EXPLORING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE INTERNALIZATION OF RELIGOUS VALUES

AMONGST THE MUSLIM MALAYSIAN YOUTH OF THE INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

MALAYSIA IIUM

BY

MARYAM M. SABER MUSAZAY

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education

(Educational Psychology)

Institute of Education International Islamic University

Malaysia

JANUARY 2011

ii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to explore religiosity amongst the Muslim Malaysian youth of the International Islamic University Malaysia IIUM. As such, the study examines the differences found in the internalization of religious values amongst the Muslim Malaysian youth of IIUM. In addition, the study also investigates the various ways that are utilized in the process of internalizing religious values amongst the Muslim Malaysian youth of IIUM. The study had adopted a quantitative approach and the sample was derived through convenience sampling. An adapted version of the Muslim-Religiosity Personality Inventory (MRPI) was used in the study for the data collection methodology. The study utilized both descriptive and inferential statistical tools to generate the findings. A pilot study was conducted in order to establish the validity and reliability of the adapted questionnaire. The study used SPSS version 17 for the purpose of data analysis. The findings of the study indicate that female students are slightly higher in terms of religious practice and “Ukhuwwa” spirit of brotherhood than the males at IIUM. As for the effects of western values on the youth; both male and female are influenced equally. This study is purely educational and applies to IIUM students and cannot be generalized throughout Malaysia due to the unique Islamic learning experience offered at IIUM. As such, it is recommended that future studies include and focus on the rest of the Malaysian population.

iii

ملخص البحث

يهدف البحث الحالي إلى دراسة وضع التدين بين الشباب الماليزي و تقوم هذه الدراسة بتحديد . في الجامعة الإسلامية العالمية بماليزيا

الفروق التي وجدت بين هؤلاء الشباب من جانب استيعابهم للقيم الدينية و تناول الطرق المتعددة المستخدمة لهذا الاستيعاب بين

و اعتمد البحث على . لشباب الماليزي المسلم في الجامعة المذآورةاالمنهج الكمي و طريقة المعاينة الفرصية في تحديد أفراد العينة، و

المخزون لدراسة وضع التدين في شخصية "تبنى نسخة معدلة من و لقد أجرت الباحثة دراسة استطلاعية . لجمع البيانات" المسلم

ثم استخدمت . ت صحة و ثبات هذا الإستبيانتمهيدية من أجل إثبا, منهج الإحصاء الوصفي و الاستدلالي للتوصل إلى نتائج الدراسة

بنسختها السابعة عشر لتحليل ) SPSS(فاستعانت ببرنامج الإحصاء و توصلت الباحثة إلى نتائج أظهرت أن طالبات الجامعة . البيانات

لديني و روح الأخوة من الإناث أعلى نوعا ما في نسبة الإلتزام او أما من جانب تأثير القيم الغربية على الشباب . الطلاب الذآور

و بناء . فكلا الطرفين من البنين و البنات متساويان في التأثر بهاعلى ما تقدم، فهذا البحث يتعلق بالجانب التربوي و تطبيقه على

يمكن طلاب الجامعة الإسلامية العالمية حصرا دون غيرهم، فلا تعميم نتائجه على من سواها من الجامعات الوطنية الأخرى؛ و ذلك

و بهذا تقترح الباحثة . لتميز التعاليم الإسلامية المقررة في الجامعة .للدراسات القادمة في المستقبل أن تحتوي على بقية سكان ماليزيا

                                                               

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion; it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Education (Educational Psychology).

……………………………….. Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Education (Educational Psychology).

……………………………….. Nik Suryani Abd. Rahman Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Institute of Education and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education (Educational Psychology).

……………………………….. Siti Rafiah Abdul Hamid Director Institute of Education

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for my other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Maryam M. Saber Musazay Signature……………………… Date……………………..

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2010 by Yanaa A. Majoon. All rights reserved.

THINKING SKILLS COURSE AND ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY AMONG IIUM UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Yanaa A. Majoon.

……………………………. ……………….. Signature Date

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2011 by Maryam M. Saber Musazay. All rights reserved.

