSOFTHEDONALDMCLEANRESERVEANDCHILDRENATTENDINGTHEEMMAMCLEANKINDERGARTENATSPOTSWOOD

ThankyouforagreeingtoprovideareporttousandanexpertwitnessstatementforconsiderationbytheWestGateTunnelProjectInquiryandAdvisoryCommittee(IAC)andtoattendtoaddressquestionsatthepublichearingsregardingtheproposedWestGateTunnelProject.Weconfirmthatthewitnessstatementisduetobeprovidedby24July2017.ThedatesforthepublichearingsandconclaveofexpertsarestilltobeconfirmedthroughdirectionsfromtheIACINDEPENDENCEIdisclosethattheSpotswoodSouthKingsvilleResidentsGroupInc,anditsindividualmembershavenoprofessionalorsocialassociationwithyouandthatyouropinioniscompletelyindependentandbasedonyourexpertise.OPINIONBEINGSOUGHTWerequesttheopinionbebasedonyourexpertiseinparticulatematterpollutionrelatedtomotorvehiclefleets.WewouldlikeananalysisoftheAirQualityImpactAssessmentintheEnvironmentEffectsStatementfortheWestGateTunnelProjectandexpertopiniononthepotentialhealtheffectsonhumanhealthofparticulatematteranddieselexhaustexposure.Wewouldalsolikeyouropinionontherelevanceofultrafineparticlemonitoringfortheproject.WeaskthatyoudealspecificallywiththepotentialhealthimpactsonareasofspeciallandusewithintheprojectspecificallyinrelationtothechildrenattendingEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandthoseparticipatinginsocialandactiverecreationontheDonaldMcLeanReserve.WealsoaskyoutoprovideanopinionontheimpactonairqualityandhumanhealthbytheexpansionoftheWestGateFreewayandtheinclusionofventilationstacksforthetunnelswithintheWestGateFreeway.Thisisnotintendedtolimitthescopeofyouropinionandweencourageyoutoraiseanymattersyouseeassignificantinrelationtotheopinion(s)youprovide.Tosatisfyitspurpose,youropinionmustbelimitedtoareaswithinyourexpertise,unlessotherwiseclearlystipulatedand,wherestipulated,supportedbymaterialsorinformationonwhichyoubasedthatpartoftheopinion.ASSUMPTIONSPleaseassumethattheprojectwilllargelyaccordwiththedesignsandinformationcontainedintheWestGateTunnelProjectEnvironmentEffectStatementpreparedbyconsultantsfortheWesternDistributorAuthority,theprojectproponents,releasedinMay2017forpublicexhibitionandconsultation.SSKRGInc.intheirsubmissionhasqueriedanumberofassumptionsinthestudiesincludedintheEES.Inarrivingatyouropinion,weencourageyoutointerrogatethedataandquestiontheassumptionsofthesestudieswithinyourexpertabilitytodoso.InorderforthereporttocomplywiththerequirementsoftheCommittee,pleaseensurethatthe

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reportstatesyouropinionoropinionsandstates,specifiesorprovides—(a)yournameandaddress;(b)yourqualificationsandexperience;(c)astatementidentifyingyourareaofexpertisetomakethereport;(d)astatementidentifyinganyothersignificantcontributorstothereportandwherenecessaryoutliningtheirexpertise;(e)allinstructionsthatdefinethescopeofthereport(i.e.includethisletter)(f)theidentityofthepersonwhocarriedoutanytestsorexperimentsuponwhichyouhavereliedonandthequalificationsofthatperson(referencingforjournalarticlesshouldsuffice)YourssincerelyRosaMcKennaSecretarySpotswoodSouthKingsvilleResidentsGroupInc

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DrDianeUnderwoodKeogh DOB27thNovember1955

Qualifications

• BBus1997,BachelorofBusiness,Toowoomba,Queensland(doublemajorsLogisticsandOperationsManagementandEnd-UserComputing)

• PhDinAerosolScience,2009,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane(Thesis:DevelopmentofaparticlenumberandparticlemassinventoryfortheBrisbaneurbanmotorvehiclefleet)

PresentAppointments

• AcademicBoardMember,RoyalWinthropeCollege(AIBT),Brisbane,2016topresent• SessionalAcademic,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,OodgerooIndigenousUnit,

Brisbane,2013topresent• SessionalAcademic,CharlesSturtUniversity,IndigenousStudentSupportUnit,

PortMacquarie,2017topresent

PastAppointments• Sessional Academic, University of Southern Queensland, College for Indigenous Studies,

EducationandResearch,Toowoomba,2014-2017• Lecturer,AustraliaInstituteofBusiness&Technology(AIBT),Brisbane,2015-2016• SessionalAcademic,GriffithUniversity,GumurriiIndigenousSupportUnit,Brisbane,2013-

2014• Trainer/Tutor,EvoccaCollege,Brisbane,2014-2015• Scientist–AirQuality,AucklandCouncil,Auckland,NewZealand,2011-2013• SessionalAcademic,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,OodgerooIndigenousUnit,

Brisbane,2008-2011• Tutor/Lecturer,QueenslandInstituteofBusinessTechnology,Brisbane,2010-2011• Lecturer,CQUniversity,GoldCoastandBrisbane,2009-2011• Post-DoctoralResearchFellow,UniversityofSouthernQueensland,Toowoomba,2009-2010• ResearchAssociate,InternationalLaboratoryforAirQualityandHealth,Queensland

UniversityofTechnology,2008-2009• PolicyOfficer,SeniorResearchOfficer,QueenslandTransport,Brisbane,2003-2005• EvaluationOfficer,QueenslandDepartmentofNaturalResources(NRM),1998-2003• PolicyOfficer,QueenslandTransport,Brisbane,1998,thenSecondmenttoNRM• ContractDataAnalyst,RussellMineralEquipment,InitiatingExplosiveSystems,Toowoomba,

1996-1997

Anumberoftheuniversityandcollegecontractsfrom2008wereconcurrent.

ReviewerforInternationalJournals

• AtmosphericEnvironment• AtmosphericPollutionResearch• AustralianJournalofAgriculturalResearch• EnvironmentalModellingandAssessment

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• JournalofEnvironmentalManagement• NaturalHazards

RecentTraining

• TAE40110 Certificate IV in Training and Assessment, Chris Morton Powerful Seminars,Brisbane,2014

PastMemberships

• AssociateFellow-AustralianInstituteofManagement,1992-2008• Member-AustralasianEvaluationSociety,2003-2003

Awards• Initiating Explosive Systems (divisionof ICI) award - IESMissionAward for Innovation and

Excellenceforworkonacompanydatabase,1997

PublicationsPleaseseeAppendixA.

Trackrecord:Top5publicationsinthelast9years1.MorawskaL,Ristovski Z, JayaratneER,KeoghDU,&LingZ. (2008).Ambientnanoandultrafineparticles from motor vehicle emissions: characteristics, ambient processing and implications onhumanexposure,AtmosphericEnvironment42(35),8113-8138.2.Morawska L, Keogh DU, Thomas S, &Mengersen KL. (2008).Modality in ambient particle sizedistributions and its potential as a basis for developing air quality regulation, AtmosphericEnvironment42(7),1617-1628.3.KeoghDU,ApanA,MushtaqS,KingD,&ThomasM.(2011).Resilience,VulnerabilityandAdaptiveCapacityof an InlandRural TownProne to Flooding: AClimateChangeAdaptationCase StudyofCharleville,Queensland,Australia.NaturalHazards59(2),699-723.4.KeoghDU,FerreiraL,&MorawskaL.(2009).Developmentofaparticlenumberandparticlemassvehicleemissions inventory for anurban fleet.EnvironmentalModelling&Software24(11), 1323-1331.5. Keogh DU, Kelly J, Mengersen K, Jayaratne R, Ferreira L, &Morawska L. (2009). Derivation ofmotorvehicletailpipeparticleemissionfactorssuitableformodellingurban fleet emissionsandairquality assessments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research – International. Publishedonline,doi0.1007/s11356-009-0210-9. DianeKeoghhasworkedforovertwentyyearsinacademiaandgovernmentinresearch,evaluation,policy and science roles and is a published Researcher, including in international high impactjournals.

DianeKeoghisanAirQualityScientistwhohasalsoworkedasaBusinessLecturerandResearcherinaerosolscience(airqualityandparticulatemattervehicleemissions),evaluationofappliedclimateforecastsinagriculture,climatechangeadaptationandtransportandenvironmentalpolicy.

Diane has recently spent many years working directly with Australian Indigenous students as aPersonalTutorguidingandmentoringindigenousstudentsstudyingbusinessdegreesatuniversitiesinQueensland.

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AppendixA

Publications–DrDianeKeogh

King,D,Bird,D,Haynes,K,Boon,H,Cottrell,A,Millar,J,Okada,T,Box,P,Keogh,D,ThomasM.(2014)Voluntaryrelocationasanadaptationstrategytoextremeweatherevents,InternationalJournalofDisasterRiskReduction,8,pp.83-90.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.02.006.King,D,Apan,A,KeoghD,ThomasM.,(2013)AdaptationandresilienceintwofloodproneQueenslandcommunitiesinNaturalDisastersandAdaptationtoClimateChange,S.Boulter,J.Palutikof(Editors),CambridgeUniversityPress,IBSN9781107010161KeoghDU,ApanA,MushtaqS,KingD,ThomasM(2011)Resilience,VulnerabilityandAdaptiveCapacityofanInlandRuralTownPronetoFlooding:AClimateChangeAdaptationCaseStudyofCharleville,Queensland,Australia.NaturalHazards59(2),699-723.ThomasM,KingD,KeoghDU,ApanA,MushtaqS(2011)Resiliencetoclimatechangeimpacts:areviewoffloodmitigationpolicyinQueensland,Australia.TheAustralianJournalofEmergencyManagement,26(1),8-17,ISSN1324-1540.KeoghDU,SonntagD(2011)ChallengesandApproachesforDevelopingUltrafineParticleEmissionInventoriesforMotorVehicleandBusFleets.Atmosphere,2(2),36-56.Publishedonlinedoi:10.3390/atmos2020036.KeoghDU(2011)DevelopingMotorVehicleEmissionInventoriesandAirQualityRegulationforUltrafineParticlesinAdvancesinNanotechnology,Z.BartulandJ.Trenor(Editors),vol.8,NovaSciencePublishersInc.,NewYork,383-400,ISBN:9781613240625.ApanA,KeoghDU,KingD,ThomasM,MushtaqS,BaddileyP.(2010).The2008FloodsinQueensland:ACaseStudyofVulnerability,ResilienceandAdaptiveCapacity.ReportfortheNationalClimateChangeAdaptationResearchFacility,NCCARFPublication16/10,GoldCoast,Australia.ISBN:978-1-921609-18-3.KeoghDU,KellyJ,MengersenK,JayaratneR,FerreiraLandMorawskaL(2009)TailpipeparticleemissionfactorsderivedformotorvehiclesforapplicationtotransportmodellingandhealthimpactassessmentsofurbanfleetsinTrafficRelatedAirPollutionandInternalCombustionEngines,S.DemidovandJ.Bonnet(Editors),NovaSciencePublishersInc,NewYork,69-10,.ISBN:9781607411451.KeoghDU,KellyJ,MengersenK,JayaratneR,FerreiraL,MorawskaL(2009)Derivationofmotorvehicletailpipeparticleemissionfactorssuitableformodellingurbanfleetemissionsandairqualityassessments.EnvironmentalScienceandPollutionResearch–International.Publishedonline,doi0.1007/s11356-009-0210-9.

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KeoghDU,FerreiraL,MorawskaL(2009)Developmentofaparticlenumberandparticlemassvehicleemissionsinventoryforanurbanfleet.EnvironmentalModelling&Software24(11),1323-1331.MorawskaL,KeoghDU,ThomasS,MengersenKL(2008)Modalityinambientparticlesizedistributionsanditspotentialasabasisfordevelopingairqualityregulation,AtmosphericEnvironment42(7),1617-1628.MorawskaL,RistovskiZ,JayaratneER,KeoghDU,LingZ(2008)Ambientnanoandultrafineparticlesfrommotorvehicleemissions:characteristics,ambientprocessingandimplicationsonhumanexposure,AtmosphericEnvironment42(35),8113-8138.CobonDM,BellKL,ParkJN,KeoghDU(2008)SummativeevaluationofclimateapplicationactivitieswithpastoralistsinwesternQueensland.TheRangelandJournal,30(3),361-374.GeorgeDA,BirchCJ,ClewettJF,WrightA,AllenW,KeoghDU(2007)Needsforappliedclimateeducationinagriculture.AustralianJournalofExperimentalAgriculture,47(1),1-12.KeoghDU,WatsonIW,BellKL,CobonDH,DuttaSC(2006)ClimateinformationneedsofGascoyne–Murchisonpastoralists:arepresentativestudyoftheWesternAustraliangrazingindustry.AustralianJournalofExperimentalAgriculture,45(12),1613-1625.KeoghDU,AbawiGY,DuttaSC,CraneAJ,RitchieJW,HarrisTR,WrightCG(2004)Contextevaluation:Aprofileofirrigatorclimateknowledge,needsandpracticesinthenorthernMurray-DarlingBasintoaiddevelopmentofclimate-baseddecisionsupporttoolsandinformationanddisseminationofresearch.AustralianJournalofExperimentalAgriculture,44(3),247-257.KeoghDU,BellKL,ParkJN,CobonD(2004)Formativeevaluationtobenchmarkandimproveclimate-baseddecisionsupportforgraziersinwesternQueensland.AustralianJournalofExperimentalAgriculture,44(3),233-246.KeoghDU,WatsonIW,BellKL,CobonD,DuttaSC(2003)ClimateinformationneedsandpracticesofpastoralistsinWesternAustralia-aneedsassessment;SynopsisofResults,DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines,Coorparoo,Queensland,ISBN0734526911.GeorgeDA,KeoghDU,BuckleyD,Mavi,H.(2002).Theoreticalframeworkforappliedclimateeducation:3.Evaluatingappliedclimateresearch,developmentandextensionprocessesandtheiroutcomesinagriculture.InClewett,J.F.,Ooi,S.H.,Owens,D.T.,George,D.A.,andPartridge,I.J.(2002).RainmanInternationalversion4:anintegratedsoftwarepackageofRainfallInformationforBetterManagement.QI02023,DepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Queensland.George,D.A.,andPartridge,I.J.(2002).RainmanInternationalversion4:anintegratedsoftwarepackageofRainfallInformationforBetterManagement.QI02023,DepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Queensland.

