Extended Abstract

Design of adherent ceramic tiling in facades:

Proposal of guidelines for its development and implementation

Inês Martins Louraço Gonçalves da Silva

Thesis to obtain the Master of Science Degree in

Construction and Rehabilitation

Supervisors: José Dinis Silvestre, PhD, Assistant Professor.

Inês dos Santos Flores Barbosa Colen, PhD, Assistant Professor.

November 2014

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Design of adherent ceramic tiling in facades: Proposal of guidelines for its development and implementation

1. Introduction

Adherent ceramic tiling applied in facades has a great tradition in Portugal, and has been used over

time in buildings for that reason and also because of its good technical performance and varied

aesthetic possibilities.

The main objective of this work is the study of current European and international standards applicable

to the design of adherent ceramic tiling applied in facades, and specifies characteristics of ceramic

tiles, adhesives, and of grout for tiles, and their method of application.

A questionnaire was answered by professionals involved in the design and application of these

claddings. The analysis of this questionnaire reflects the perception of these professionals of the

practice of ceramic tiling design and the specification of the corresponding materials in Portugal.

Based on the analysis of the questionnaire and of the standards, a proposal of guidelines to be

followed in the design of ceramic tiling facades is presented, taking into account the corresponding

substrates, the movement joints, and the environmental and maintenance conditions, in order to

ensure a proper performance and durability of the cladding system throughout its service life.

The success of the implementation of these guidelines relies on a continuous exchange of information

of good design and execution practices between all the participants in the process, namely the

designers, architects, engineers, owners, contractors, suppliers, renderers, and tilers.

2. Analysis of codes and standards for direct adhered external ceramic claddings

In the CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation) member countries there are different situations

regarding the publication of documents and standards for the design and installation of ceramic tiling.

In the countries of Central Europe (Germany, Austria and Switzerland), France and Benelux, United

Kingdom, and Italy, there are standards and extensive technical documentation, tested and

disseminated on the application of adherent external ceramic tiling. In Portugal and Spain, although

there are handbooks and literature related to the theme of ceramic tiling, there are no standards

dedicated exclusively to the design and installation of direct adhered ceramic tiling in facades.

The standards represent years of experience and scientific testing of industrial professionals who

offered their time and effort to help architects, applicators and owners to achieve an increasing

improvement of the quality of the design and execution of ceramic tiling.

This document aims at describing, briefly, the current situation on European and international

standards applicable to ceramic tiling on exterior walls. This summary is based on a broad set of

literature on the topic, and highlights the diversity of requirements that must be ensured in the planning

and design of adherent ceramic tiling system.

Tables 1 and 2 list the handbooks, codes and standards on direct adherent external ceramic tiling,

which are considered the accepted practice in their countries.

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Table 1- Summary of European handbooks, codes and standards for adherent external ceramic tiling

(P – design project; I - installation, M - maintenance) adapted and complemented from [1,2]

Country Document title Scope and Content

- COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE

NORMALISATION – General rules

for design and installation of

ceramic tiling – CEN TR 13548.

Technical Report. Technical

committee CEN/TC 67. S.l. 2004 [9]

European reference document that establishes general rules for the

design and installation of ceramic tiles, which only serves to structure the

contents of the design project.

Proposes the development of a single document about installing tiles,

which serves as a reference in all member countries of CEN. (P and I)

France NF DTU 52.2 P1-1-2 - Building

works — Ceramic and similar tiles

fixing with adhesives — natural

stones — Part 1-1-2: Contract bill of

technical model clauses for outside

walls, AFNOR, 2009 [10]

Prescribes maximum size according to tile water absorption and height of

the façade. Specifies the type of adhesive and methods for direct

adhesion of ceramic coatings as façade cladding. Guidance on the

installation of large tiles module.

(P and I)

German DIN 18515-1 - Design and

installation of tile or stone cladding

[11]

Restricts the use of tiles installed with adhesive to maximum dimensions

of 0.12 m2. Other requirements for joint dimensions and spacing. (P and

I)

Italy UNI 11493:2013 - Piastrellature

ceramiche a pavimento e a parete -

Istruzioni per la progettazione,

l'installazione e la manutenzione

[12]

Defines the quality and performance of ceramic tiles, provides rules and

guidelines to follow when choosing materials, design, installation and

maintenance, as well as solutions compatible with typical specifications

to ensure the maintenance over time and required levels of quality and

performance. Specifies approved individual products and procedures for

the direct adhesion of ceramic tiles as facade cladding. (P, I and M)

Portugal APICER 2003 - Manual for the

application of ceramic tiling [13]

This handbook provides information about the design, installation and

maintenance of ceramic tiling systems based on European and French

standards. (P, I and M)

Spain CTE - Spanish technical building

code [14]

Establishes the basic requirements of safety and habitability of buildings.