EXPLORING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE INTERNALIZATION OF RELIGIOUS VALUES AMONGST THE MUSLIM MALAYSIAN YOUTH OF THE INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA IIUM

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Maryam M. Saber Musazay.

……………………………. ……………….. Signature Date

vii

In the name of Allah, whose blessings are countless and mercy boundless…

In memory of my grandparents, to my grandmother, thank you for blessing the world with my parents, the most wonderful people in my life.

To my mother, words cannot express the gratitude I hold in my heart, you gave me hope when I thought there was none. To my father, Dr. Musazay, thank you for the

solid support, patience and strong belief in me. No amount of gratitude can abundantly convey my appreciation for you all in making my dream a reality. May

Allah bless you both with happiness in this life, and Paradise in the Hereafter.

To my brothers Hamid, Khalid, Abdullah, Abdurrahman, and Hamzah. Thank you for the support, encouragement and sincere prayers. May Allah open doors of Baraka in

your lives and in every endeavor.

To my sisters, Masooda, Fatima, Asma, and Sarah. Thank you for understanding the hardship that comes with studies. Your patience, prayers and silent words of

encouragement made the isolated hours away from you all more bearable and tolerable in this endless pursuit of knowledge. Thank you for putting up with my

absence.

To Auntie Zaida, Arif, Anisa and Yasmin Kamal. Your constant motivation made a huge impact. Thank you for pushing me all the way, may Allah shower you all with his

mercy and blessings.

And at times when I had lost balance, I found it in the love, care, support and patience of my husband Asim. Thank you for being my brick, I wouldn’t have been able to stay

grounded and to complete this work without you.

To my amazing friends at the Institute, Abeer Mustafa from Palestine, Arwa Mesfer from Saudi Arabia, thank you for the motivational talks and words of encouragement. Allah sent me two angels when I joined the Institute and they were you two. May you always find success and baraka in your lives and may our love and respect always be

strong for His sake.

To my best friend Asmae Tabet from Algeria. You’ve been my companion in the Garden of Knowledge and Virtue since the beginning... Thank you.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is pertinent to take a moment and recall the help and guidance of several people who have paved the way for me and made it possible to complete this study. But before all, I thank Allah for his countless blessings.

My deepest appreciation and gratitude goes to the greatest supervisor ever, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail. Thank you for your continuous support and your sincere encouragement. It is an honor to have been under your supervision as I have learnt so much from your expertise. Your unique style suited me perfectly and the pace was more than suitable. Thank you for making me feel positive and giving me the confidence to tackle an otherwise unfamiliar topic.

My most sincere gratitude goes to the Director of the Institute of Education Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail and to the Deputy Director of Post Graduate Students Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ismail Hassanein. To my amazing lecturers who have guided me patiently, thank you for the knowledge and for the relationships that we have built solely for the sake of Allah. May Allah bless you all with a life full of happiness and Baraka.

My most sincere mentors, Brother Islam Mohamed Salim from Kenya and Brother Isa Ado Abubakar from Nigeria, seriously I would never have been able to finish on time nor get the statistics straight without your collaborative efforts. Thank you, and may Allah grant you both vast knowledge and success.

My head enumerators, Sarah Musazay, Hamzah Musazay and Asmae Tabet, thank you in helping me with the data collection and assisting me with the technical aspects of the study.

Once again thanks to Asmae Tabet and my sister Sarah for providing me with ideas and recommendations that proved to be crucial for the study.

And finally, my appreciation and gratitude goes to the most patient secretaries, sis Nor Riza Arfin and sis Norsiah Yahya, who have always been understanding and helpful. May Allah grant all your prayers and shower you with his blessings.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... iii Approval Page .......................................................................................................... iv Declaration ............................................................................................................... v Copyright page ......................................................................................................... vi Dedication ................................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1

1.1Background ............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Objectives ............................................................................... 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................... 4 1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................ 5 1.5 Significance of the Study ....................................................................... 6 1.6 Limitation of the Study .......................................................................... 6 1.7 Delimitation of the Study ....................................................................... 7 1.8 Definition of the Terms .......................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................. 8

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 8 2.2 Definition of Religion ............................................................................ 9 2.3 Assessments Used In Religion ............................................................... 12