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KeoghDU(2001)AreportonevaluationoftheimpactoftheinternationaltrainingcourseApplicationsofClimateForecaststoAgriculturesponsoredbytheInternationalResearchInstituteforClimatePredictionheldinAustralia1-19February,1999.DepartmentofNaturalResources,Coorparoo,Queensland,ISBN0734517696.

AbawiGY,DuttaSC,RitchieJW,HarrisTR,McClymontD,CraneAJ,KeoghDU,RattrayD(2001)AdecisionsupportsystemforimprovingwateruseefficiencyintheNorthernMurray-DarlingBasin,NaturalResourcesManagementStrategyProjectI7403,FinalreporttotheMurray-DarlingBasinCommission.QueenslandCentreforClimateApplications,DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines,Coorparoo,Queensland.KeoghDU,AbawiGY,DuttaSC,CraneAJ,RitchieJW,HarrisTR,WrightCG(2000)Climateknowledge,informationneedsandpracticesofirrigatorsinthenorthernMurray-DarlingBasin:acontextevaluation:SynopsisofResults.DepartmentofNaturalResources,Coorparoo,Queensland,ISBN0734517033.KeoghDU,AbawiGY,DuttaSC,CraneAJ,RitchieJW,HarrisTR,WrightCG(2000)Canevaluationofirrigatorpractice,climateknowledgeandinformationneedsleadtodevelopmentofbetterdecisionsupporttools?:acasestudyintheMurray-DarlingBasin,Editedpaper,Proceedingsofthe3rdInternationalHydrologyandWaterResourcesSymposium,HYDRO2000,TheInstitutionofEngineers,Perth,Australia,20-23November,vol.2,991-996.KeoghDU(1999)AreportonevaluationofthetrainingcourseApplicationsofClimateForecaststoAgriculturesponsoredbytheInternationalResearchInstituteforClimatePredictionheldinAustralia1-19February,1999.DepartmentofNaturalResources,Coorparoo,Queensland,ISBN0734516347.

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AppendixB

ReportontheEnvironmentEffectsAirQualityAssessmentfortheWestGate

TunnelProject

July2017

Preparedby:DrDianeKeogh

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Overview

IhaveaddressedsixkeyairqualityissuesIbelieverequirecriticalattentioninthefinalprojectdesign.Theseinclude:

1. ModellingintheAirQualityImpactAssessmentReportisflawed

2.

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3. 2.ImprovedAirQualityMonitoring

4. 3 OngoingAirQualityMonitoringofPM2.5andPM10

5. 4 ProtectionofSensitiveLandUseAreas

6. 5 ImprovingEmissionsofAgeingTruckFleetUsingProject

7. 6 MeasuresinPlaceforExceedingtheAmbientAirQualityStandards

Theseissuesandrecommendationsarediscussedbelow.

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1 ModellingintheAirQualityImpactAssessmentReportisflawed

IproposethatthemodellingresultsoftheAQIAareinvalidandhighlyerroneous.Theassessmentisbasedonflawedassumptions,usesinappropriatedataandmustberedone.1.1 CurrentSituationbasedonEES

TheAQIAformsakeyfocusofthehealthimpactassessmentofthisProject,thereforeitiscriticalthatresultsareasaccurateaspossible.

MostimportantlyGolderAssociateshavenotbeentransparentandprovideddetailsofthespecificvaluesoftheemissionfactorstheyusedintheirmodellingfordifferentvehicletypesandpollutants.HistoricalmeasurementsarealsonotpresentedtoenablecomparisonandassessmentoftheAQIAmodelskill.

TheAUSROADSmodelwasusedtomodeleachroadsectionandonlyconsideredtailpipeemissionsandnotnon-exhaustparticleemissionsgeneratedbymotorvehiclesincludingbrakeandtyrewear.Thesenon-exhaustemissionscanaccountforuptoanadditional55%ofPM2.5andPM10particlemassemissions(Grigoratos&Martini,2014);andtheAustralianMotorVehicleEmissionInventoryestimatedthatnon-exhaustparticulatematteremissions(brake,tyreandroadwear)contributed26%oftotalemissionsfromroadtransport(Smit,2014).

TheAQIAdidnotconsidernon-exhaustemissionsinthesurfaceroadmodelling,butonlytailpipeemissions,thissuggeststhereisasignificantunderestimationofparticlepollutionlevelsinalltheirmodellingscenarios,whichinturnaffectthehealthimpactconclusions.

AUSROADSprovidesfordifferentclassificationsofvehicletype.ThetrafficcountdataprovidedbyGHDtoGolderAssociatesandusedinthisAQIAassessmentwasbasedonfourAUSROADSclassifications:Classes1&2cars,3LightCommercialVehiclesand4HeavyDutyVehicles(TonyFrodsham,personalcommunication,June19,2017).HowevertheAQIAprovidesnodetailsofthedifferentvaluesofemissionfactorsusedinthemodellingforthesefourdifferentvehicleclassesandtheirassociatedtrafficvolumes.

AnyclaimsmadeintheAQIAthatconservativevaluesforemissionfactorshavebeenusedcannotbesubstantiatedbecausetheactualvaluesofemissionfactorsusedintheirmodellinghavenotbeenrevealed.

TheAQIAmadeerroneousassumptionsandusedinappropriateemissionfactorswhichareinaccurateandnotfitforpurpose.Furthermore,theyhavenotprovidedthevalueoftheemissionfactorstheyusedintheirmodelling,norspecifiedthespecificcontributionofdieseltruckemissionstotheProject,apolluterofgreatconcerntothecommunity.

Inaddition,howweretheAQIAmodeloutputsvalidated,againstwhichmeasurementstudies,howaccuratewerethepredictionswhencomparedtorelevantmeasurementstudies?Thisisnotaddressed.

AnumberofcriticalflawswereidentifiedintheAQIAmodellingwhichsignificantlycallintoquestionanyconclusionsmadebasedontheseresultsinrelationtoanticipatedlevelsofpollutionandthereforepotentialhealthimpactsandrisksassociatedwiththisProject.

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1.2 WhythisproposalintheEESisunacceptable

AirqualitymodellingthatinformsanAQIAforthisProjectmustbebasedoncurrentvehiclefleetdata,themostrecentbackgrounddataavailablefromtheFootscraymonitoringstation,andemissionfactorswhicharerelevanttothevehicle,fueltypeandconditions,includingroadways,rampsandtunnelstructurebeingmodelled.Emissionfactorsmustbebasedoncurrentscientificknowledgeandstudiesandbefitforpurpose.ThisisclearlynotthecasefortheAQIA.

TheseriousflawsandinaccuraciesintheAQIAmodellingaredescribedbelow.

1.2.1 Obsolete background monitoring data and dubious projections for2022and2031

TheAQIAhasusedoutofdatebackgroundmonitoringdataforPM2.5andPM10concentrationsfromtheEPAVictoria’sFootscraymonitoringstationfortheperiod2009to2013,andassumedthisdataasbackgroundconcentrationlevelsintheirscenariomodellingfor2022and2031:

“Anumberofconservativeassumptionsweremadeinconductingtheairqualityimpactassessment.Theseinclude:

Backgroundpollutantconcentrationsfor2022(anticipatedyearofprojectopening)and2031wereassumedtoremainatlevelsrecordedduringtheperiod2009to2013.

Vehicleemissionfactorsfor2022and2031wereassumedtoremainatlevelspredictedfor2020.”(Golders,2017)

TheAQIAreportprovidesnoreasonorrationaleintheirreporttosupportorjustifyusingoutdatedbackgroundmonitoringdatafromEPAVictoria’sFootscraymonitoringstation.Icontendthatamorerelevantfiveyeardataset,suchas2011-2015or2012-2016,shouldbeusedinarerunofthemodelling,toreflectmoreaccuratelyrecentairqualityconditions.

EPAVictoriahasconfirmedthatappropriatebackgroundmonitoringdatafortheFootscraymonitoringstationforPM2.5andPM10fortheperiod2014-2017isavailable(JasonChoi,personalcommunication,May,30,2017).

Itcanbereasonablyassumedthatduringtheperiodthatfollowed2009-2013therewouldhavebeenincreasedlevelsoftrafficvolumesontheWestGateFreewayandsurroundingroads.ForexampletrafficvolumesontheWestGateFreewaynearSpotswoodhaveincreasedfrom184,200in2013to204,000in2016(VicRoads,2017),asubstantialincrease.

ThereforeuseofoutdatedbackgrounddatainmodellingpredictionsfortheAQIAmayrenderanypredictionsandconclusionsinaccurateandsuggestiveofunderestimatedpollutionlevels.Theperiodsofbackgrounddatashouldalsomatchtheperiodsofvehiclecountdataused.

AsthehealthimpactassessmentforthisProjectreliesontheoutputsoftheAQIAmodelling,itiscriticalthatpredictionsandmodellingbeasaccurateaspossible.People’shealth,well-being,morbidityandmortalitydependheavilyontheseconclusions.

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Clearly,theAQIAshouldhaveusedmorerecent,uptodatebackgrounddatafromtheEPAVictoria’sFootscraymonitoringstationthan2009-2013intheirmodelling.

Astrafficvolumeshaveincreasedsubstantiallysincethe2009-2013period,Ithereforehaveconsiderablylessconfidenceintherelevanceandrepresentativenessoftheirpredictions,andtheEES’shealthimpactassessmentmustbebasedonaccuratemodellingdata.

ItisverystronglyrecommendedthatthisAQIAberedoneusingmorerecentbackgroundmonitoringdata,whichEPAVictoriahasindicatedisavailable.

1.2.2Non-scientificallybasedemissionfactors

TheemissionfactorsusedintheAQIAmodellingappeartohavebeenchosenbasedonconvenience,ratherthanonarigorousliteraturereviewofcurrentrepresentativeemissionfactorsavailableinthepublishedscientificliterature.Theyhavederivedemissionfactorsbasedonincorrectfuelsandparticlesizes,andmadeveryerroneousassumptions.Thevaluesoftheemissionfactorsusedhavealsonotbeenprovidedintheirreport

TheAQIAusedthesameemissionfactorsforsurfaceroadsandtunnelemissionsmodellingandthesehavelimitations(GHD,2017).GolderAssociateshavenotbeentransparentinlistingtheactualvaluesoftheemissionsfactorstheyusedinmodellingdifferentvehicletypesandpollutants.

Inaddition,non-exhaustbrakeandtyrewearemissionsgeneratedbymotorvehicleshavenotbeenmodelledforroadsandtunnels.Theseemissionscanaccountforuptoapproximately55%morePM2.5andPM10emissions(Grigoratos&Martini,2014);andtheAustralianMotorVehicleEmissionInventoryreportsthatnon-exhaustparticulatematteremissions(brake,tyreandroadwear)cancontribute26%oftotalemissionsfromroadtransport(Smit,2014).

TheAQIAlacksconsiderablerigouranddoesnotconsiderrecentchangesinfleetmix,variationsinvehiclespeeds,andtheinherentdifferencesinemissionfactorvaluesrelevanttothethreedifferentenvironmentsbeingmodelled-namelytunnel,surfaceroadandramps.Non-exhaustemissionsfrombrakeandtyrewearwhichcontributesignificantlytoambientandin-tunnelPM2.5andPM10particleemissionlevelshavealsonotbeenappropriatelyconsidered.

1.2.3 AQIAmethodfordevelopingparticulatematteremissionfactors

TheAQIAreportusedPIARCemissionsfactorswhichdonotincludeemissionfactorsforPM2.5forpetrolfuelledpassengercars,norPM10,NO2,PAHs(Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons)orVOCs(Volatileorganiccompounds)foranyvehicleclass(Golders,2017).