Regulation based on performance. (P and I)

Guide for ceramic tile installation

- Recognized document (DRB

01/11) [15]

Recognized document (DRB 01/11) aims to be a reference book for

classification and selection of adhesive material and grouting material,

writing projects, control of the building site and the use and maintenance

of this type of ceramic materials. (P, I and M)

United Kingdom

BS 5385-2:2006, Wall and floor

tiling, Part 2: Code of Practice for

the design and installation of

external ceramic wall tiling and

mosaics (including terracotta and

faience tiles) [16]

Outlines performance parameters and design requirements for external

tiles cladding. Restricted to ceramic tiles with water absorption <3% and

a minimum thickness of 8 mm. Recommends the use of mechanical

means for tiles larger than 0.1 m2 in facial surface area. (P, I and M)

BS 8000-11:2011 Workmanship on

building sites. Internal and external

wall and floor tiling. Ceramic and

agglomerated stone tiles, natural

stone and terrazzo tiles and slabs,

and mosaics. Code of practice [17]

Outlines various methods of application of adhesives and prescribes

limits for their use. Describes the recommended practices to be followed

by site workers when engaged in rendering and tiling activities. (I)

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Table 2 - Summary of international handbooks, codes and standards for adherent external ceramic tiling

(P – design project; I - installation, M - maintenance) adapted and complemented from [1, 2]

Country Document title Scope and content

Australia AS 3958.1: 2007: Australian Standard –

Ceramic Tiles. Part 1: Guide to the

installation of ceramic tiles [3]

Outlines materials and systems for tiling system and describes the

preparation of the substrates and methods of installation. No

guidance on large tiles. (I)

AS 3958.2:1992: Australian Standard-

Ceramic tiles. Part 2: Guide to the

selection of a ceramic tiling system [4]

Guide for the design of tilling systems. (P)

Brazil NBR 13755:1996 – Ceramic tile installed

with dry-set Portland cement mortar on

external walls – Procedure [5]

Specifies requirements for the execution, supervision and final

acceptance of external ceramic tiling using specific cement mortars

and adhesives for facades. (I)

NBR 15575-4:2013 Residential buildings -

Performance Part 4: Requirements for

internal and external wall systems [6]

Establishes the requirements, criteria and methods for evaluating

the performance of external and internal partition walls or elements

of their systems of residential buildings up to five floors. (P and M)

United

States of

America

TCNA 2014 TCNA Handbook for ceramic,

glass and stone tile installation [7]

Specifies requirements for installation of external ceramic tiling.

Details are given for a range of methods. No guidance on the

installation of large module tiles.

(P , I and M)

ANSI A108/A118/A136.1:2013 - American

National Specifications for the Installation

of Ceramic Tile [8]

Specifies requirements for installation of external ceramic tiling.

Details are given for a range of methods. No guidance on the

installation of large module tiles. (I)

The aspects mentioned in the specification of a ceramic tiling system in European and international

documentation are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 - Comparative table of the aspects mentioned in European and international documentation

Aspects mentioned in

standards

Documents

Outside Europe European

Australia Brazil U.S.A. Europe France German Italy Spain U.K.

AS 3958-2 (1992)

[4]

NBR 13755 (1996)

[5]

TCNA (2014)

[7]

CEN/TR 13548 (2004)

[9]

NF DTU 52.2 P1-1-2 (2009)

[10]

DIN 18515-1

(1998) [11]

UNI 11493 (2013)

[12]

Guide for ceramic tile installation

[15]

BS 5385-2 (2006)

[16]

Construction works schedule

x x x

Materials x x x x x x x x x Design (Project) x x x x x x x x x Substrates x x x x x x x x x Selection criteria for cement based adhesive

x x x x

Selection criteria of the grout joint

x x

Location of joints x x x x x x x x x Architectural details

x x x

Installation x x x x x x x x x Maintenance x x x x x

The structure of the standards differs from country to country, and there are some rules focused only

on one construction element, such as the British Standard Part 2 that refers only to the design and

installation of external ceramic and mosaic wall tiling in normal conditions. Other standards, such as

the Italian, cover in a single document recommendations for floors and walls, applied both outside and

inside.

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In Portugal there is no standard dedicated exclusively to the design of ceramic coatings applied to the

facade, but there is a manual APICER 2003 [13] that has served as guidance to professionals in this

area and is based on French [28] recommendations, but as these were modified in 2009 some values

are less demanding compared to the current French standard. In Spain there is also no

standardization, but the "Guide for ceramic tile installation" [15] is a document recognized by the

country with the aim of helping specifiers in the selection of the most suitable materials on exterior

walls. This "Guide for ceramic tile installation” [15] defines class C2 - improved cementitious adhesive

as a minimum performance level of the tile according to NP EN 12004 [25], it also advises the double

bonding method; and sets the class CG2 – improved cement based grout for tiles according to EN

13888 [26].

The recent Italian standard (2013) [12] indicates the most appropriate class of the cementitious

adhesive for ceramic tiling cladding, varying as a function of the substrate. The recommended

cementitious adhesives for external walls range between classes C2 and C2S1/S2. This standard also

specifies the method of double bonding when the surface of the tile is > 30 cm.

France is a country with a long tradition in the development of standards. The NF DTU 52.2 P1-1-2:

2009 [10] is the only standard analysed that establishes the cementitious adhesive class performance

according to dimensions and water absorption of the tile, and height of facade.

In the United States, the TCNA Handbook [7] is a very important document and used by applicators

and establishes performance class C2S1 for the bonding material to cementitious substrates.