2.3.1 Affiliation ...................................................................................... 12 2.3.2 Belief ............................................................................................. 13 2.3.3 Practices of Piety ........................................................................... 14 2.3.4 Religious Practice ......................................................................... 15 2.3.5 Good / Righteous Deeds ............................................................... 17 2.3.6 Role Model .................................................................................... 18 2.3.7 Devotion ........................................................................................ 19 2.3.8 Knowledge Search ........................................................................ 20

2.4 Measurements of Religious Behavior and Religiosity ........................... 20 2.4.1 Religiousness ................................................................................ 21 2.4.2 Orientation .................................................................................... 22 2.4.3 Muslim Religiosity Scales ............................................................ 23

2.5 Gender Differences and Religiosity ....................................................... 25 2.6 Feminism and Religiosity ...................................................................... 29 2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 32

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 32 3.2 Research Design ..................................................................................... 32

x

3.3 The Setting of the Study ........................................................................ 34 3.4 Population and Sample .......................................................................... 35 3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedure ........................................................... 35 3.6 Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 37

3.6.1 The Muslim Religiosity Personality Inventory–MRPI ................. 37 3.6.2 The Adapted Questionnaire .......................................................... 39

3.7 Pilot Study .............................................................................................. 40 3.8 Data Collection ...................................................................................... 43 3.9 Data Analysis Procedures ...................................................................... 43 3.10 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ........................................... 45

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 45 4.2 The Demographic Characteristics .......................................................... 46 4.3 Inferential Statistics and Analysis .......................................................... 49

4.3.1 The Perception of Genders With Regards to Religious Values .... 49 4.3.2 Gender Differentiation and the Internalization of Religious Value ...................................................................................................... 50 4.3.3 Internalization Religious Values and the Ways Utilized in the Process ............................................................................................. 53 4.3.4 The Influence of Western Values among Gender ......................... 54 4.3.5 The Effect of Gender on Religious Practice ................................. 55

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, SUMMERY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................ 58

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 58 5.2 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................... 58

5.2.1 Perception of Religious Values among Genders .......................... 59 5.2.2 Gender Differences and the Internalization of Religious Values . 61 5.2.3 The Internalization Process and the Ways to Realize It amongst the Muslim Youth .................................................................................. 64 5.2.4 The Influence of Western Values among Gender ......................... 67 5.2.5 The Effect of Gender on Religious Practice ................................. 70

5.3 Summery Of Findings ............................................................................ 72 5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 75 5.5 Recommendations .................................................................................. 77

5.5.1 Sampling ....................................................................................... 78 5.5.2 Data Collection ............................................................................. 78 5.5.3 Measuring Religiosity and IIUM Authority ................................. 79 5.5.4 Social Ills and Intervention ........................................................... 80 5.5.5 Future Research ............................................................................ 81

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 83 APPENDIX I ..........................................................................................................

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 Religiosity Indicators by Gender and Republican

30

3.1 Items and Constructs

40

3.2 Pilot Study 1- Reliability Statistics

41

3.3 Pilot Study 1- Item-Total Statistics

42

3.4 Pilot Study 2- Reliability Statistics 42

3.5 Pilot Study 2- Item-Total Statistics

42

4.1 Gender of the respondents and frequency

47

4.2 Age of respondents with respective frequency and percentage

48

4.3 Breakdown of Respondents Age 48

4.4 Descriptive statistics for religious values subscales

49

4.5 Mean, Standard Deviation, Independent T-Value and Level of significance Results on religious values subscale among genders in IIUM

51

4.6 Regression- Model Summary

51

4.7 One-way ANOVAb

52

4.8 Regression Coefficientsa

52

4.9 Descriptive Statistics of various ways in which Muslims Youth internalize religious values

53

4.10 A computed one-way ANOVA for the way by which Muslims youth internalize values among genders

54

4.11 Descriptive statistics of influence of western non-Islamic values among genders

54

xii

4.12 A computed one way ANOVA for the influence of western non-Islamic values among genders

55

4.13 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

56

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Without a doubt, religion is the most interesting aspect in man’s life. There is no

civilization that is known without a parallel set of doctrines, be it divine or of man’s

own initiative. In fact, every nation stands upon and is defined by the values and

principles dictated by their religion. Indeed, one of the greatest of such civilizations

was in Egypt. The great Sphinx of Giza outside modern Cairo and the great pyramids

were built at a time when the Pharaoh was a God-king in Egypt. These monuments

were built to foster his eternal cult and were clearly religious in their purpose

(Forward, 2001).