GolderAssociates(2017)derivedtheirownemissionfactorsforpetrolfuelledpassengercars(PCP)andDieselfuelledpassengercars(PCD):

“PCPPM2.5emissionfactorswerederivedfromthePIARCPCDPM2.5emissionfactors,scaledbytheratioofPCPtoPCDPM2.5emissionfactorscontainedintheNationalPollutantInventory(NPI)EmissionEstimationTechniqueManualforCombustionEnginesVersion3.0,June2008(NPI2008).”

“PM10emissionfactorswerederivedfromthesumofPIARCPM2.5exhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactors,multipliedbyafactorofapproximately1.8.Thisfactorwasbasedonin-stackemissiondataforanexistingAustralianroadtunnel.”(Golders,2017,pp.97-98)

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InotherwordsGolderAssociates(2017)havederivedavalueforPM2.5emissionfactorsforpetrolfuelledpassengercarsbasedonPM2.5emissionfactorsfordieselfuelledpassengercars,scaledusingaratio.Dieselandpetrolvehicleshavecompletelydifferentengineprocesses,usedifferentfuelsandgeneratedifferentquantitiesofparticulatematterandgaseouspollutants.

ItshouldalsobenotedthatPIARCemissionfactorsareusedformodellingtunnelemissionsandPIARCdonothave,norpublish,vehicleexhaustemissionfactorsforPM2.5andPM10formotorvehicles.PIARConlypublishnon-exhaustemissionfactorsformotorvehicles,andPM(particulatematter)emissionfactorsfordifferentvehicletypeswhicharenotsegregatedintoPM2.5andPM10

sizefractions(PIARC,2012).

TheemissionfactorsderivedfortheAQIAarenotbasedonmeasurementstudies,noraretheyparticlesizesegregated,thereforetheyarenotscientificallyrobustorrelevant. ForPM10emissionfactorstheyappeartohaveaddedPM2.5emissionfactorsforexhaustandnon-exhaust(eg.,brakeandtyrewear)andthenmultipliedthemby1.8,onthebasisofin-stackemissiondataforoneroadtunnel.PM2.5andPM10particulatematteremissionsaregeneratedbycompletelydifferentprocessesandaredifferentmetrics.

Where did they source PIARC PM2.5 exhaust emission factors, as these do not exist?

Applyingamultiplierof1.8toconvertPM2.5emissionfactorstoPM10emissionfactorsforlightdutyvehiclesisneverappropriate,astheyaredifferentparticlesizefractionsandthismethodhasnoscientificbasis.

Anextensivereviewconductedofmorethan600emissionfactorspublishedintheinternationalliteratureforparticlenumber,particlevolume,totalparticlemass,PM1,PM2.5andPM10formotorvehicletailpipeemissionsandanalysedusingadvancedstatisticalanalysisrevealedaparticleemissionfactorforlightdutyvehiclesof33mg/kmforPM2.5,comparedto46-454mg/kmforPM10,

ondifferentroadtypes–clearlyasubstantiallyhigherdifferencethanafactorof1.8timestheemissionfactorforPM2.5;theemissionfactorderivedfortunnelswas14mg/km(Keoghetal.,2010,Table4,p.16).Basingsucharoughcalculationfortwodifferentparticlesizesonin-stackemissionsforoneAustraliantunnelseemshighlyinappropriate.

ThereislittlementionintheAQIAreportofthevaluesofemissionsfactorsusedforbusesandheavydutydieseltrucks,northeageofthevehiclefleets.

Theabovemethodishighlyinappropriateforderivingemissionfactorsandlacksanyrigorousscientificbasis.Theseare‘guess-estimates’thatbearnoresemblancetorepresentativeemissionfactorsderivedfromrigorous,realworldscientificmeasurementsandstudies.Theyareveryrough‘guesses’,andhighlyinaccuratesubstitutesforrealworldemissionfactors.

1.2.4 BrakeandTyreWearPM2.5andPM10emissionsmodellingomitted

GolderAssociateshavenotmodellednorconsiderednon-exhaustPM2.5andPM10particlemassemissionsgeneratedfrommotorvehiclebrakeandtyrewearwhichcancontributesignificantlytototalemissionsfromvehicles,asmentionedpreviously,andhaveconsideredonlyroughestimatesofengineexhaustemissionsgeneratedbymotorvehicles.TheAUSROADSmodelmodelledeachroadsectionandconsideredonlytailpipeemissions(exhaustemissions),particulatematterfrombrakeandtyrewearwasnotconsidered(Golders,2017)

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Ineffect,theAQIAunderestimatesparticleemissionsfortheProjectbybetweenupto26-55%bynotincludingbrakeandtyreemissionsintheirmodellingestimatesinalltheirmodelledparticleemissionestimatesincludingforfuturescenarios.

Particlesgeneratedfrombrakewearcanaccountfor16-55%bymassofPM10emissionsbypassengercarsinurbanareasandapproximately5%–30%fromtyres,withpeaksinbimodalsizedistributiononbothPM2.5andPM10sizeranges(Grigoratos&Martini,2014).

BothPM2.5andPM10non-exhaustparticleemissionscanamounttoaround6–7mg/km(Grigoratos&Martini,2014)whichisclosetothecurrentengineemissionstandardsforparticulatematterforEuro5and6passengercarsof5mg/km(Hooftmanetal.,2016).

Predictionsfor2020estimatethatmorethan70%ofaverageurbanPM10emissionsbypassengercarswillbenon-exhaustemissionsandaverysmallproportionwillrelatetoengineexhaustemissions(Rexeisetal.,citedinHooftmanetal.2016).SuchconsiderationsshouldbeconsideredintheAQIAfuturescenariomodellingestimates.

IftheAQIAused‘realworld’emissionfactorsintheirmodellingthequantitiesofbrakeandtyreemissionsforPM2.5andPM10massfractionswouldhavebeenincludedinthevaluesofemissionfactorsderivedfromreal-worldmeasurementsofvehicleemissionsconductednearroadsandintunnels.

ThePM2.5andPM10emissionfactorsusedintheAQIAmodellingwereestimatedusingroughrules-of-thumbcalculationsandderivedbasedonverysignificantlyflawedandinaccurateassumptions.

Forexample,petrolfuelledpassengercaremissionfactorsforPM2.5were‘estimated’basedondieselfuelledpassengercaremissionfactors,scaledbyaratio.

ThePM10emissionfactorswere‘estimated’bysummingPIARCPM2.5exhaustandnon-exhaustemissionfactorsandmultiplyingthembyafactorofapproximately1.8,basedonin-stackemissiondataforoneAustralianroadtunnel.

Thisisahighlyinaccurateandinappropriatemethodforderivingorselectingemissionfactorsandhaszeroscientificbasis.

Theyalsousedthesameemissionfactorsforsurfaceroadsandtunnelemissions.

GolderAssociatesdidnotrevealanyofthevaluesofemissionfactorstheyusedintheirmodelling,nordidtheyincludenon-exhaustemissionsfrombrakeandtyrewearinmodellingemissionsonroads,rampsandtunnelswhichcanaccountforupto55%ofPM2.5andPM10particleemissions.

ResultsoftheAQIAmodellingusingtheseemissionfactorsshoulddefinitelynotbeusedasabasisfor health impact assessments in this Project as the modelled data is highly inaccurate anderroneous.

1.2.5 Real world emission factorswere not used, calling into question theProject’shealthimpactconclusions

TheAQIAhasnotusedrealworldemissionfactorsderivedfromrelevantstudiesindifferentroad,rampandtunnelenvironmentsfortheirmodelling.

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ThemasssizedfractionsforparticulatematterofPM2.5andPM10areextremelyimportanttoassesshumanhealthrisksand,asdiscussedabove,theAQIAhasprovidedinaccurateemissionfactorsinthemodellingwhichiscompletelyunacceptableandinaccuratefromascientificperspective.

TherearenumerousrealworldstudiesthathavepublishedemissionfactorsderivedfromrigorousscientificmethodsthatarerelevantformodellerstousetoquantifymoreaccurateestimatesofPM2.5andPM10emissionsbasedonvehicle,fuelandroadtypes,includingatleastonestudyrelevanttoAustralianconditions(Keoghetal.,2010,Table4,p.16).

Anextensive,informedanduptodateliteraturereviewshouldhavebeenundertakenfortheAQIAsothatrelevant,realworldandappropriateemissionfactorsforparticulatematterpollutionwereusedinthemodellingrepresentativeofthedifferentroad,tunnelandrampenvironments.ThissupportsthesuggestionthatGolderAssociatesneedtoredotheirmodelling.

1.2.6 Otherlimitationsinrelationtoemissionfactorsused

ThePIARCemissionfactorsusedintheAQIAonlyprojectto2020,howevertheirmodelpredictionsforconcentrationsarefor2022and2031(GHD,2017);renderingthischoiceofemissionfactorslessrelevant,andsuggestingtheremaybeadditionalinaccuraciesintheirmodelledpredictions.Moreover,relyingonexpectedadvancesinvehicletechnologiesincomingyearstoexplainawaythedifferencescouldbeconsideredastretch,andthiscanbeveryeasilyoffsetbyincreasesinvehiclefleetnumbers.Moreconsiderationshouldhavebeengiventothisdiscrepancy.

Inaddition,theCOPERTemissionfactorsusedintheAQIAhavelimitationsinthattheydonotcorrectforroadgradient(GHD,2017).TheAQIAstatesthattheairtoxicsmodellingfortheProjectusingCOPERTwasconfiguredbasedontheVictorianfleetmixandaveragefleetstatisticsfor2010(Golders,2017).ClearlythisdataissignificantlyoutofdateandirrelevantintermsofthetimeperiodfortheWestGateProjectairqualityimpactassessment.Moreuptodatemotorvehiclecensusdatafor2016iscurrentlyavailablefromtheAustralianBureauofStatistics.

ArecenttunnelstudyinBrisbaneassessedtheaccuracyoftheCOPERTAustralianmotorvehicleemissionmodelusingstatisticalanalysisofvehicleemissiontunneldata(highspeed,freeflowconditions)andfoundthatthemodel,dependingonthepollutant,underestimatespollutantemissionsby2to36%,substantiallyunderpredictsdieseltruckemissions,andlightandheavydieselvehicleemissionsarestronglyandconsistentlyassociatedwitherrorsinpredictionacrossallpollutants(Smitetal.,2015).

ItisalsonotedthatintheAQIAvehicleswereassumedtobetravellingat80kmperhourfor2022(ScenariosA)andB(2031)(Golders,2017).Particlematteremissionsforvehiclestravellingathigherspeeds,suchas80kmperhour,inherentlyhavelowervaluesthanthoseatlowerspeeds.TheirassumptionsconcerninganNO2toNOxratio,animportantvehiclepollutant,couldhavebenefitedfromsourcingscientificliteratureontheratiosuitableforAustralianroadtunnelprojectconditions(GHD,2017,p.11).

IrespectfullychallengetheassertionbyGHDthatbecauseEPAVictoriaagreedtotheseemissionfactorsthismakesthemappropriate(GHD,2017).

TheGolderAssociatesareexpertmodellerswhoshouldthoroughlyinvestigatenewanduptodatescientificknowledgeintermsofavailableandsuitableemissionfactorswhichaccuratelyreplicateandrepresenttheroad,tunnelandrampconditionstheyaremodelling.Theyshouldnothavedevelopedscalingandmultiplierfactorsandappliedthemtoincorrectdatatoderivetheirown

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‘rough’PM2.5andPM10emissionfactorsonwhichtobasetheirmodelling.

TheAQIAmodelledpredictionshavenovalidityandshouldnotbeusedasthebasisforthehealthimpactsassessmentinthisProject.

1.2.7 In-Tunnelconcentrationswerenotmodelled

AsnotedbyGHDintheirpeerreviewoftheAQIAreport,in-tunnelconcentrationshavenotbeenconsidered,anditismaintainedthattunneloperatingproceduresandregulatorymeanswillcontrolpollutantconcentrationsinthetunnel(GHD,2017,p.16).Thisisanicethoughtbutmaynotnecessarilybereality.ThisisasubstantialweaknessoftheAQIA,particularlyinlightofAustralia’sagedtruckfleetwhichwillbeusingthetunnel.TheAustraliandieseltruckfleetaregrossemittersofpollution,particularlyofultrafineparticles;anddieselexhaustisadeclaredcancer-causingagentthatisassociatedwithanincreasedriskoflungcancer(IARC,2012).

Notably,in2014around30%oftheAustraliantruckfleet(above4.5tGVM)wereregisteredandmanufacturedpre-1996whentherewerenoemissionstandards,andonlyabout12.5%wereEuroV(ADR80/03)orhighercompliant(TruckIndustryCouncil,2015),hencethetruckfleetusingthistunnelisamajorsourceofdieselexhaustpollutionwhichshouldnotbeignored.ExaminationofthetruckfleetregisteredinVictoriain2016intermsofvehiclekilometrestravelled,showsthatonly29%ofrigidtrucks(>3.5tGVM)and47%ofarticulatedtrucksweremanufacturedin2011orlater(EuroVorhighercompliance)(ABS,2016)supportingthenotionthatthefleetaregrosspolluters.