Unlike the " Guide for ceramic tile installation " [15], the TCNA [7] manual, and the French and Italian

standards referred to above, the documents: German standard DIN 18515-1: 1998 [11]; British

Standard BS 5385-2: 2006 [16]; European document CEN / TR 13548: 2004 [9]; Australian Standard

AS 3958-2: 1992) [4]; and Brazilian standard NBR 13755: 1996 [5] do not specify the performance

class of cementitious adhesive.

On the other aspects that can be analysed, such as the design of the expansion joints, most countries

recommend intermediate horizontal joints on each floor with a minimum distance of 3 m. The French

standard sets this parameter to 6 m.

The TCNA manual [7], the British standard [16] and the Brazilian standard [5] indicate that the

following materials: joint filler board, back-up strip, and sealants, must appear in the specifications of

the architectural design.

As for the exterior ceramic tiles, the German standard [11] is conservative and advise the use of

medium format tiles not more than 30x40 (1,200 cm2), while the French standard [10] already allows

for large format ceramic tiles between 2000 and 3600 cm2. The British Standard [16] states that tiles

with greater than (32x32) 1,000 cm2 should not be applied above the first floor height unless the

cladding is secured by mechanical means.

The methods in thin layer, double bonding and direct bonding are recommended by the European and

international standards. In the double bonding method, cementitious adhesive is applied to the

substrate surface and the inside face of the tile. There are different recommendations as to the size of

the tile. The French standard [10] recommends the method of double bonding for tiling surface with S

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> 50 cm2 (7x7cm) and the Italian standard [12] makes the same recommendation for tiling surface with

S > 900 cm2 (30x30cm).

The British standard [16], the Australian standard [4] and the French [10] standard are the only ones

that make considerations about the architectural details, such as parapets, windowsills, external

corners and curved surfaces.

Analysing the standards for the design of ceramic tiling in facades, one can conclude that a special

emphasis is given to the following aspects, which should be specified: (1) Compatibility with the

substrate; (2) Substrate requirements; (3) Control of environmental conditions in the installation; (4)

Criteria for design of movement joints: location, frequency (spacing), size (width/depth ratio), minimum

and maximum distances between joints, type and detailing of sealant and accessory materials.

Based on the standards analysis, one can conclude that, to ensure a long lasting installation, it is

essential that architects specify and provide the requirements for movement joints, together with the

correct materials to fill them.

In order to achieve a successful installation of ceramic tiles it is imperative to follow the standards of

the industry and a complementary set of specifications, and also to guarantee the exchange of

information between all parties involved in the construction of the ceramic tiling facade. Specifications

provide detailed descriptions of acceptable construction materials and consider all aspects of a

building facade, such as the type, water absorption, and colour of tile, and type and method of bedding

installation.

3. Analysis of the questionnaires

A survey was conducted among 257 professionals that work in the construction sector and may have

interference in the specification of ceramic tiling system, such as architects; civil engineers; draftsman

and project planners; suppliers of ceramic tile/ adhesive materials / grout for tiles; estimators;

professionals in the construction and inspection companies.

In order to compare and validate the responses of professionals with more or less experience in works

designed and realized, it was decided to set the sample B with professionals with more than 10

buildings completed and 10 years of experience. There were 107 respondents with these

characteristics. These professionals have mentioned that they use specific criteria when specifying

ceramic tiles and corresponding grouts. Throughout the analysis of the questionnaire results,

according to the opinion of the respondents, there were slight differences in the values observed in

samples A (all respondents) and B.

The questionnaire was prepared based on the analysis of the European and international codes and

standards for direct adhered external ceramic tiling. The results were important to justify the relevance

of this work and considered in the development of the guidelines for the design of ceramic tiling

facades, which are mentioned in section 4.

The questionnaire consisted of questions concerning the practice of the ceramic tiling design,

specification of materials, and opinion of the respondents about relevant guidelines to be integrated

into this cladding system.

The aim of the analysis was: to give an overview of the current situation of design of ceramic tiling

facades in Portugal; to confirm the relevance of the existence of a design project of facades with

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ceramic tiling; to identify relevant aspects in the practice of claddings design; and to confirm how the

target group is motivated to the practice of execution projects of ceramic tiling facades. On the

question "Do you think that the existence of design projects of facades with ceramic cladding is

pertinent in Portugal?"(Question 9) shown on Figure 1, from the total 257 respondents, 85% answered

affirmatively, which highlights the need for a greater rigor and attention to detail of this cladding system

and to provide detailed specification in the architectural projects.

In this study, it appears that the majority of respondents who answered the questionnaire are men

(75%), in “age between 25 and 44 years old” (75%), reside in the district of Lisbon (41%) and are

members of a professional association (84%).

Although the "correct dimensions of the joints between the tiles" were considered "very important"

(question 14), a large number of respondents (85%) mentioned that they do not calculate “the size of

the opening of the perimeter, intermediate and structural joints on the ceramic tiling “façade" (question

18) shown on Figure 2. It can be deduced that the theoretical concepts such as the correct

dimensioning of movement joints are not always put into practice.