Certainly, the religious history of humankind begins from earliest times.

Evidence suggests that prehistoric humans believed in an afterlife as the cave

paintings in Lascaux (15,000 BCE) in modern France seem to indicate a reverence for

the world around, and may have been part of a relatively elaborate complex of rite

(Forward, 2001, p.2).

Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Judaism are a few of the more practiced

religions nowadays (Ellwood, 1996). Indeed, some of the most exciting movements

sweeping through contemporary religions are liberationist and egalitarian in nature

and that maintain equality in factors such as political, philosophical, racial equality

and religious, i.e. Christian egalitarianism.; although other religious tend to swerve

clear away from them (Forward, 2001).

Moreover, there are different social scales in accepting and practicing the

beliefs and values of a certain religion that are available to societies. Similarly, these

2

differences can be seen in terms of culture, age group, and gender type. Such factors

give insight into the individual’s level of internalizing the values of religion and

impact the intensity the individual has in following the principles of a specific religion

(Roberts, 2004).

It also impacts the individual’s degree of religious practice. For example, in a

study done by Smith, Denton, Faris, & Regnerus (2002), and using specific measures

of religious participation, they ascertained that American adolescent girls are more

involved in religious activities than are boys.

According to Nik Suryani Nik Abd Rahman, Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail,

Mohd Sahari Nordin, Syed Arabi Idid (2004), the youth of a country has the power to

move and develop the country and for this their potentials need to be continuously

supported, equipped, and developed. Moreover, youths nowadays have expectations

and needs which are compatible with the development of the country.

As such, educational psychologists have identified adolescent developmental

needs and the tasks associated with these needs. These involve learning and fulfilling

physical, social, and intellectual roles. Nik Suryani Nik Abd Rahman, Nik Ahmad

Hisham Ismail, Mohd Sahari Nordin, Syed Arabi Idid (2004) also noted that having an

organization that is successful in achieving its goals is appealing to the youth,

therefore being responsive towards the needs of the youth of society. Their study was

a great contribution to the development of the youth of Malaysia and had positive and

promising implications.

On a different note, Malaysia has seen a steady growth in terms of economical

development in the last decade or two. As a result, the nation has undergone multiple

changes on the micro and macro level in aspects that pertain to their material and

aesthetic preferences, spirituality and religiosity. Indeed, knowledge, communication,

3

and technology have changed the nation to the better. Unfortunately though, this has

also opened new avenues of social problems, such as juvenile delinquencies, drugs

and other substance abuse, and a general decay in moral behavior.

In a research conducted on Malay and Chinese students in the Klang Valley in

1996, and as mentioned in Hazizan Md. Noon, Mohamed Aslam Haneef, Selamah

Abdullah Yusof and Ruzita Mohd. Amin, (2003), it was found that 40% of youths

aged between 13 and 21 years old have watched pornographic videos, 28% were

involved in gambling, 14% in heavy drug addiction and 70% in smoking (Hazizan

Md. Noon, Mohamed Aslam Haneef, Selamah Abdullah Yusof and Ruzita Mohd.

Amin, 2003).

Social reformers have tried tackling these problems through several measures

such as awareness campaigns, however, long-term strategies must be considered and

more drastic measures in terms of educating the society must be taken to address these

problems of moral decay and drug addiction. Indeed, according to Zaleha

Kamaruddin, Mohamed Sahari Nordin, Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail (2005), the

government of Malaysia and the NGOs are trying their best through their on-going

efforts to educate the public in issues to pertaining to drug abuse. As such, the

Education Ministry, parents, educators and NGOs play an important role in the

intervention process. Moreover, drug addicts were also sent to rehabilitation centers to

combat their addictions through medical treatment and counseling (Zaleha

Kamaruddin, Mohamed Sahari Nordin, Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail, 2005).