Despitethefactthatventilationsystemswillbeusedinthetunnel,itisneverthelesscriticalweunderstandtheconcentrationlevelsofallvehicle-relatedpollutantsgeneratedinthetunnel,includingparticulatematter.Thisshouldbequantifiedusingappropriateemissionfactor,trafficvolumesandprojectedfleetcompositiondata.In-tunnelconcentrationsrepresentthepollutionplumeusersofthetunnelareexposedto,irrespectiveofventilation,andthislevelofpollutionmustbequantified,notignored.

IfurthercontendthatadviceprovidedintheProject’sTechnicalReportJonHumanHealthImpactAssessmentthattunneluserswindupwindowsandswitchventilationtorecirculationareinsufficientmitigationstrategiesfromapublichealthperspective(AECOM,2017).MoreneedstobedonebytheProjecttoreduceandassessrisk,includingregularmeasurementsin-tunneltoassess‘realworld’pollutionlevelsandinstallationoffiltrationsystemswhichshouldbemaintainedandregularlycleaned.

Standardsforin-tunnelPM2.5andPM10emissionsshouldalsobeintroducedbyEPAVictoriatoregulatein-tunnelconcentrations,asthereareknownmajorhealtheffectsassociatedwithexposuretothispollutant,includingmorbidityanddeath,amongstotherseriousrespiratoryandcardiovascularhealtheffects.

Thehealthrisktotunneluserswhowillbeexposedtopollutantconcentrationsinsidethetunnel,irrespectiveofoperatingfans,cannotbeignored,andpeopleinsidethetunnelandneartheventilationstacksshouldnotbeexposedtounfilteredpollutedair.

Modelledestimatesshouldbemadeofconcentrationsinsidethetunnel–modelledbothwith,andwithout,tunnelventilation.

In-tunnelmodellingshouldbeconductedforemissionsforallvehicle-relatedpollutantsusingappropriatespeed-relatedemissionfactors,up-to-datefleetcharacteristicdataandtrafficvolumes,andscenariosrelatingtoproposedtunnelopening,andpredictionsfor2022and2031.

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TheEPAVictoriashouldintroducein-tunnelairqualitystandardsforPM2.5andPM10emissionstoregulatethisimportantpollutionsource.

1.2.8 Noexceedancesarepermittedunderthestandards

Victoria’scurrentambientairqualitystandardsforparticulatematterprescribethatnoexceedancesofPM2.5orPM10areallowable(AustralianGovernment,2016).ThisexcludeseventsdeemedexceptionalbytheEPAVictoria(JasonChoi,personalcommunication,June,13,2017).

IdisputetheassertionintheAQIAthattheexceedances,orotherwise,predictedinthemodellingsupportthefactthattheProjectsatisfiestheairqualityEESEvaluationObjectiveandcomplieswiththeEnvironmentProtectionAct1970andaccompanyingpolicies(Golders,2017).

TheambientairqualitystandardsprescribethatnoexceedancesofPM2.5andPM10shouldoccur.TheargumentpresentedintheAQIAreportsuggestingthatbackgroundlevelsintheregionarehightobeginwithisnotasufficientenoughargumenttosupportthisProject,whichwillincreaseairpollutionanddoesnotformpartofamultimodaltransportofferingaless-pollutingsolution.

TheabovediscussionsuggeststhatGolderAssociatesdidnotundertakeanextensivereviewofthepublishedscientificliteraturetoidentifymoresuitable,andup-to-dateemissionfactorstouseinmodellingsurfaceroads,rampsandtunnelfortheProject.

The‘estimates’forPM2.5andPM10emissionfactorsusedintheirworkareclearlyerroneousandhavelikelysignificantlyunderestimatedparticulatematterpollutionrisk.Theyhavealsocompletelyignoredandfailedtomodelin-tunnelconcentrations,andhaveusedoutdatedbackgrounddatafromtheFootscraymonitoringstation.

Theseareseriousflawsintheirdata.

Realworldon-road,rampandtunnelemissionfactorsshouldhavebeenusedinthemodelling.

TheAQIAhaserroneousassumptionsandusesinappropriateemissionfactorswhicharenotaccurate,norfitforpurpose,andthereforetheirmodellingshouldbecompletelyredonefollowinganextensiveliteraturereviewtofindsuitableemissionfactorsandcorrectotherinaccurateassumptions.

1.3Recommendations

HIGHPRIORITYRECOMMENDATIONSAQ1. The AQIA should be rerun using more recent background data from the Footscray

monitoring station and relevant, real world emission factors sourced from an extensivereview of the published scientific literature. The values of the emission factors they useshouldalsobereported.CalculationsandassumptionsrelatingtoNO2toNOxratiosshouldalsobereviewedandadjustedtoreflectAustralianconditions.

AQ2. In-tunnel concentrations should be modelled for a range of different scenarios usingrelevant emission factors sourced from the published scientific literature and fleetcharacteristics, including projected concentrations for all pollutants, including particulatematter,bothwithandwithoutventilationfans,fortheyearoftunnelopening,2022,2031andonanannualbasis.Accuratedataiscriticaltoassesshumanhealtheffectsin-tunnelasthenatureoftheexternalpollutionplumeemanatingfromtheventilationstacksissourcedfromin-tunnelemissionsinanycase.Weneedasoundunderstandingofthewholetunnelenvironment, in-tunnel and at the ventilation stacks for comparison purposes and to

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evaluatetheeffectiveness,orotherwise,oftheventilationfansoncethetunnelisoperating.ThisknowledgeiscriticaltoinformtheProject’shealthimpactassessment.

AQ3. The EPA Victoria should implement regulatory standards for in-tunnel concentrations ofPM2.5 and PM10 to monitor this important pollutant exposure which has serious healtheffectsfortunnelusers.TheProjectshouldalsoberequiredtoinstallafiltrationsystemthatis regularlycleanedandmaintainedtoreducetunneluserexposuretothenegativehealtheffectsofdangerousairpollutants,particularlydieselexhaust.

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2.ImprovedAirQualityMonitoring

2.1 CurrentSituationbasedonEES

Intermsofparticulatematteremissions,Ithinkultrafineparticulatematterandblackcarbonalsoneedtobemonitored.

2.2 WhythisproposalintheEESisunacceptable

Iarguethatultrafineparticulatemattershouldbemonitoredaspartofthisprojectandthereasonsareoutlinedbelow.SourcesofparticulatematterandEurope’sparticlenumber(ultrafineparticle)engineemissionstandardswhicharecurrentlyinforcearealsodiscussed.

Ambientairqualitymonitoringandairqualityimpactassessmentsneedtobebasedoncurrentscientificknowledgeandtheneedsofthecommunity.

TheairqualitymonitoringplannedfortheProjectandtheAQIAmeetneitheroftheseobjectives.

2.2.1 Importanceofmonitoringultrafineparticles

2.2.1.1 AmbientAerosol

Ambientaerosolcomprisesliquidandsolidparticlessuspendedinambientair(Sioutaset.al,2005);andparticleshaveagreatereffectonhumansthananyotherpollutant(WHO,2016).

AmbientairqualitystandardsworldwideincludemassstandardsforPM2.5 and PM10(particleswithaerodynamicdiameterslessthan2.5µmand10µmrespectively).Theseparticlesaresignificantlylargerthanultrafineparticlesandhavegreaterweight;hencetheyaremeasuredintermsofparticlemass(weight).Ultrafineparticlesareprolificintermsofnumbersandsoaremeasuredintermsofparticlenumber.Mostoftheparticlesgeneratedinurbanareasareultrafinesizeandgeneratedbymotorvehicles.

Particulatemattergeneratedbymotorvehiclefleetsspansaverywidesizerange,fromultrafinetocoarseparticles(PM10)(CSIRO,2013),henceitiscriticalthatallthesesizeranges,includingultrafineparticles,aremeasuredtoquantifymotorvehicleparticlepollution.

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2.2.1.2 Ultrafineparticles

WithoutundertakingabaselinemeasurementlevelforultrafineparticlestherewillneverbeawayofknowingthefullimpactofthisroadprojectonthehealthofnearbyresidentsandMelbourneasawhole.ItmaybethecasethattherearecurrentlyinsufficientepidemiologicalstudiestodetermineasafelevelforultrafineparticleshoweverthisinformationwillbeavailableinthenearfutureandattheveryleastweneedtoknowthebaselinelevelsbeforethisProjectisbuilt.

Ultrafineparticlesintheambientenvironment,intermsoftheirnumbersaccountformorethan90%ofparticlenumberconcentrations(Sioutasetal.,2005).Theyaremainlygeneratedfromcombustionprocesses,areverytinywithdiameterslessthan0.1µmandmeasuredintermsofparticlenumber(Morawskaet.al.,2004).

Intunnelsandclosetoroadsmotorvehiclesarethemajorsourceofparticlenumberemissionsandultrafineparticleconcentrationscanreachovertentimeshigherthanbackgroundlevels,whereasPM2.5andPM10massconcentrationsnearroadshavebeenfoundtobenogreaterthan25-30%abovebackgroundlevels(Morawskaetal.,2004).

Peopleworkingorlivingclosetourbanarterialroadsarethereforelikelytobeexposedtowellabovenormalambientlevelsofultrafineparticles,andonlysomewhatelevatedlevelsofPM2.5andPM10(Morawskaetal.,2004).Thismakesultrafineparticlemonitoringveryimportant.

Exposuretoparticulatematterhasknownserioushealtheffects,includingdeath;andultrafineparticlesdifferfromlargerparticlesduetotheirpotentialtodepositinthelungandtranslocatetodifferentpartsofthehumanbody(HEI,2013).Thereisrapidlyincreasingepidemiologicalevidencelinkingexposuretoultrafineparticlestorespiratoryhealtheffects(Sioutasetal.,2005).

Mostoftheparticlesgeneratedbydieselvehiclesareultrafinesize;anddieselengineexhaustisaclassifiedhumancancer-causingagentthathasbeenfoundtoincreasetheriskoflungcancer(IARC,2012).

Heavydutyvehiclescangenerateupto20timesmoreultrafineparticlesthanpetrol-fuelledvehicles(Keoghetal.,2009)anddiesel-fuelledvehiclescangenerateanevenhigherorderofmagnitude(Morawskaetal.,2004).

Tounderstandthefullextentofparticulatematterpollutiongeneratedbymotorvehiclefleets,includingdieselvehicles,onroads,rampsandintunnelsitiscriticalthatultrafineparticles,inadditiontoPM2.5andPM10emissionsbemeasured. ItisunacceptablethatonlytemporarymonitoringofPM2.5andPM10ismentionedintheEESbecausemostoftheparticulatemattergeneratedbymotorvehiclesisultrafinesize.Monitoringofallthreesizefractionsshouldbeundertakenonanongoingbasistoprotectthehealthofroadandtunnelusers,residentsandthoselocatedinsensitivelanduseareas,suchastheDonaldMcLeansportsovalandtheEmmaMcLeanchildcarecentre.

Thisdatawillcontributesignificantlytoscientificknowledgeandthepotentialforepidemiologicalstudiestodetermineriskandpotentialhealtheffectsfornearbyresidentpopulations,roadandtunnelusers,andprovideanalertinthecaseoftheneedforurgentmitigationstrategiestobeenactedtoreduceseverehealthrisksandevendeaths.

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Thismonitoringisparticularlyimportantnearthetunnelventilationstacks,whereaspikeinultrafineparticleswillalertauthoritiestothelikelyneedtoundertakemaintenanceonfiltrationorventilationsystems.

2.2.1.3 SourcesofUltrafineParticles

Themainsourceofultrafineparticlesinurbanareasismotorvehicles(Kumaretal.,2014);mainlygeneratedfromcombustionprocessesandtheyareverysmallwithdiameterslessthan0.1µm(Morawskaetal.,2004).Theyaretraditionallydefinedasrelatingmainlytosourcesoffreshlygeneratedemissionsandaccountformorethan90%ofparticlenumberconcentrations(Sioutasetal.,2005).Theseparticlesareabletopenetratedeepintothehumanrespiratorysystemandcanmovedirectlyintothebloodandbrain(Eeftensetal.,2015).

Mostman-madecombustionactivitiesemitparticleswithdiameters<1μm(Jamriska&Morawska,2000),suchasburningfuels,andthissizerangeisdominatedbyultrafineparticles(particleswithdiameters<0.1μm).PM1(particleswithdiameterslessthan1μm)ismadeuplargelyofultrafineparticles,hencethisparticlemassmetricisnotcommonlymonitored.

Hightemperaturecombustionprocessesortheformingofparticlesintheatmospherefromatmosphericgasesproduceultrafineparticles,andthoseproducedbycombustioncomprisetracemetals,sulphatesandelementalcarbon(Himeetal.,2015).Typicalsourcesincludemotorvehiclefleetsandpowerplants;andthemainsourceofultrafineparticleemissionsnearmajorroadwaysistraffic(DieselNet,2015).