Figure 1. - Relevance of the existence of design

facades with ceramic cladding in Portugal

(Sample A)

Figure 2. – Do you calculate the size of the opening

of the perimeter, intermediate and structural joints

of ceramic tiling cladding? (Sample A)

The interaction between architect, civil engineer, and the various parties involved during the

construction could be strengthened in their theoretical and practical aspects in conjunction with good

application manuals. To follow the best practices in design and installation of ceramic tiling facades,

the "manual of application of tile manufacturers / adhesive materials / grout for tiles" are the means of

information most used (70%), followed by the "internet" (62 %).

Generically, respondents made suggestions concerning the need of specification of the materials and

of the tiling system. They also mentioned the importance of proper installation of ceramic tiling, taking

into account environmental and working conditions, architectural design, stereotomy, architectural

details, and the maintenance of the facade over the service life.

4. The design of ceramic tiling in facades

4.1. Guidelines for the design of ceramic tiling facades

This section provides general recommendations and guidelines for the design of ceramic tiling in

facades, including the means by which movement joints in concrete are carried through and

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incorporated into tiles installations. The choice of the tiling system should take into consideration the

characteristics of the substrate, the expected environment and the working conditions.

Figure 3 shows a constructive detail of adherent ceramic tiling facade presented in the BS 5385-

2:2006 [16].

Legend: 1- Adhesive bed 2- Reinforcement (optional) 3- Cement: sand rendering 4- Fixing 5- Tile 6- Joint 7- Grout

8- Structural Wall

Figure 3. - Constructive detail of adherent ceramic tiling facade [16]

4.1.1. Specifications for the preparation of the substrate

It is recommended to apply ceramic tiling on exterior masonry walls of ceramic brick, cast in situ or

precast reinforced concrete and other cement-based stable substrates. It is not recommended to apply

ceramic cladding on substrates with little cohesion or and very deformable, such as gypsum plasters,

wood, and prefabricated steel

In the preparation of the substrate, the following general rules should be adopted:

• Direct application of a ceramic cladding requires a concrete or cement plaster support with a flat,

stable surface with adequate strength, free of cracks and efflorescences and without voids or defects;

• Substrates must be resistant, stable, sound and clean and free of dust, oil release agents, and

organic products. Excessively smooth surfaces should be scraped with a wire brush; the bonding

strength of the substrate should be at least 0.5 N/mm2 [11];

• It is imperative that the installation does not start less than one month after the installation of the

substrates (e.g. masonry, concrete, plaster), to guarantee that they already had a proper drying and

developed sufficient resistance;

• All substrates must have the appropriate flatness. Deviations from flatness exceeding 20 mm,

measured at 2 m in all directions, require the execution of a levelling layer; regardless of other

considerations and whatever the method applied; In the thin layer with these flatness deviation the

levelling layer will always be necessary;

• The levelling layer must be applied over the substrate with a thickness between 10 mm and 25 mm

[11]. The substrate must be clean and pre-existing structural joints should be protected before applying

the levelling layer;

• The thin layer method with cementitious adhesive on levelling layer should be implemented when

flatness deviation (d) is 3<d≤20mm under a 2 m straightedge [18];

• The implementation of the levelling layer is required on facades exposed to heavy rains (group III

effort, DIN 4108, Part 3) [11]. In this case the mortar shall incorporate a water-repellent additive. Note:

The group III effort is applied to buildings located in geographic areas with average annual rainfall

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exceeding 800 mm, and risk of torrential rain, or with an important action of the wind, although the

rainfall is less than this amount [18];

• Before applying the levelling layer, structural joints should be protected and should coincide and be

continuous with equal or greater width to the joint in the substrate;

• Joints settlement should have a width between 4 mm and 10 mm [11]. When it is required a diffusion

capacity of water vapour, the surface contribution of the total area of the joints of the ceramic cladding

should not be less than 5%.

4.1.2. Specifications of materials

The materials should be applied with certain characteristics described in this section.

i) Levelling layer: is a layer applied to compensate unevenness and differences in height [9]:

• Mortar for levelling floor: cement CEM I or II / 32, 5 (RC / 97) or I or CEM II / 42, 5 (RC / 97) [3] in the

volumetric ratio of 1: 2 or 1: 3 with washed sand particle size distribution Ø 0-4 mm [11];

• The levelling layer should have a minimum thickness of 10 mm and a maximum thickness of 25mm.

For greater thicknesses is necessary to be reinforced (with a metal lath of austenitic stainless steel,

with a welded wire of Ø 2.5 mm, into a mesh size of approximately 50 mm x 50 mm) located in the

centre and with direct mechanical fixings (which should be of austenitic stainless steel) [11];

ii) Cementitious adhesive:

• Cementitious adhesive classified as C2-S1/S2, in other words cementitious (C), improved (2) with

deformable (S1) adhesive or highly- deformable (S1) adhesive [10];

• Consider applying cementitious adhesives with extended open time (E) in adverse weather

conditions and in exterior walls;

• Consider applying rapid-setting (F) cementitious adhesives when there are stains and efflorescence

in the support;

• The elements of the cladding are applied on the substrate with cement adhesive within the open

time, with the time limit: 20 minutes for normal tile adhesive; 10 minutes for the hardening of the rapid-

setting cementitious adhesive (F); 30 minutes for a product with extended open time (E) [10];