In line with the fact that moral behaviour declines with the decline of

religiosity through the negative exposure to media and the lack of parental/authority

supervision, it is pertinent to study religiosity and the factors that influence it in a

nation that is being changed around the clock by modernity amongst the Muslims in

4

particular as it represents the majority of the Malaysian population. Thus, this study is

an attempt to look at the internalization of religious values in the Muslim youth of

Malaysia and the sample will be generated from the International Islamic University

Malaysia.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Social scientists have studied many aspects of religiosity amongst the youth, adult as

well as old individuals. Although most of these studies have focused on Judeo-

Christian beliefs and populations, such as the different denomination of Christianity in

the US, little has been given to Islam and Muslims.

This study was conducted with the three primary goals in mind. The first goal

is to investigate the differences in the internalization of religious values within the

Muslim Malaysian youth of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).

The second goal is to relate this information back to the demographic

background of individuals; gender. This is based on the assumption that it will shed

light onto the underlying factors related to the religiosity of the students and whether

gender has a direct impact on the growth and decline of the internalization of religious

values. The third objective is to examine and describe the differences in the

internalization process amongst the Muslim Malaysian youth population of IIUM in

terms of gender diversity.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Without a doubt, the Malaysian society has recently seen a surge in delinquent

misbehaviour. The youth are more willing to engage in immoral acts which have a

negative impact on the society as a whole. The question of whether males of females

5

are more prone to delinquent behaviour has been much debated, with the general idea

that the male is more aggressive therefore more prone to delinquency (Yates & Pillai,

2003). Furthermore, the modernization process brings new avenues to be explored

thus decreasing the awareness of religion and its importance for the youth in general.

With reference to the vast amount of literature in the area of youth studies, we

find evidence that suggest the existence of gender differences in religiosity (Sullens,

2006). However, this is lacking in the literature conducted among Muslims and

Muslim countries.

The fact that there are differences in the levels of religiosity has been put forth

by many studies as Lizardo, Omar & Collet (2005); nevertheless, looking at it from

the Muslim angle has yet to be studied. There is a need for studies such as this to

increase the understanding of Muslim youth behaviour in the non-Muslim world.

Accrod

According to Krauss, Azimi, Saundi, Sidek, Johari, & Manap (2006), the

findings on such studies may give a deeper understanding to the causes and influences

of Muslim youth behaviour in an ever-evolving modern-world.

With this in mind, the researcher will examine whether there exists a

difference in the internalization of religious values amongst the youth of the

International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in terms of gender.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Is there a significant difference in terms of internalizing religious values

among genders?

2. What are the various ways that are utilized by the Muslim youth in the process

of internalizing values among genders?

6

3. Is there a significant difference in terms of being influenced by other values

i.e. western non-Islamic values among genders?

4. What is the perception of gender regarding religious values?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study aims to examine the gender differences in the Malaysian Muslim youth

context. However, despite common perceptions regarding male and female

populations in Malaysia, to date no study has been conducted to empirically

investigate differences in religiosity between male and female Muslim youth in

Malaysia.

According to Krauss, Azimi, Saundi, Sidek, Johari, & Manap (2006), there is a

need for a more in depth understanding of how the Muslim youth apply their

knowledge to cope and adapt to modernization in its different forms. Their research

focused on the regional differences amongst the Muslim youth of Malaysia. In light of

the mentioned study, this paper will attempt to look at the gender differences in the

Muslim Malaysian youth population at IIUM.

In addition, this paper will generate information that will contribute to research

on youth studies and shed light on an otherwise unexhausted topic.

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study aims to examine the gender differences in the Malaysian youth context.

However, the manner in which sampling will be done and the sample size may affect

the study drastically as there are several factors that need to considered, such as the

background of the participants, as research has shown that there are differences in

7

religiosity in terms of demographic data; i.e. regional differences (e.g. Krauss et.al,

2006).

In addition to that, generalization to the rest of the population of Malaysia will

not be possible. This is due to the uniqueness of the students found in the International

Islamic University Malaysia IIUM and the unique Islamic learning environment that

can be found on the campus. As such, it is known as the Garden of Knowledge and

Virtue.