Perunitmass,ultrafineparticleshaveordersofmagnitudehigherparticlenumbers,largersurfaceareasthanlarger-sizedparticles,andgreaterconcentrationofcondensedoradsorbedairpollutantsthataretoxic,includingtransitionmetals,organiccompoundsandoxidantgases(Sioutasetal.,2005).

Thereisoverwhelmingevidenceofthedetrimentalhealtheffectsofexposuretoparticulatematteremissions;andalthoughconsiderabletoxicologicalevidenceexistsonthepotentialadversehealtheffectsofexposuretoultrafineparticles,thereiscurrentlyinsufficientepidemiologicalevidencetoestablishanexposure-responserelationshipandguidelineconcentration(WHO,2006).

This,however,doesnotabrogatetheresponsibilityoftheProjecttomonitorultrafineparticleemissions.TheProjecthasadutyofcare,inlightofthecurrenthealthevidenceoftheeffectsofultrafineparticles,toadopttheprecautionaryprincipleandmonitorultrafineparticles.

2.2.1.4 HealtheffectsofUltrafineparticles

Studieshavefoundthatultrafineparticlescancontributetonegativehealtheffectsinextra-pulmonaryorgansandtherespiratorytract(Oberdorsteretal.,2005).

Ultrafineparticlescanreachdeepintothehumanlung(Poepping&Ginda,2010)andcauseahazardintermsofinflammationandoxidativestress(Balakrishnaetal.,2009;Karlssonet.al.,2005;Oberdorsteretal.,2005).Possiblehealtheffectsobservedwithoxidativestressresponsecanincludelungcancer,chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease,exacerbationofpneumoniaandasthmaandinitiationandprogressionofatherosclerosis(Himeetal.,2015).

Thereisrapidlyincreasingepidemiologicalevidencelinkingexposuretoultrafineparticlestorespiratoryhealtheffects(Sioutasetal.,2005),includingstudiesby:-

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• Petersetal.(1997)whichdemonstratedthattheassociationbetweenrespiratoryhealthinadultssufferingasthmaisstrongerwithexposuretoultrafineparticles,comparedtocoarseandfineparticles.

• Pekkanen et al. (1997)showed there are associations between ultrafine and fine particlesanddeficitsinpeakexpiratoryflowofchildrenwithasthma.

• Penttinen et al. (2001) found a negative association between the average dailyconcentrationsofmainlyultrafineparticlesandpeakexpiratoryflow;and

• Wichmann et al. (2000)found both ultrafine and fine ambient particles had comparablepositiveassociationswithcardiovascularmortality.

Ultrafineparticlesareimportantbecausetheyhaveordersofmagnitudehighersurfacearea,numberconcentrationsandconcentrationsofcondensedandadsorbedpollutantssuchastransitionmetals,oxidantgasesandorganiccompoundswhencomparedwithlarger-sizedparticlesperunitmass(Sioutasetal.,2005).

2.2.15 Europehasparticlenumber(ultrafineparticle)vehiclestandards

UltrafineparticleengineemissionsstandardshavebeeninforceinEuropeforseveralyears,andthecurrentengineemissionstandardsareEuroVIandEuro6(ICCT,2016).

Thesestandardsprescribeparticlenumber(ultrafineparticle)limitsfordieselandgasolinelightdutyvehiclesandheavydutydieselvehicleswhichrequireemissionreductiontechnology(ICCT,2016).

Theemissionstandardlimitsare6x1011particlenumberperkmforlightdutyvehiclesand6or8x1011particlenumberperkilowatthour(dependingonthedrivetestcycleused)forheavydutydieselvehicles(ICCT,2016).

Clearlyparticlenumber(ultrafineparticle)emissionsarerecognisedinternationallyasaseriousemissioncontrolissueevidencedbytheparticlenumbervehicleenginestandardsinplace.HowevercurrentlyAustraliahasnotadoptedEuroVIorEuro6standards.

DuetothefactthatAustraliahasnocurrentemissionstandardsinrelationtoultrafineparticles,theneedtomeasureambientlevelsisevengreater.ThehealthimpactsofultrafineparticlesarewellknownandyetinAustraliaourcurrentvehiclestandardsdonotspecificallyregulateultrafineparticlesintermsofengineemissions,norareambientlevelsmeasured.ThisProjectshouldattheveryleastundertakebaselinemonitoringforultrafineparticles.

2.2.1.6 SourcesofPM2.5

OutdoorsourcesofPM2.5 includeemissionsfrommotorvehicles,busesandtrucksandotheroperationsburningfuels,aswellasnaturalsourcessuchasgrassandforestfires(DepartmentofHealth,2011).PM2.5 iscommonlyreferredtoasthefinemode,andincludesamixcombustionandmechanicallygeneratedsources,whereasultrafineparticlesmainlycomprisecombustion-generatedparticles(eg,frommotorvehiclesandpowerplants).

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2.2.1.7 SourcesofPM10

Mostparticlesinthissizerange,referredtoasthecoursemode,aresourcedfromnaturalandman-mademechanicalprocessesthatbreak,wearorgrindmaterial,orfromresuspendeddust(Morawskaetal.,2008).Thisincludesvehiclebrakeandtyrewear.

Arecentreviewofbrakewearparticlesfoundthatcontributionstototaltraffic-relatedemissionsofPM10arealmostequallysplitbetweennon-exhaust(suchasbrakewear)andexhaustsources(engineexhaust)andestimatesapproximatelyhalfoftotalbrakewearisgeneratedasPM10(Grigoratos&Martini,2015).

PM2.5andPM10standardsareineffectiveforcontrollingcombustionemissionssuchasmotorvehicleandtruckemissions.

PM2.5andPM10ambientairqualitystandardsaremeasured in termsofparticlemass (weight)andareineffectiveformeasuringparticleemissionsfromcombustionssourcessuchaspowerplantsandmotor vehicles because these sources tend to emit very small particles in the submicron range(diameterslessthan1µm),whichcontributeverylittletoparticlemassconcentrations(Morawskaetal.,2008).

2.2.1.8 DieselExhaust

Figure1belowdepictsatypicalparticlesizedistributionfordieselexhaustparticulatematterpresentedonalogarithmicscaleandshowsthatalmostallofthesedieselparticlesaresignificantlysmallerthan1µmindiameter,andrepresentamixofnanoparticles(diameters<0.05µm),ultrafine(diameters<0.1µm)andfineparticles(PM2.5,aerodynamicdiameters<2.5µm)(DieselNet,2002).

Thefigureshowsthatessentiallydieselexhaustcomprisesmanyverysmallparticleswithlittlemass,withfewlarger-sizedparticlesaccountingformostofthetotalparticlemass,andasmallfractioncanbeseeninthecoarsemode(PM10).

Thismakesitcriticalthatultrafineparticlesaremeasuredonroadways,rampsandtunnelsusedbyheavydutydieselvehicles.

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Figure1Dieselparticulatemattersizedistribution(Source:DieselNet,2002)

The dominance of diesel exhaust particulate matter emissions in the ultrafine size range clearlysupportstheveryimportantneedtomonitorultrafineparticles(particlenumber)intheWestGateTunnel Project, due to the dangerous health effects associated with breathing in diesel exhaust,including its classificationasa cancer-causingagentandassociationwithan increased riskof lungcancer.2.3 Recommendations

HIGHPRIORITYRECOMMENDATIONSAQ4 Conduct baseline measurements of ultrafine particulate matter emissions pre-Project

commencementbecausewithoutthesebaselinemeasurementswewillnevertrulyknowtheenvironmental and health impacts of combustion-generated emissions from this roadproject.Unlessultrafineparticles aremonitored, theProject is notmeasuring the full sizerangeofparticlesgeneratedbymotorvehiclefleetsandmostoftheparticlesgeneratedbyvehiclesareintheultrafinesizerange.

OTHERRECOMMENDATIONSAQ5 Ultrafineparticlemeasurementprotocolsfollowcontemporarybestpracticeasoutlinedby

Swiss and German authorities, and relevant international Particle Groups involved withultrafine particle research. Measurement data be made available via live stream to EPAVictoria, and analysed data to an Air Quality Community Consultative Committee (pleasereferAQ10below)andthepublic.

AQ6 Oncebaselinevaluesofultrafineparticlesaredetermined,aresearchprojectbefundedtoderive a best estimate for a preventative limitation of emissions guideline for ultrafineparticleemissions relevant to theWestGateTunnelProject foruse inanalysisofultrafineparticlemeasurements,toinformpotentialepidemiologicalstudiesandthescientific,policyandpubliccommunities.

AQ7 Annual,ongoingultrafineparticlemeasurementsbeundertakeninthetunnelandatvariousdistances from the freeway, truck rampsandclose to sensitive landuseareas suchas theDonaldMcLeanReserveandtheEmmaMcLeanKindergartentobuildscientificknowledge,

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for epidemiological studies,monitoring and comparison purposes to assess the impact, ifany,oftheProject.

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3 OngoingAirQualityMonitoringofPM2.5andPM10

3.1 CurrentSituationbasedonEES

AnEnvironmentalPerformanceRequirementoftheProjectistoundertakeambientairqualitymonitoringforatleastoneyearpriortoProjectopening,aswellaspost-opening.HoweverInotethatthemonitoringperiodpost-openingmaybeupto5years,oralesserperioddependingontheEPAVictoria(Golders,2017).

Ibelievethatongoingmonitoringoftheimpactsoftheroadonsurroundingresidents,recreationalfacilities,andsensitivelanduseareasisessentialandshouldcontinueforatleast5years.

3.2 WhythisproposalintheEESisunacceptable

TheProjectisbuildingaroadnetwork,tunnelandtruckrampswhichcanaccommodatesignificantlygreaternumbersofvehiclesthanthecurrentWestGatefreeway,whichalreadyhasveryhightrafficvolumesofaround200,000vehiclesperday.

ThisProjectisbeingconstructedwithoutanyrestrictionsintermsoflanduseplanningforsensitivelanduses;andcurrentlythereisnolegislationinVictoriarequiringcertainbufferdistancesapplybetweensensitivelanduseareasandbusyroadways.

Theseincreasedtrafficvolumesmeanthatmoreairpollutants,includingparticulatematter,willbegeneratedbythevehiclefleetanditisthereforeimperativethatambientairqualitybemeasuredclosetotheroad,inthetunnel,andneartherampsandsensitivelanduseareastoprotectthehealthofbothresidentsandroadusers.

ItisessentialthatPM2.5andPM10continuetobemonitoredforthelifeoftheprojectanddatabemadepubliclyavailable,giventheserioushealtheffectsofexposuretoparticulatematter,andexpectedhightrafficvolumesexpected,includingthousandsoftrucksontheramps,andthecloseproximityofresidentsandsensitivelanduses.

3.2.1 Needtomeasure‘realworld’emissions

Without‘realworld’measurementdatafortheWestGateTunnelProjectforultrafineparticles,PM2.5andPM10nearthefreeway,truckramps,sensitivelanduseareasandinsidethetunnelundertakenonanongoingbasis,wehavenoknowledgeaboutthepotentialhealtheffectstoroadandtunnelusersandthoselivingorinthegeneralvicinityofthisbusyvehicleroute.Airqualitymodelsgenerallyexhibitlessrigourandaccuracy,andprovideonlymodelledestimates,notquantifications,andareheavilydependentonarangeoflimitedassumptions.

3.2.2 WestGateTunnelProjecthasadutyofcaretocontinuemonitoring

TheWestGateTunnelProjectwillcreateincreasedtrafficvolumesinandaroundanalreadybusyfreewayandthereforetounderstandthefullextentofmotorvehicleparticulatematterpollutionandpotentialhealtheffects,orotherwise,itiscriticalthatongoingmonitoringofPM2.5andPM10continuesforthelifeoftheproject.

TheEPAcurrentlyhasstandardsforPM2.5andPM10anditisonlywithongoingmonitoringbesidetheroadthatwewillknowwhetherpollutionfromtheroadiscausingairqualitystandardstobeexceeded.Datashouldbecollectedtomakesurethepollutionfromtheroaddoesnotgoabovethe

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VictorianEPAstandards,thusdataneedstobecollectedona24hourandannualbasis.PleaseseecurrentambientairqualitystandardsforparticulatematterforVictoriainTable1below.

Table1–CurrentambientairqualitystandardsinVictoriaforparticulatematter

Item Pollutant Averaging period

Maximum concentration

standard

Maximum allowable

exceedances 1 Particles as PM10 1 day

1 year 50 µg/m3 25 µg/m3

None None

2 Particles as PM2.5 1 day

1 year

25 µg/m3

8 µg/m3

None

None

(Source: Australian Government, 2016).

3.2.3 PM2.5airqualitycategories

TheVictorianEPAdisplaysallone-houraveragePM2.5dataonEPAAirWatchusingairqualitycategories.24-hourrollingaveragedatafromportablePM2.5airmonitorsisalsodisplayedusingthesecategories.PleaseseeTable2below.Ibelievethatreportingfromtheseadditionalsitesshouldbeconductedinlinewiththisexistingsystem.