• The cementitious adhesive C2S1 or C2S2 may be applied with some conditions [10]:

- For any height from 6 to 28 m; the surface of the tile should not overpass 2,000 cm2;

- For the application of extruded or pressed tiles (water absorption greater than 0.5%) and fully vitrified

tiles BIa (absorption of water lower than 0.5%);

- For any height up to 6 m; the surface of the tile must not pass the 3,600 cm2;

iii) Insulation:

• If the insulation system is external, insulation materials with high compressive strength, tongue and

groove panels, and closed cell, must be used in order to achieve a continuous insulation without

thermal bridges [11];

iv) Ceramic Tiles:

• In areas of high insolation and climate with large temperature variations, the colour of the ceramic

cladding material should be light, with a coefficient of absorption of solar radiation α <0.7 [10];

• The choice of dark colored tiles with absorption coefficient of solar radiation α> 0.7 in sun-exposed

facades of the West Southwest quadrant is discouraged [10];

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• The system described should not be implemented in heights higher than 28m [10];

• In ceramic tiles located in geographic areas with risk of frost it is recommended to use tiles with

porosity lower than 3% and that exceed the test method for resistance to frost proposed in ISO 10545-

12 [20] standard;

• For external ceramic wall tilling installation is prudent to advise the use of tiles with average size not

exceeding 30x40 (1,200 cm2), and with less than 15 mm of thickness, to ensure [10]: (1) A good

handling of the ceramic product in the application; (2) A compromise between adhesion and weight of

the tile, in this case with the corresponding shear effort; (3) Adequate elasticity of the ceramic cladding

without the need for oversizing the expansion joints; (3)If necessary, to provide a proper diffusion of

water vapour together with settlement joints of no more than 8 mm;

Note: Some manufacturers advise installation with mixed fixation (cementitious adhesive + indicated

mechanical fasteners), depending on the weight of the tiles, the height of the cladding and the works

conditions [21 and 22].

4.1.3. Method of application of the bedding

Installation with the thin bed method must met certain requirements:

• The surface of the substrate should be consistent, flat and dry, and have at least 15 days of drying

before tiling;

• Applying the thin layer with cementitious adhesive directly on the substrate, or on reinforced levelling

layer should only be adopted when flatness deviation is ≤ 3 mm under a 2 m straightedge [18];

• This application technique should be adopted in ceramic cladding with low porosity and when

adhesion properties and elasticity is required, with improved cement-based adhesive type C2S1 or

C2S2, in other words, improved cementitious adhesive with a deformable (S1) or highly-deformable

adhesive (S2) [10];

• It is essential to adopt the technique of double bonding in tiles larger than 7x7 cm format, in other

words, apply adhesive on the substrate surface and on the back side of the tile, to make this a perfect

substrate contact. Apply the tile piece by pressing it firmly against the substrate to properly crush the

cords of cement adhesive; raise the tile to verify that there are no areas without contacting the

substrate; corrections and adjustments must be made immediately after placement, or at least within

the allowable time [18];

• The wetting ability of the adhesive should be tested for each square meter as a minimum. With this

test it is possible to ensure that the application of tiles is carried out within the open time of the

adhesive. If the surface wetted by the adhesive on the tile masonry is less than 75%, it is

recommended to remove the cement adhesive from the tile and from the substrate and apply fresh

adhesive;

• The manufacturer's instructions and the temperature range recommended for the preparation and

installation of bonding material must be scrupulously respected; Note: The use of normal dispersion

adhesive (D1) and improved dispersion adhesive (D2) is not recommended [18].

4.1.4. Climatic effects during installation

The application of ceramic cladding on exterior must follow some cautions and recommendations:

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• Installation of ceramic tiles should not be undertaken when: (1) the temperature of the air, substrates

or materials is above 30°C or below 5°C [10]; (2) there is a risk of frost, rain, strong wind or direct

sunlight [11]; (3) there are extreme weather conditions (gusty winds or high temperatures), since drying

may occur faster;

• all the rules of application of ceramic cladding in facades should be respected, particularly with

regard to the protection of the system to the penetration of rain water (during application and service

life) [10, 11]; When it is not possible to avoid these conditions, special care should be performed, for

example, protecting the area to be coated by covering it with plastic sheeting;

• The work should be performed by qualified personnel, with appropriate guidance and supervision.

4.1.5. Specification of the grout joints between tiles

In the specification of the filling material of the joints, some recommendations must be followed:

• If a cement mortar is applied, the composition must avoid shrinkage during setting that may

compromise adhesion or produce cracks. The silica sand should be of high quality, washed and with

equilibrated particle size distribution between 0 and 2 mm in diameter. The mortar should have water-

repellent additive;

• For reasons of safety and performance it is recommended to use an improved cementitious grout

classified as CG2 and to follow the manufacturer's instructions [15].

• The installation of the fill material should not leave gaps, discontinuities or bubbles in the joint

between the tiles.

4.1.6. Movement joints

According to the TCNA [7], the architect must specify the type of joint, show the location and details of

movement joints on project drawings, as well as the materials to use. Movement joint are joints in tiles,

substrates, designed to accommodate movement [9].