1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study will involve 1,200 male and female students from IIUM with different

demographic data and five religious values will be examined in the study which

includes practice, good deed, and use of role model, devotion and knowledge search.

1.8 DEFINITON OF TERMS

Religiosity: In this study the term religiosity will refer to Islamic religiosity; one’s

level of consciousness of God as understood according to the tawhidic worldview of

God-consciousness in everyday life (Krauss, 2005). It will be measured through the

use of an adapted version of the MRPI.

Youth: In this study it will refer to individuals from the age 18 to 24.

Malaysians: In this study it will refer to the Malay race, excluding the Indian and the

Chinese.

8

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION Religion and spiritually has been a topic studied by social scientists since the early

1950’s. One of the first major attempts to formulate and measure differences in

religiosity which was within a specific denomination was the work of Joseph Fichter

in 1954 (Roberts, 2004). His work distinguished between Catholics and their degree of

religiosity based on the frequency of attendance at Mass and also on the overall level

of involvement in the life of the parish.

However, a deeper and more diverse interest amongst psychologists and social

scientists in general developed in the area of religiosity after the attacks of 9/11 as the

world watched in horror the image of a prominent religion tarnish. Indeed, social

scientists and psychologists in particular, found a new curiosity to indulge in.

In fact, much study was conducted in order to gain more knowledge about this

phenomenon. These studies were continuously done in order to gain an empirical look

at religiosity and overt religious behaviour (e.g. Akbar 2002; Cobban 2003; Heft

2003). Researchers as early as 1965 recognized that religiosity cannot be

operationalized nor assessed (Glock & Stark, 1965), thus additional contributions

were mostly to identify behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects of religion and

spirituality.

9

2.2 DEFINITION OF RELIGION Many religious people are highly suspicious of any scientific study of religion. The

attitude of constant critical thinking and seeking empirical evidence of causality seems

contrary to the utter trust that faith ultimately requires. Hence, sociological analysis of

religion is viewed as a threat to pure faith (Roberts, 2004). Nonetheless, social

scientists remain very much interested in religion and the psychology surrounding it.

A quick peruse of the research indicates that the bulk of the research in

religiosity consists mainly of western populations, and the majority of religiosity

instruments falls under the rubric of Christianity and the study of Christian people

(Krauss, Azimi, Saundi, Sidek, Johari, & Manap, 2006).

However, amongst Muslim populations in the Muslim countries and otherwise,

attempted studies have emerged assessing differences in religiosity (e.g. Krauss 2005;

Salleh, Hatta, Nor, Shamsuddin, Kassim, Ismail, Moktar 2000). Yet to fully appreciate

the importance of religion and its relationship to the demographic variables, it is

imperative to take a look at what is meant by religion.

On a different line of thought, some scientists were weary of conducting

research on religion as they were of the opinion that the psychological study of

religion was incompatible with behavior- since the object of religious activity and

feeling cannot be observed and measured, this was thought to make the study of

religious activity and feeling unworthy of scientific attention (Leeming, Madden &

Marlan, 2010).

This study of religion fell into further decline, and this decline was assisted by

the influential and rather derogatory views of Freud on religion (e.g. Freud 1927).

Religion was seldom indexed in psychology textbooks, and where it was indexed, the

10

explanations of religious behavior and feeling were almost always pejorative

(Loewenthal, 2000) as cited in (Leeming, Madden & Marlan, 2010).

Thus, defining religion is a venture that is difficult, complex and close to

impossible. Indeed, some scholars have advocated that defining such an abstract

concept cannot be restricted in a modest manner, as volumes would be needed to do it

justice (Loewenthal, 2000).

The earliest approach that tried to capture the essence of religion was first

suggested by Emile Durkheim in 1915. He maintained that religion is a communal

activity involving social groups. His definition of religion is: “a unified system of

beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and

forbidden- beliefs and practices which unite into a single moral community called a

Church, all those who adhere to them” (Roberts, 2004).

According to Smith (1963), the word religion originated from the Latin word

religio and referred to “something that one does, or that one feels deeply about, or that

impinges one’s will, exacting obedience or threatening disaster or offering reward or

binging into one’s community” (p.20).