3.2.4 BlackCarbonMeasurement

Measuringblackcarboncanbeusefulfordiscriminatingbetweendifferentvehicletypesonmeasurementcampaigns.Blackcarbonparticleshavebeenassociatedwithmortalityandmorbidityandcanserveasamarkerfordieselexhaust,asanadditionalusefulairqualityindicatortoevaluatehealthrisksinambientairdominatedbyprimarycombustionparticles(Janssenetal.,2011).

Table2EPAVictoriaAirQualityCategoriesforPM2.5

Airqualitycategory 24-hrPM2.5

µg/m3One-hourPM2.5

µg/m3

Verygood 0–8.2 0–13.1

Good 8.3–16.4 13.2–26.3

Fair 16.5–25.0 26.4–39.9

Poor 25.1–37.4 40–59.9

Verypoor 37.5orgreater 60orgreater

(EPA,2016).

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TheProjectshouldapplytheprecautionaryprincipleanddemonstrateadutyofcaretowardthepublic’shealthbyregularlymonitoringPM2.5andPM10levels.

Thismonitoringcanalertgovernmentandthepublictounhealthyrisklevels,informpotentialepidemiologicalstudiesexamininghealtheffects,andmonitortheimpactoftheprojectinthelongerterm.

TheProject’scurrentfivetemporarymonitoringsitesmeasuringPM2.5andPM10inandaroundtheProjectshouldbecontinuedtoprotectthehealthoftheroadusersandlocalcommunity,andmeasurementsshouldbeextendedtoincludesitesinsidethetunnelandattheEmmaMcLeanKindergarten.

3.2.5 HealthEffectsEvidence

Thereisnoknownsafelevelofexposuretoparticulatematter;andnothresholdbelowwhichdamagetohealthfromexposuretoparticulatematterisnotobserved(WHO,2016).

Weareallsusceptibletothedetrimentalhealtheffectsofexposuretoparticulatematterpollution;andthosewhoaremostsensitiveincludeolderadults,childrenandpeoplewithheartorlungdiseaseandasthma(NSWEPA,2013).

Particulatematterhasagreatereffectonhumansthananyotherpollutant,andacountry’sburdenofdiseasefromstroke,heartdisease,lungcancer,acuteandchronicrespiratorydisease,includingasthma,canbelessenedbyreducingitslevelofairpollution(WHO,2016).

Therearenumeroushealtheffectsassociatedwithexposuretoparticulatematterandalargenumberofmeasurementstudieshavebeencarriedoutinurbanandtraffic-influencedregionsforthethreeparticlefractions,includingforultrafineparticles.Forexample:-

• many epidemiological studies link particle exposure to increased hospital admissions,mortality,cardiovascularandrespiratorydisease(Pope&Dockery,2006);

• anassociationhasbeenfoundwithlungcancer(Popeetal.,2002)andheartattacks(Brooketal.,2002);

• particlescanpenetratethecellmembranesandenterthebloodstream,evenreachthebrain(Oberdörsteretal.,2004);

• diesel exhaust is a classified human carcinogen (cancer-causing agent) (DieselNet, 2014;IARC,2012,SwissCleanAirAct,2000)and

• The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organizationconcludedthereissufficientevidencethatexposuretodieselexhaustisassociatedwithanincreasedriskforlungcancer(IARC,2012).

• Inflammatorychanges intheairwayscanoccur;acuteeffects includeirritationofeyesandnose, changes in respiratory and lung function; chronic exposures associatedwith sputumproductionandcough(Sydbometal.,2001).

3.2.6 CostofHealthEffects

Australiaistrailingglobalstandardsinitsregulatorysystemforvehicleemissionsmanagementandisnotkeepingpacewithcommunityexpectationsorscienceinrespondingtohealthissues

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(Cormack,2015).ThreethousandprematuredeathsoccurinAustraliaeachyearcostingcloseto$24.3billionayearinhealthcosts(Cormack,2015).

ParticulatematterexposureisasignificantcauseofmorbidityandmortalityinAustralia,andinNSWaloneitisestimatedthehealthcostexceeds$4billionperannum(CSIRO,2013).

TheAgehighlightedfindingsinareportbytheVictorianAuditorGeneralwhichfoundthatdeathsinAustraliaattributedtoairpollutionhaveincreased69%infiveyears,whiledeathsin20othersimilarnations,includingtheUSA,UKandGermany,havedeclined,citing1483air-pollutionrelateddeathsinAustraliain2012,upfrom882deathsin2005,andanannualcostforpollution-relateddeathsof$5.8billionin2010,halfofwhichisattributabletoroadtransport(Gough,2014).

3.3 Recommendations

HIGHPRIORITYRECOMMENDATIONSAQ8 AQ Ongoing ambient monitoring of PM2.5 and PM10 should continue and the temporary

Project monitoring station on DonaldMcLean Reserve should be made permanent. Thisdata should be used to ensure source pollution from the road does not exceed the EPAVictoriaPM2.5andPM10ambientairqualitystandards.

AQ9 Regular,ongoingPM2.5andPM10measurementsbeundertakeninthetunnelandatvariousdistances from the freeway, truck rampsandclose to sensitive landuseareas suchas theDonaldMcLeanReserve,EmmaMcLeanKindergartenandotherrelevantsensitivelanduselocationstoassessanyimpactstheProjectishavingonhumanhealth.

AQ10 Establish an Air Quality Community Consultative Committee (AQCC) with an air qualityrepresentative nominated by the community, and representatives from Council, EPAVictoria, VicRoads, the Victorian Health Department, academia and other relevantstakeholders.TheroleofthisCommitteewillbetoreviewairqualitymonitoringdata,andoverseethepenaltyandfinesystemimposedontheWestGateTunnelProjectforambientairqualitystandardexceedancesbytheProject.

AQ11 Live data be fed to EPA Victoria and data analysed by EPA Victoria be made promptlyavailabletotheAirQualityCommunityConsultativeCommittee(referAQ10)andthepublicontheEPAwebsite.

OTHERRECOMMENDATIONSAQ12 Black carbon bemonitored to assistwith discrimination between car and truck emissions

andasamarkerfordieselexhaust;andcooperationbesoughtfromtheVictorianTransportDepartment to install cameras for remote sensing of vehicle types during measurementcampaigns.

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4 ProtectionofSensitiveLandUseAreas

4.1 CurrentSituationbasedonEES

TheProjectiscreatinganincreasedpollutionsourcewithoutprotectingpopulationsatsensitivelanduseareassuchaskindergartens,childcarecentresandsportsfields.

4.2 WhythisproposalintheEESisunacceptable

TheProjectwillincreasetrafficvolumesontheWestGateFreewayby37,000vehiclesperdayandapproximately1,600trucksadaywillusetheramps.TheproposedHydeStreetrampforplacardtrucksisbeingconstructedtooclosetotwokeysensitiveareasinSpotswood,namelyadjacenttotheDonaldMcLeanReserveandonlyapproximately200metresfromtheEmmaMcLeanKindergarten.Childrenaged3-5yearsattendthisCentre.

IntheUnitedStatestheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducationrecommenddistancesforschoolsofatleast1,500feet(approx.457metres)fromroadwaysthattransportdiesel,propane,gasoline,oxygen,chlorine,pesticides,orotherpoisonousgasesorcombustiblegasesaretransported(USEPA,2015a).TheHydeStreettruckramphasbeendesignedfortruckstransportingthesetypesofdangerousandflammablegoodsanditscloseproximitytothesetwosensitivelanduserswillexposethesepopulationstoelevatedconcentrationsofairpollution,includingparticulatematter;anddieselexhaust,isadeclaredcancer-causingagentbytheWorldHealthOrganisation(IARC,2012).

PeopleexercisingattheReservewillhavehigherrespirationrates,thustakingmorepollutedairintothelungs.Thechildrenatthechildcarecentrewillbeatriskalso;becauseyoungchildrendonothavefullydevelopedlungs,tendtobemoreactiveandhavefasterbreathingratesthanadults(USEPA,2015a)andwillbesusceptibletodevelopinglungcancerandotherhealtheffects.Addedtowhichthesechildrencanspendupto10hoursperdayoutsidewhileatthecentre.

4.2.1 Children’sExposuretoTrafficPollution

Childrenareparticularlysusceptibletotheeffectsofairpollutionandstudieshavefoundsuchexposuresinchildhoodcandecreasechildren’slungfunction(HEI,2013,citedinUSEPA,2015a).Exposuretobothindoorareoutdoorpollutantsareaconcern(USEPA,2015a).

Duetotheirabilitytopenetratecellmembersultrafineparticlesaregenerallyassociatedwithmoreseveretoxicitycomparedtocoarseandfineparticles(PM10andPM2.5respectively)andchildrenexhibitmoresusceptibilitytotheseeffectsthanadultsduetotheirchildren’sratesofinhalationandunderdevelopedrespiratoryandimmunesystems,amongstotherfactors(Rufoetal.,2015).

4.2.2 LargenumberofsensitivereceptorswithintheProjectBoundary

Sensitivelandusescanincludeschools,hospitals,childcareandagedcarefacilities,playgroundsclosetoroadsonregionalfreightnetworks(Wickham,2012).Thenumberofreserves,recreationalareasandeducationalandchildcarecentreslistedinAQIAassensitivereceptorsisquitemarked.Infact,theylist69discretesensitivereceptorslocatedwithinonekilometreoftheprojectboundary(Golders,2017).Thereportmaintainsthatbeyondthisboundaryairqualityimpactsfromupgradedroadsandtunnelventilationareunlikelytobesignificant(Golders,2017).

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These69sensitivepopulationsrepresentasignificantnumberofchildrenandadultswhowillbeadverselyaffectedbypollution,includingexposuretodieselexhaust,whichcouldseverelyaffecttheirhealth,andevencausedeath.

Clearlythereisaverystrongcasehereofincompatiblelanduseandsensitivepopulations,whichnecessitatescarefulandextensivemitigationstrategiesbeimplementedtoprotectchildrenandadultsfromdangerousparticulatematteremissionsanddieselexhaustfromtrucks.

Thislargenumberofsensitivepopulations,initself,constitutesastrongbasisfornotgoingaheadwiththecurrentdesignoftheProject.

4.2.3 BestPracticeProtectionofSensitiveLandUseAreas

Backgroundlevelsofparticleemissionstendtooccur300-500mfromtheroadway(Bell&Ashenden,1997;Gilbertetal.,2003;Zhuetal.,2002);not200mfromthedirectemissionsource,andyoungchildrenandpeopleexercisingareparticularlyvulnerabletothedetrimentalhealtheffectsofexposuretoparticulatematter.

InCaliforniaplanninglegislationrequiresSchoolBoardsworkwithlocalagenciestoidentifyanyincompatiblelanduseswithin400mofaproposednewschoolsite(Wickham,2012).Theseincompatiblelandusesincludefreewaysandbusytrafficcorridors(>50,000vehiclesperdayinruralareasand>100,000inurbanareas)andinthesecaseshealthriskassessments&otheractionsarenecessary(Wickham,2012).

InordertobringtheProject’sairqualitymonitoringplanninguptodatewithcurrentscientificknowledgePM2.5andPM10,ultrafineparticles,blackcarbonandnitrogendioxideshouldberegularlymonitoredattheDonaldMcLeanReserveandtheEmmaMcLeanKindergartentoeffectivelyassessbothvehicle,busanddieseltruckemissions.

4.2.3.1 DonaldMcLeanReserve

TheadditionoftrafficlanesandtrucksrampstotheWestGatefreewaywillexposeusersofthissportsfieldtohigherlevelsofparticulatematteremissions.Protectionmeasuresshouldbeappliedtotheoval,includingtheinstallationofabarrieronthesouthernrampandtheplantingofsuitablevegetationbarriers,includingrelevantmixedspecies,andapermanentmonitoringstationestablishedtoensureanypotentialhealthriskscanbequicklyidentifiedandmanaged.

Thefreewaywillbelocatedatasubstantialheightabovethesportsfieldandthereforeacarefulstudyofwinddirection,sitegeometry,meteorologicalconditions,roadconfigurationandsuitabletreeandplantspecies,amongstotherrelevantcriteria,wouldbeneededtodesigneffectivevegetationbarriersthatreducepollutionexposure.

4.2.3.2 VegetationBarriersinstalledalongthelengthoftheFreewayandramps

Installingvegetationbarriersnearheavilytraffickedroadscanreducepollutionandpreventitfromreachingpedestriansandthoseinthevicinityoftheroads(Al-Dabbous&Kumar,2014).Forroadsinopenareas,theyhavebeenfoundtoimproveairqualitynearroads(Baldaufetal.,2011;Heistetal.,2009).Vegetationbarriersofcertainspeciescanalsohavetheaddedbenefitofsequesteringcarbonandreducingnoise.