Figures 4, 5, and 6 outline the types of movement joints, such as intermediate joints, perimeter joints

and structural joints, which must be specified in the design of ceramic tiling facade.

Figure 4. – Intermediate movement

joint (adapted from [19])

Figure 5. – Perimeter movement

joint (adapted from [19])

Figure 6. – Structural movement

joint (adapted from [19])

Legend:1- Levelling layer; 2-Substrate; 3- Back-up strip; 4- Flexible sealant; 5- Ceramic tile; 6 – Compressible

filler expansion material; 7- Grout; 8 – Metallic reinforcement; 9- Cementitious adhesive.

The intermediate movement joint divides large tiling into smaller areas, approximately square areas;

the perimeter movement joint isolates the ceramic tiling from adjacent building elements; and the

structural joint is a movement joint in ceramic tiling that reflects a structural joint in the substrate [9].

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Movement joints are the primary means of controlling stresses induced by building movement (thermal

and moisture movements, shrinkage, structural movements, vibrations) allowing stress relief.

Therefore, movement joints should be incorporated to allow for slight movements as indicated by

BS5385-2 [16]: (1) over existing and/or structural movement joints; (2) where tiling abuts other

materials; (3) junctions between different substrate materials, where tiling is continuous across them;

(4) along all internal corners - vertically and horizontally; (5) external vertical angles, between 0.25 m

and 1 m from the angle and symmetrically wherever possible; (6) horizontally at each floor and apart

vertically approximately 3 m to 4.5 m; ideally, they should be located over movement joints in the

structural substrate and at structural material changes; for example, horizontal joint at top and bottom

of floor slab, vertical joint at internal corners and at junctions with columns; (7) for dividing large tiled

areas into smaller ones.  

The intermediate (Figure 7.) and perimeter joints (Figure 8.) width must be greater than or equal to 5

mm. The appropriate depth should guarantee the extension of the substrate joint.

Legend: 1 – Horizontal joint; 2 – Vertical joint Legend: 1 – Perimetral joint; 2 – Horizontal joint

Figure 7. – Scheme of vertical and horizontal intermediate joints

position

Figure 8. – Scheme of perimetral and horizontal

joints position [23]

In Figures 9. and 10. are shown the typical movement joint in external wall tiling. In Figure 11 is shown

an axonometric of the movement joints position in buildings with concrete structure and brick masonry.

Figure 9. – Section - Typical movement joint in

external wall tiling [27]

Figure 10. – Floor plan - Typical movement joint in

external wall tiling [27]

Legend: 1 – Perimeter joint; 2 – Concrete slab;

3 – Ceramic tiling cladding; 4 – Joint between tiles;

5 – Intermediate joints

Legend: 1 – Structural joint; 2 – Sealant;

3 – Ceramic tiling cladding; 4 – Joint between tiles;

5 – Perimeter joint

Intermediate joints should define areas between 9 and 18 m2 [11] and might go up to 60 m2 [10]. It is

recommended in all cases to have a horizontal joint at the bottom of the floor slabs and of the roof

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slab. The vertical joints must coincide with the voids, and in all circumstances be located at a distance

between 3 m [16] to 6 m [11], but may have spacing up to 10 meters [10].

The optimum with for joints between tiles is influenced by the variations in tile size and the depth of

joint needed. With extruded tiles the joint width should be 6 mm, whilst joins between pressed tiles can

be narrower, but equal or larger than 4 mm [10].

Figure 11. - Position of movement joints in concrete frame construction at

abutment of brick/block infill [16]

Legend: (1) Grout; (2) Bricks or concrete blocks; (3) Back-up strip; (4) Concrete slab or edge-beam; (5) Sealant ;(6) Joint filler

board; (7) Tile; (8) Rendering; (9) Adhesive bed

4.1.7. Architectural details

Architectural details should be designed to protect the tiling at positions where it may be vulnerable to

water penetration or to discoloration from the deposition of waterborne dirt. Flashing and edge trims

covering the top edges of tiling should be designed to prevent driven rain from seeping into the

structure over the top edge of the tiling [4 and 16]. Architects should also provide detailed construction

design drawings such as parapets, windowsills, external corners and curved surfaces.

4.1.8. Development of the project

The design project of the ceramic tiling facades should begin in the early stage of design and one

should take into account the specification of the position of the joints, with special attention to the

architectural details of the facade. This project will suffer several adaptations as it is being detailed,

updated and made compatible with other specialties, such as the structure.

It is considered important to address aspects of specification of materials of ceramic tiling facades in

the development of design, drafts and construction documents of the project. With respect to the

durability of the cladding throughout its service life, it is of great importance to make a correct selection

of the cement adhesive and joint filler materials. The choice of tile adhesive to be applied in the facade

must consider the size of the tile, the height of the facade, the climatic conditions of application and the

geometry of the substrate.

The successful implementation of these guidelines requires a reciprocity between all participants from

different specialties, such as the designers, architects and engineers, the developer, contractors,

suppliers, and applicators of the tiles and joint materials. Regarding the rules of proper implementation,

it is important that the settlement is made by personnel specifically authorized to do so and properly

monitored.