Indeed social scientists have proposed numerous definitions of religion;

however coming to a consensus in terms of a unified definition was close to

impossible, thus it was the opinion of the sociologist J. Milton Yinger (1967) that “any

definition of religion is likely to be satisfactory only to its author” (p.108).

Despite the obvious disagreement between social scientists in terms of

defining religion, the general assumption in contemporary text books, such as Roberts

(2004), is that religion is an “interdependent system by which a community of people

are bonded by a shared meaning system (a faith or a world view); by a set of myths

(beliefs), rituals, and symbol systems that sacralise the meaning system for the

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members; by a sense of belonging to a reference group; by a system of ethics or values

that is directive in the lives of the members; and by a set of routinized social

expectations and patterns” (p.25).

Capturing the essence of religion is difficult especially when it is applied

cross-culturally. According to Roberts (2004), religion in the Western world is

essentially a matter of belief. However, the emphasis on belief is a bias of the Western

world that causes investigators to miss the underlying thrust of many non-western

religions.

The concept of religion in Islam can be derived from the following quote, as

mentioned in Sahih Bukhari on the authority of Omar:

“One day when we were sitting with the messenger of Allah, there appeared before us a man whose clothes were exceedingly white and whose hair was exceedingly black. No signs of journeying were to be seen on him and none of us knew him. He walked towards us and sat down by the Prophet. Resting his knees against his and placing the palms of his hands on his thighs, he said: ‘O Mohammed, tell me about Islam.’ The messenger of Allah said: ‘Islam is to testify that there is no God but Allah and Mohammed is the messenger of Allah; to perform the prayers the prayers, to pay zakah, to fast Ramadan and to make the pilgrimage to the House if you are able to do so’. He said: ‘you have spoken rightly’ and we were amazed at him asking him and saying that he had spoken rightly. He said ‘then tell me about Iman’. He said ‘It is to believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, and the Last Day and to believe in divine destiny, both the good and the evil thereof’. He said: ‘you have spoken rightly, and then tell me about Ihsan’. The Prophet said: ‘It is to worship Allah as though you are seeing Him, and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you’. He said: ‘then tell me about the Hour’. The prophet said: ‘the one questioned about it knows no better than the questioner’. He said: ‘then tell me about its signs’. He said: ‘that the slave-girl will give birth to her mistress and that you will see the barefooted, naked, destitute, herdsmen competing in constructing lofty buildings’. Then He took himself off and I stayed for a time. The Prophet said to me: ‘O Omar, do you know who the questioner was?’ I said ‘Allah and His messenger know best’. He said: ‘It was Gabriel, who came to you to teach you your religion”. The Holy Quran is the constitution of Islam. According to Shaikh Ali Tantawi

(2000), endorsing that fact that it has been revealed by Allah is belief (Iman) of the

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true mu’min. Iman (faith) in this sense can only be seen and measured by Allah and

no amount of empirical research will ever be able to penetrate into the human heart

(p.37).

Indeed, according to Farah (1987), the Quran is the core of Islam and is of

great importance in the life of Muslims. She postulates that “more than representing

the supreme embodiment of the sacred beliefs of Islam, its bible and its guiding light,

the Quran constitutes the Muslim’s main reference not only for spiritual matters but

also for the mundane requirements of day to day living” (p.79).

2.3 ASSESSEMENTS USED IN RELIGION: Religion has entered the arena of enquiry with methods being created to formally and

rigorously study and assess its components. Thus, researchers use multidimensional

assessments to evaluate religious affiliation, belief systems and practices. Some have

gained much appraisal while others leave more to be wanted, nonetheless, a few of the

more commonly used instruments will be describes briefly in order to gain more

insight.

2.3.1 Affiliation What is meant by religious affiliation? Religious affiliation is the self-identified

association of an individual with a religion, denomination or sub-denominational

religious group. Decades of survey research have consistently shown that a very high

percentage of Americans believe in God, regularly pray, and consider themselves to

be religious (Dougherty, Johnson, & Polson, 2007).

Measuring religious affiliation has been widely studied in the west. The most

common form of measuring religious affiliation was developed by Roof and