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Acombinationofsoundwallsandvegetationcanreducemotorvehiclepollutiondownwindofroadsbycloseto60%(Bowkeretal.,2007).Vegetationsuchasplantsandtreescanactasaphysicalbarrierbetweenroadsandschoolsandcanfilterparticles,theireffectivenesswilldependonvegetationheight,density,speciesandage,andwindspeedamongstotherfactors,andneedstobeappropriatefortheareaandmaintainitsstructureyear-round;andtheUSDepartmentofAgricultureprovidesatreespeciestooltoaidvegetationselection(USEPA,2015a).Factorssuchasthelikelihoodofcausingallergiesshouldalsobeconsidered.FurtherdetailonvegetationbarrierscanbefoundinUSEPA(2015a).

4.2.3.3 EmmaMcLeanKindergarten

Thiskindergartenservicesaround65familiesperweek,caringforchildrenaged3-5years.Thechildrenspendbetween2-60hoursperweekatthecentreandcanspendupto10hoursperdayoutsideparticipatingintheCentre’sOutsideEducationProgram.

Giventheproposedplacardtruckramps,futureincreasedtrafficvolumesoftheWestGateProjectandthekindergarten’scloseproximitywithin200metresofthefreeway,itiscriticalthatiftheCentrecannotberelocatedtoatleastadistanceof500metresfromtheProject,airqualitybemonitoredonanongoingbasis,bothindoorandoutdooratthisCentreandthatprotectionmeasuresfortheCentrebeputinplacepriortoProjectcompletion.AnindependentairqualityexpertshouldbeemployedtolookatensuringeverypossibleairqualitymeasurethatcanbeputinplaceisputinplaceforEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandDonaldMcLeanReserve.ThismustincludethebuildingofabarrieronthesouthernHydeStreetrampandplantingoftrees.

4.2.3.4 ProtectionMeasuresforChildrenandAirPollutionExposure

Thenumerousbenefitsassociatedwithchildrenattendingforestornature-basedkindergartenssuchastheEmmaMcLeanKindergartenarewelldocumented,howeverwhatislesswelldescribedarethepotentialnegativehealtheffectsofexposuretodangerouslevelsofairpollutants,suchastrafficemissionsanddieselexhaust,forkindergartenslocatednearbusyroadsortruckroutes.

CommunitiesandschoolsacrosstheUnitedStatesemployarangeofprotectionmeasurestoreduceexposuretotheharmfuleffectsofairpollution,suchaslocatingclassroomsatgreaterdistancesfrompollutionsources;improvingsitelayout,installingvegetationand/orsolidbarrierstoblockemissions,upgradingclassroomfiltrationsystemsandmovingairintakeawaysourcesofpollution;avoidingvigorousphysicalactivitiesduringpeaktraffictimes;providingstaffandstudentswithtrainingonindoorairqualityandventilation;andtakingstepstoreducevehicleidlingincloseproximity(USEPA,2015b).

USlocalandstateairpollutionagenciesalsoofferassistancetoschoolsinconductingoverallenvironmentalevaluationsoftheirschoolstodeterminewhetherthereareanyimpactsfromtraffic-relatedpollution(USEPA,2015a).

Recentresearchhasshownthatrelativelysmallincreasesinairpollutionlevelsoverashorttimeframecanleadtosignificantcognitivedeclinesinchildren(Sunyeretal.,2017).Weknowthatairpollutionincreasesasproximitytothesourceincreases,thusatruckrampthatbringsdieselexhaustfumesfrom800trucksclosertochildrenislikelytoincreaseairpollutionimpactsforchildrenatEmmaMcLeanKindergarten.Asystematicreviewlookingattherelationshipbetweenexposuretogreenspaceandcognitivefunctionsuggestsexposuretogreenspacebenefitscognitivedevelopmentinchildhoodandtheirresultingcognitivefunctioninadulthood(deKeijzeretal.,2016).Thisresearchsuggeststhatprovidingadditionalgreenspaceasanoff-setforadditional

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pollutionmayatleasthelptomitigatetheimpactsofpollution.ThusinlinewiththeprecautionaryprincipleandinordertoprovideadequatecompensationtochildrenattendingEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandresidentslivinginthevicinityoftherampsandSimcockAvenue,theindustriallandonSimcockAvenueshouldberehabilitatedandturnedintoopenspace.

4.2.3.5 RecommendedBufferDistancesbetweenSchoolsandBusyRoads

TheUSEPA’sguideBestPracticesforReducingNearRoadPollutionExposureatSchoolssummarisesarangeofrecommendedcitingdistancesforschoolswhichinclude:-

• newschoolsnotbelocatedwithin500feetofmajorroadswithtrafficvolumesinexcessof50,000vehiclesperday(CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard);

• newschoolsnotbebuiltwithin500feetofamajortransportcorridororfreeway(morethan100,000vehiclesaday(LosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrict).

• abufferdistanceofnotlessthan500feet,andasmuchas1,000feetbetweenmajorroadsandschools(SouthCoastAirQualityManagementDistrict);and

• distancing schools at least 1,500 feet from roadways that transport diesel, propane,gasoline, oxygen, chlorine, pesticides, or other poisonous gases or combustible gases aretransported(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation)

(USEPA,2015a)

Clearlytheserecommendedbufferdistancesforcitingschoolsinrelationtobusyroads,arehighlyrelevanttotheEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandothereducationcentreslocatedwithin500-1000feet(approx.152-305metres)oftheWestGateFreeway,andhighlighttheextremehealthrisksforthesechildren.

TheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducationrecommenddistancesforschoolsofatleast1,500feet(approx.457metres)fromroadwaystransportingdiesel,propane,gasoline,oxygen,chlorine,pesticides,orotherpoisonousgasesorcombustiblegases(USEPA,2015a)isofparticularrelevanceinthiscase.

TheproposedHydeStreettruckrampsontheWestGateFreewaycateringforplacardtruckscarryingdangerousandflammablegoodswillbelocatedwithin200metresoftheEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandthisisunacceptablewithoutanyprotectionmeasuresinplace.

4.2.3.6 InstallationofFiltrationSystems

Elevatedlevelsoftrafficpollutioncanbefoundinsideclassroomsandgenerallytendtobewithinabout150metresofaroad,andbackgroundlevelsatabout600metresdependingonanumberoffactorssuchastopography,timeofday,pollutant(Karneretal.,2010,citedinUSEPA,2015a).Winddirection,meteorologicalconditionsandotherfactorscanalsoinfluencepollutionlevels,aswellasschoolpracticeswhichmayincludeleavingwindowsanddoorsopenduringoperatingtimes.

Studieshavefoundthatinstallingfiltrationsystemsinschoolscanresultinimprovedairqualityindoors,andcanreduceparticlepollutionconcentrationsbyupto97%comparedtoconcentrationlevelsoutdoors(McCarthyetal.,2013,citedinUSEPA,2015a)Thecorrecttypeoffiltrationsystem

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needstobeselectedandmaintained,andopendoorsandwindowscanreduceeffectivenesswithsomesystems.

AbriefsummaryofventilationandmitigationsystemsisshowninUSEPA’sguideinTable1(2015a).

4.3 Recommendations

HIGHPRIORITYRECOMMENDATIONSAQ13 The possibility of relocating the EmmaMcLean Kindergarten to at least 500m from busy

roadsand theProject shouldbe investigatedanddiscussedwith the council, kindergartencommitteeandlocalcommunity.

AQ14 Barriers that are designed to reduce air pollution at Donald McLean Reserve and EmmaMcLeanKindergartenbebuiltonthesouthernrampthatrunswithin200mofEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandDonaldMcLeanReserve.

AQ15 AnindependentairqualityexpertbeemployedtolookatensuringeverypossibleairqualitymeasurethatcanbeputinplaceisputinplaceforEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandDonaldMcLeanReserve.

AQ16 The industrial land on SimcockAvenue should be rehabilitated as part of this project andturnedintoopenspace,creatingadditionalopenspaceistheonlyreasonableoff-setforthebuildingofanewtruckrampnexttoareserveandkindergarten.

AQ17 Establish an anti-idling policy for trucks involved in construction of theWestGate TunnelProject,particularlywithin500mofsensitivelanduseareas.

AQ18 Continuous monitoring of pollutants should continue at the DonaldMcLean Reserve andcommence inside and at relevant locations outside the Emma McLean Kindergarten.Ultrafine particles, black carbon and nitrogen dioxidemonitoring should be added to thecampaignstofullyassessmotorvehicleanddieselexhaustpollution.

AQ19 VegetationbarriersbeinstalledbetweentheHydeStreeton-ramp,DonaldMcLeanReserveand the Emma McLean Kindergarten to reduce air pollution exposure. Local CouncilArborists, Ecologists, Site Surveyors, Air Quality and other relevant experts should beconsultedonappropriatevegetationspeciesselection,andacarefulstudymadeofsuitableplant species, wind direction, site geometries, local meteorological conditions, roadconfiguration,amongstotherrelevantcriteria,toensureeffectivedesign.

AQ20 Fixedbarriers shouldbe installed at EmmaMcLeanKindergarten (eg., brickwalls, or clearsolidbarrierseg.,madeofclearPerspexorrelevantclearmaterial,togivetheappearanceofanopenspace)toblockandlimitthechildren’sexposuretoairpollution.

AQ21 A comprehensive review should be undertaken to identify whether there are any othersensitivelanduseareaswithin500metresoftheProject(eg.,SanctuaryChildCareCentre)thatneedtobeconsideredintermsofriskfromairpollutionhealtheffects.

OTHERRECOMMENATIONSAQ22 An additional low cost but effective particulate matter and other pollutant monitoring

system be installed both inside and at relevant positions in the playground at the Emma

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McLeanKindergartenwhich issues an alert to staff and the EPAVictoria in theevent thatpollutantsconcentrationslevelsreachharmfullevels.

AQ23 Anairqualitymonitoringprojectbeimplementedwhichassessesairpollutionlevelspreandpost construction of the Project at the Emma McLean Kindergarten, that includesconsultationwith respiratory physicians and air quality specialists.With the agreement ofchildren’sparentsat theEmmaMcLeanKindergartenchildrenbegiventheoptiontowearsmall,portableairqualitymonitorswhilstattheCentre,assomechildrencanspendupto10hoursperdayoutsideattheCentre.

5 ImprovingEmissionsofAgeingTruckFleetUsingProject

5.1 CurrentSituationbasedonEES

TheAustraliantruckfleetisagedandthusagrossemitterofparticulatematter,especiallyultrafineparticles.Mostheavy-dutyvehiclesusedieselfuelandexposuretodieselexhaustcausescancerandincreasestheriskofdevelopinglungcancer.

In201430%oftheAustraliantruckfleet(above4.5tGVM)wereregisteredandmanufacturedpre-1996whentherewerenoemissionstandards,andonlyabout12.5%wereEuroV(ADR80/03)orhighercompliant(TruckIndustryCouncil,2015).Themajorityofthesepre-1996trucksareknowntooperateinurbanareasofgreaterMelbourne,BrisbaneandSydney,MelbourneandBrisbane(TruckIndustryCouncil,2015).

TheAustraliantruckfleetrepresentsaverysignificantanddangerouspolluterwhichneedsinitiatives,suchasfinancialincentivesorbehaviourchangeprograms,toconvincetheindustrytoupgradetheirfleetstoEuroVandVI,orretrofittruckswithemissionscontroltechnicaltoreduceemissions.

5.2 WhythisproposalintheEESisunacceptable

NospecialexplanationismadeintheAQIAconcerningthismajorpolluter,norofthespecificlevelofcontributionsofallpollutantsbythetruckfleettotheProject..

BecausethemajorityofAustraliantrucksusedieselfuel,itiscriticalthattheybemonitoredandactionstakentotrytoreducethelevelofdieselexhaustpeopleintheareaareexposedto.

5.2.1 HowpollutingisourAustralianTruckFleet?

ThegreaterproportionoftheAustraliantruckfleetisneitherEuroV,norEuroVIcompliant;andtheaverageageis13.84years(TruckIndustryCouncil,2015).

AsshowninFigure2belowin2014around87%oftheAustraliantruckfleetwerenotEuroVorhighercompliantand30%weremanufacturedwhentherewerenoemissionsstandards.TheAustraliantruckfleetrepresentsasignificantsourceofairpollutionanddieselparticleemissionsthatwillbeusingtheWestGateTunnelProject.

WhenexaminingtrucksregisteredinVictoriain2016intermsofvehiclekilometrestravelled,only29%ofrigidtrucks(>3.5tGVM)and47%ofarticulatedtrucksweremanufacturedin2011orlater(EuroVorhighercompliance)(ABS,2016).

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Figure2AustralianTruckFleetAgebyEngineEmissionStandard,above4.5tGVM

(ABS, 2014, as cited in Truck Industry Council, 2015)

TheAQIAhasmadenospecificmentionofthecontributionofthetruckfleettomodelledpollutionlevels.

TheAustraliantruckfleetusingtheWestGateTunnelProject’struckramps,freewaysandtunnelisagedandaverylargeproportionarenotevencompliantwithcurrentAustralianstandards,EuroV(ADR80/03),hencetheyarelikelytobeaverysignificantemittersofdieselparticulatematter.