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The development of the design project of ceramic tiling facades can be accomplished in three steps

[23]:

• The first step involves a preliminary analysis of the designs of the various specialties of the building,

to identify and meet the specifications produced for various building systems; before carrying out the

project, some evaluations should be performed regarding architecture project and design of structures;

• Following the completion of the first step, the specifications and cladding design should be

developed, considering the parameters previously discussed and the need for adaptation - specific

construction details, such as movement joints, flashing and edge trims covering the top edges of tiling,

parapets walls, sills, external corners, and treatment at the basis, between other;

• In the third step, project redefinition, its overall guidelines may be reassessed assuming corrections

to the specifications originally developed; this may occur mainly during the construction work and

confirmation of their actual characteristics, from changes on the timing of activities, availability of

materials and equipment’s, among others.

4.1.9. Specifications about the materials used in facades

In the architecture project, products prescription should be done exhaustively in the particular

specifications. These specifications must define all materials used with at least the information

presented in Table 4.

Table 4. – Requirements on the materials to be applied in facades (adapted and supplemented from [19])

Tile Product Tile, porcelain tiles, mosaic, ... Standard designation According to EN 14411 [24] Format, appearance, tone If necessary

Adhesive for tile

Product Cementitious adhesive for ceramic tile Standard designation C2, C2 S1/S2 (according to standard EN 12004: 2001 [25]) Additional characteristics Opening time (E), deformability (S1, S2) Installation method Thick bed method, thin bed method, double bonding method

Grout for tile

Product Grout for tile Standard designation for example: improved cementitious grout classified as CG2 (According to

EN 13888 [26]) Colour If necessary

Insulation Material

Material, thickness

Levelling layer material

Material: mortar type, thickness, characteristics of reinforcement and metal lath (diameter, mesh and steel type)

The guidelines presented in this section aim to gather information on the design of ceramic tiling

facade, based on European and outside Europe standards, and also on the recommendations

suggested by the manufacturers of ceramic tiles, tile adhesive and joint filler material. The

recommendations are applied to brick masonry facades of buildings with reinforced concrete structure

and focus on the general conditions for the application of thin-bed method and double bonding

method.

5. Conclusions

The main objective of this work is to propose guidelines for the design of adherent ceramic tiling

facade, with the additional innovative contribution:

• Presentation of a synthesis of European and outside Europe best practices;

• Diffusion of the perception of those involved on the issues covered in the questionnaires: design of

adherent ceramic tiling cladding and the specification of the respective materials in Portugal.

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The European and international experience dedicated to the design of ceramic tiling facade is critical,

since it documents information about the specification of materials, application techniques, with special

attention to the location of movement joints choice of the corresponding materials. It was found that

the European countries that dominate this technology, such as Germany, France, England, and Italy,

and countries outside of Europe such as United States of America, Brazil, and Australia, have

investigated this subject for many years, approaching the durability of materials and best practices for

planning and installation.

The elaboration of a project of facade cladding includes the specification of materials, geometries,

joints, reinforcements, finishes, implementation procedures and control of the working conditions. The

detail of the execution project of adherent ceramic claddings will be possible in Portugal as long as it is

consistent in the adequacy of the theoretical concepts into practice, taking into account the real work

conditions of national construction.

The analysis of the questionnaires highlights that professionals stress the need to increase the rigor

with more detailed projects drawings, as a key element to ease communication and interaction. The

design of exterior cladding is understood by most professionals as a necessity and can be a tool to aid

the participants in the process of ceramic tiling cladding installation. The choice of materials

compatible with each other, the correct sizing of movement joints between tiles and the prescription of

more deformable and cementitious adhesives suitable for each case were considered “very important”

aspects in the practice of ceramic tiling design. The importance of this study is justified by the

conclusions drawn and recorded.

In Portugal, even though there are no codes or standards to prepare a design project of adherent

ceramic tiling facades, the construction documentation of the project is an important tool for achieving

a satisfactory performance over time. In order to increase the quality of the works executed, reducing

failures and waste costs, it is necessary that the design of cladding facades provide exhaustive

description of the acceptable construction materials for all aspects of a cladding system and be

adapted to the working conditions, materials and equipment available on site. A well-written set of

specifications is imperative to keep a project safe and on budget, and to ensure that the needs of both

architect and owner have been met.

The development and execution of the project of ceramic tiling facades in Portugal involves the

elaboration of specific standards applied to external walls that seek to establish the required criteria of

construction quality with the minimal information about materials, methods of installation, and

movement joints design, in order to promote, encourage and stimulate strategies for their

implementation.

The proposed guidelines of Chapter 4 is drafted to establish itself as a useful tool for implementation

adherent of ceramic tiling façade design. This proposal is intended to be a technical document to

assist the professionals responsible to selecting materials and the most appropriate techniques, during

design, planning and installation phases.

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The most relevant aspects of the proposed guidelines for the development and implementation of the

project adherent coatings facade are:

(1) Specification of the preparation of support; (2) Specification of materials: levelling layer;

cementitious adhesive; insulation; ceramic tiles; large format tiles; (3) Method of application: thin layer

method, double bonding method, PML method of pressure and lateral movement of the tile (4) climate

effects during installation; (5) Specification of the grout joints between tiles; (6) Design of movement

joints on the façade: perimeter joint; intermediate joint; structural joints; (7) Architectural details:

parapets, windowsills, external corners and curved surfaces

6. References

[1] GOLDBERG, Richard P. Direct adhered ceramic tile, stone and thin brick facades – Technical design

manual. LATICRETE International, Inc., 2011.

[2] SABBATINI, F. H. ; MEDEIROS, J. S. - Technology and design of ceramic tile facades of buildings (In

Portuguese), Technical Bulletin, The Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,

1999.

[3] AS 3958.1: 2007: Australian Standard - Ceramic Tiles. Part 1: Guide to the installation of ceramic tiles

Committee BD/44, Fixing of Ceramic Tiles, Australia, 2007.

[4] AS 3958.2: 1992: Australian Standard- Ceramic tiles. Part 2: Guide to the selection of a ceramic tiling

system. Committee BD/44, Fixing of Ceramic Tiles, Australia, 1992.

[5] NBR 15575-4:2013 Residential buildings - Performance Part 4: Requirements for internal and external

wall systems (In Portuguese). Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT), Brazil, 2013.

[6] NBR 13755:1996 Ceramic tile installed with dry-set Portland cement mortar on walls exteriors –

Procedure (In Portuguese). Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT), Brazil, 1996.

[7] 2014 Handbook Wall and Ceiling Soffits Methods Ceramic and Glass. Excerpted from TCNA Handbook for

ceramic, glass and stone tile installation, Tile Council of North América (TCNA), U.S.A., 2014. 105p

[8] ANSI A108/A118/A136.1:2013 - American National Specifications for the Installation of Ceramic Tile -

Version 2013.1

[9] COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALIZATION - General rules for design and installation of ceramic tiling -

CEN TR 13548. Technical Report. Technical committee CEN/TC 67. S.l. Brussels: CEN, 2004.

[10] NF DTU 52.2 P1-1-2 - Building works - Ceramic and similar tiles fixing with adhesives — natural

stones - Part 1-1-2: Contract bill of technical model clauses for outside walls, (In French). AFNOR,

France, 2009.

[11] DIN 18515-1: Design and installation of tile or stone cladding, (In German). Deutsches Institut für

Normung, Berlin, German, 1998.

[12] UNI 11493:2013 - Floor and wall ceramic tilings - Instruction for the design, installation and

maintenance of ceramic tilings, (In Italian). (UNI), Italian Standard, Italy, 2013.

[13] FREITAS, Vasco Peixoto de; SOUSA, Augusto Vaz Serra e; SILVA, J. A. Raimundo Mendes da. –

Application manual of ceramic tiling (In Portuguese). APICER – Associação da Industria de Cerâmica,

Coimbra, Portugal, 2003.

[14] CTE – Spanish Technical Building Code, RD. 314/2006 de 17th March 2006, BOE 28/03/06, (In Spanish).

Spain, 2006.

[15] Guide for ceramic tile installation, Recognized document DRB 01/06 by the Generalitat Valenciana. Ed.

Instituto Valenciano de la Edificación, 6th edition, (In Spanish). Spain, 2011. (www.five.es)

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[16] BS 5385-2, Wall and floor tiling, Part 2: Code of Practice for the design and installation of external

ceramic wall tiling and mosaics (including terracotta and faience tiles). Technical Committee ECB/S. BSI

Standards London, United Kingdom, 2006.

[17] BS 8000-11:2011 Workmanship on building sites Internal and external wall and floor tiling. Ceramic

and agglomerated stone tiles, natural stone and terrazzo tiles and slabs, and mosaics. Code of practice,

United Kingdom, 2011.

[18] Electronic Guide of ceramic tile Installation technology, ceramic tile selection, O.A.L. Instituto de

Promocion Ceràmica, Diputacion Provincial de Castellón, Spain, 1998.

[19] Ceramics for Architecture – Fundamentals - Volume 1 - Training material for specifiers, Instituto de

Tecnologia Cerámica. (In Spanish). ASCER, Spain, 2009.

[20] EN ISO 10545-3:1997-12 - Ceramic tiles -- Part 12: Determination of frost resistance.

[21] Manual of ceramic tiles in exteriors, TAU Cerámica, (In Spanish). (www.taucermic.com).

[22] Technical Notebook - Laying ceramic tiles on facade – Mapei. (www.mapei.pt).

[23] Ceramic tiling for masonry walls - Improvement program of building site managers, Construction process of

works -, CNI SENAI - Serviço Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial, (In Portuguese). São Paulo, Brazil, 1999.

[24] EN 14411:2006 - Ceramic tiles. Definitions, classification, characteristics, evaluation of conformity and

marking, 2006.

[25] EN 12004:2001 - Adhesives for tiles. Definitions and specifications, 2001.

[26] EN 13888:2002 - Grouts for tiles. Definitions and specifications, 2002.

[27] Cecrisa Ceramic Cladding S.A. Ceramic cladding systems. (In Portuguese). Engineering Course of FE-

FUMEC, Belo Horizonte/MG, 1990.

[28] Exterior wall cladding or similar ceramic tiles fixed with adhesives, CSTB-Centre Scentifique et

Technique ou Batiment, 2006.