Initiativesareneededtoencouragethetruckfleettoimprovethequalityofthefleetbyeg.,retrofittingoldervehicleswithdieselparticlefiltersorupgradingtonewerEuroVI-complaintvehicles.

5.2.2 RemoteSensingtoalerttruckdriverstotheirpollutingbehaviour

ConsideringtheageoftheVictorianandAustraliantruckfleetsIproposethataremotesensingcampaignshouldbeconsideredtoidentifyvehicletypesduringmeasurementcampaigns;andlargebillboardsinstalledontheplacardtruckrampstodisplayrealtime,on-roademissionrateinformationfortrucksandothervehiclesabouttheirpollutionlevelstoinfluencetheirbehaviour.(PleaseseeFigure3foranexample).

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Figure3CompositevisualizationofaRemoteSensingCampaign(adaptedfromXieetal.,2004)

5.3 Recommendations

HIGHPRIORITYRECOMMENDATIONSAQ24 Theprojectteambeaskedtoprovideareportshowingthecontributionsofthetruckfleetto

total air pollutant concentrations, for all pollutants, and allmodelling scenarios (includingindividualroads,ramps,tunnelandroadways,2022and2031)theyhaveundertakenfortheproject,andtostatethevalueofemissionfactorsusedinthisandtheirpreviousmodelling.

OTHERRECOMMENDATIONSAQ25 Largeelectronicbillboardsbeerectednearthetruckramps(pleaseseeexampleinFigure3)

displayrealtimeemissionrateinformationrelevanttoindividualvehiclesandtrucksastheydrivepastthesensor,toalerttruckdriversastotheirpollutingbehaviour,orotherwise,andencouragebehaviouralchange,suchasadoptingmoreregularvehicleservicing,retrofittingwithdieselparticlefilteremissiontechnology,andpurchaseofEuroVIcompliantvehicles.

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6 MeasuresinPlaceforExceedingtheAmbientAirQualityStandards

6.1 CurrentSituationBasedontheEES

CurrentlytheVictorianEPAhasnopenaltiesortaxesifairqualitystandardsareexceeded,thereisonlyarequirementtoreportifstandardsareexceeded.ConsideringthisprojectcouldpotentiallyleadtoairqualitystandardsbeingexceededIbelievethereshouldbemeasuresinplaceifthisoccurs.

6.2 WhythisProposalintheEESisunacceptable

TherearenopenaltieswhatsoeverthatrelatetoexceedingambientairqualitystandardsfortheProject,withtheexceptionofthoseapplyingtotheirtunnellicence.Thisisunacceptable.

GiventhecurrentlyhightrafficvolumesontheWestGateFreewayandtheexpectedincreasedtrafficvolumesoncetheProjectiscompleted,itiscriticalthatpenaltiesortaxesbeappliediflevelsofPM2.5andPM10andotherpollutantsregulatedbytheVictorianEPAexceedtheaveragingperiodsandmaximumambientconcentrationlevelstheysetout.

GolderAssociates(2017)intheirAQIApredictthattheWestGateFreewayandseveralotherroadswillhaveincreasedlevelsofparticulatematter,evenreachinginterventionlevels,inparticularpredictingin202224houraveragePM10reachinterventionlevelsfortheWestGateFreeway,WilliamstownRoad,WhitehallStreetandMillersRoad;andmaximum24houraveragePM10concentrationsarepredictedtoincreaseontheWestGateFreeway,MillersRoadandGeelongRoad;andin2031exceedancesof24houraveragePM10interventionlevelonfiveroads–theWestGateFreeway,WilliamstownRoad,WhitehallStreet,BlackshawsRoadandMillersRoad;andPM2.5

concentrationswillincreaseonBlackshawsRoad,MillersRoadandGeelongRoad)(2017,p.v-vi).

TheWestGateFreewayandMillersRoadareexpectedtohavePM2.5levelsabovethecurrentannualstandardof8.0µg/m3asaresultofthisprojectin2031(AECOM,2017,p.101)ThisevidenceputsintoquestionwhethertheWestGateTunnelProjectshouldbeallowedtoproceed,particularlywhenweconsiderthattheaimoftheNationalEnvironmentProtectionCouncil(2017)istoreducetheannualaveragePM2.5standardsto7μg/m3by2025.

AsGolder’sassessmentdoesnotincludeestimationofin-tunnelconcentrationsforparticulatematterandotherpollutants,wehavenoideaabouttheexposurelevelsoftunnelusers,evenwiththeproposedventilationsystem.

Thetunnelstructureshouldalsobesubjecttoairqualitystandardsforparticulatematterand,asmentionedearlierinthisreport,theProject’sTechnicalReportJonHumanHealthImpactAssessmentsuggestingtunneluserswindupwindowsandreticulatecirculationareineffectivemitigationstrategiesfromapublichealthperspective.MoreneedstobedonebytheProjecttoassessriskandreducepollutionlevelsinsidethetunnelbycontinuouslymonitoringpollutantsandinstallingfiltrationsystemsthatareregularlymaintainedandcleaned.

6.2.1 ExamplesofAirPollutionTaxesandMeasuresWorldwide

Awiderangeofstrategiesareemployedworldwidetoreducevehicleemissions.Examplesincludecongestioncharging,bansonpersonalandcommercialvehicleswithcertainlicenceplatenumbersatdifferenttimesanddays,carfreedays,LEZs(lowemissionzones)andcourtactionbythe

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EuropeanUnionattheEuropeanCourtofJusticewithaccompanyingheftydailyfinesforcountriesexceedingambientairqualitystandardsandputtingcitizenhealthatrisk.

CurrentlytheUnitedKingdomisreportedlyconsideringintroducinga£20daily‘toxintax’whichcouldaffect10milliondriversofdieselvehiclesintheUKin35citiesand25townsinanefforttoreducepollutionfromdieselvehicles(Smith,2017).EuropeanUnioncitizensareentitledunderEuropeanlawtodemandactionplansbedevelopedrapidlybylocalauthoritiestoaddressairpollution(Wolff&Perry,2010).InAustralia,however,therearecurrentlynosuchentitlements.

6.3 Recommendations

AQ26 Considering the project modelling shows that the project will be exceeding annual airqualitystandardsthereshouldbeathoroughassessmentastowhethertheprojectshouldbeabletocontinueinitscurrentform.

AQ27 If the daily or annual ambient PM2.5 or PM10 air quality standards are exceeded, thenmeasuresshouldbeputinplacetoreducepollution.Includedinthesemeasuresshouldbethe taxing of diesel vehicles, at varying rates for articulated, heavy and medium rigidtrucks,andpassengercars.

AQ28 These finescanbechannelledtohelp fund initiatives to improvethequalityof thetruckand vehicle fleets, with a focus on trucks to encourage and support eg., retrofitting ofparticle emission reduction technology, more regular servicing or incentives such aspurchasingofnewerEuroVI/6-compliantvehicles.

7 Conclusions

Thisreportpresents28recommendationstoprotectthegeneralpublicandsensitivepopulationsfromtheharmfuleffectsofdangerouspollutantsgeneratedbymotorvehicles,includingdieselexhaust.

ThereviewoftheAQIArevealedthattheirmodellingwashighlyerroneousandextremelyflawed.They‘guess-estimated’PM2.5petrolfuelledpassengercaremissionfactorsbasedondieselfuelledpassengercarsemissionfactorvaluesusingascalingratio;andderivedPM10emissionfactorsfromthesumofexhaustandnon-exhaustPM2.5emissionfactorsmultipliedbyafactorof1.8(basedonin-stackemissionsforoneAustraliantunnel)andignorednon-exhaustbrakeandtyreemissionsgeneratedbymotorvehicleswhichcanaccountforuptoanadditional55%ofPM2.5andPM10emissions.

Theseemissionfactorsarehighlyinappropriateandhavenoscientificbasis.Theyestimatedandcombinedparticleemissionfactorvaluesfromcompletelydifferentparticlesourcesandparticlesizeranges,differentfueltypesandvehicleengineoperatingsystems.Theydidnotuserelevant,uptodateemissionfactorsintheirmodellingsourcedfromthepublishedscientificliterature.GolderAssociatesalsousedthesameemissionfactorsforroadsandtunnelsanddidnotrevealintheirreportthevalueofanyoftheemissionfactorstheyusedinmodelling,includingfordieseltrucks.GiventhatthehealtheffectsassessmentisbasedonGolderAssociatesmodellingthisiscompletelyunacceptable.Outofdatebackgrounddatahasbeenusedandin-tunnelemissionshavenotbeenmodelled,amongstothermajorflawsintheirwork.

TheresultsoftheAQIAcanthereforenotbereliedupontoformthebasisofanyhealthimpactassessmentforthisProject.

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IhighlyrecommendtheProjectteambeaskedtoredotheirassessmentusingmoreuptodateandrelevantscientifically-basedemissionfactorsasoutlinedinthisreport.Theyshouldalsoprovideareportdetailingthespecificcontributionofthedieseltruckvehiclefleettothetotalmodelledconcentrationsforallpollutantsonallsites,includingindividualroads,thefreeway,rampsandtunnel.Thisknowledgeiscriticalinordertoassesshealtheffectsrelatingtoexposuretodieselexhaust.

RegulatoryStandardsforPM2.5andPM10in-tunnelemissionsareneededandshouldbeimplementedbyEPAVictoria.Temporaryambientairqualitymonitoringneedstocontinueforatleastanother5years,ifnotlonger,andbeexpandedtoincludetheEmmaMcLeanKindergarten,andothersensitivelanduseareaswithin500metresoftheProject.

Baselineultrafineparticlemonitoringshouldbecommencedsothatthefullsizerangeofparticlesgeneratedbymotorvehiclesisbeingassessed,notjustthemassfractions,andfundingallocatedtoestimateapreventativelimitofemissionsguidelineforultrafineparticles.Thisdatawillbeinvaluableininformingfutureepidemiologicalstudiesandscientificunderstandinganddevelopmentofambientairqualitystandards.Monitoringblackcarbonisalsorecommendedasamarkerfordieselexhausttoassesshealtheffects.

AnAirQualityCommunityConsultativeCommitteeshouldbeestablishedtoregularlyreviewmonitoringdatamadeavailabletothepubliconline,andalsooverseeafinesystemfordieselvehicleswhenambientairqualitystandardsareexceeded.

ThebufferdistancebetweentheDonaldMcLeanReserve,adjacenttothefreeway,andtheEmmaMcLeanKindergartenof200metres,isnotsufficienttomitigateagainstpollutionfromtheHydeStreetrampswhichwilllikelybetransportingdangerousgoodssuchasdiesel,petrol,propane,oxygen,chlorine,pesticides,orotherpoisonousgasesorcombustiblegases.IntheUnitedStatestheyrecommendschoolsbesitedatleast457metres(or1500feet)awayfromroadstransportingthesegoods(USEPA,2015a).

Areviewshouldbeundertakenofexposuretotrafficemissionsforothersensitivelanduseareaswithin500metresoftheProjectwhichmayrequireprotectionandmitigationmeasuresimplemented.ConsideringtheproximityoftheFreewaytoDonaldMcLeanReservethetemporarymonitoringstationonthereservemustbemadepermanentandupgradedtoincludemonitoringfornitrogendioxideandblackcarbon.

IntheeventthattheEmmaMcLeanKindergartencannotberelocatedtoatleast500metresfromtheProjectandbusyroads,appropriateventilation,fixedandvegetationbarriersshouldbeinstalled.AnindependentairqualityexpertshouldbeengagedtolookatensuringeverypossibleairqualitymeasurethatcanbeputinplaceisputinplaceforEmmaMcLeanKindergartenandDonaldMcLeanReserve.Additionalopenspaceisasuitableoff-setforthebuildingofanewtruckrampnexttoareserveandkindergarten.AbarriershouldbeinstalledonthesouthernHydeStreetramptoreduceairpollutionontheDonaldMcLeanReserveandtheHydeStreetramps.Vegetationshouldalsobeplantedalongthesouthernramp.

Therampsneedtobefullyenclosedandfittedwithafulldelugesystem,andfiltrationsystemswhichareregularlycleaned.Largeelectronicbillboardsshouldbeinstalledneartherampsatanappropriatelocationwhichremotelysenseindividualvehicleandtruckemissionsanddisplayrealtimeemissioninformationeg“YourEmissionsarePoor”inordertochangedriverbehaviourandencourage,inparticular,truckdriverstoretrofittheirvehicleswithdieselparticlefilters,undergomoreregularservicingorpurchasenewerlowerpollutingvehicles.

AstherearenospecificandeffectiveplannedmitigationactivitiesbytheProjecttocontrolvehicleemissions,norareambientvehicleemissionsregulatedbyanyAustraliangovernmentauthority,finesandpenaltiesshouldbeappliedtodieseldriversoftheWestGateTunnelProjectfor

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exceedancesoftheambientairqualitystandards.Thesefundscouldbeusedtohelpfundinitiativestoimprovethetruckandvehiclefleetstoencouragepurchaseoflowerpollutingvehiclesandpracticeswhichleadtoreductionsinemissions,suchasretrofittingdieselparticlefiltersontrucks.

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