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PlanningSeafood Cold Storage

Edward KOLBE

Donald KRAMER

MAB-46

1993

Price: 59.00

rAlaska Sea Grant Callege ProgramUniversity af Alaska FairbanksFairbanks, Alaska 99775-5040 907! 474-6707Fax 907! 474-6285

Elmer E, Rasmuson Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kolbe, Edward R.

Planning seafood cold storage / Edward Kolbe, Donald Kramer,

Marine advisory bulletin; no. 46!

1. Seafood � Preservation. 2. Cold storage � Planning. 3. Marine refrigeration�

Planning. 4. Fishery management. 5. Refrigeration and refrigerating machinery. I. Kramer,Donald E, II. Alaska Sea Grant College Program. III. Alaska Sea Crant Marine AdvisoryProgram. IV. Title. V. Series: Marine advisory bulletin; 46.

TP372.2.K65 1993

Credits

Cover design is by Susan Burroughs, book design and graphics are byLisa Valore, and editing is by Moira Ingle and Sue Keller. This book is theresult of work sponsored by the University of Alaska Sea Crant CollegeProgram, which is cooperatively supported by the U.S. Department ofCommerce, NOAA Office of Sea Crant and Extramural Programs, undergrant no. NA90AA-D-SC066, projects A/71-01 and A/75-01; and by theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks with state funds. The University of Alaska isan affirmative action/equal opportunity employer and educationalinstitution,

Sea Grant is a unique partnership with public and private sectorscombining research, education, and technology transfer for publicservice. This national network of universities meets changingenvironmental and economic needs of people in our coastal and CreatLakes regions.

Planning Seafood Cold Storage

Acknowledgments

Many people generously provided help and advice that led to the completion ofthis report. The authors give special thanks to the following individuals,

Ken Allread, Western Alaska Fisheries, KodiakDavid Antrim, Bally Engineered Structures, Inc.Joe Banta, Formerly with Bering Sea Fishermen's Association, AnchorageDick Bishop, Silver Lining Seafoods, KetchikanDoug Coughenower, Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, HomerJohn Doyle, Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, AnchorageClark Engle, International Cold Storage lnc.Dolly Garza, Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, SitkaJim Gehman, Formerly with Bally Engineered Structures, Inc.Sharon Gillespie, Alaskan Harvest Seafoods, SitkaJude Henzler, Bering Sea Fishermen's Association, AnchorageRon Hester, Imperial ManufacturingHorner Ireland, Samer-I Seafoods, HomerKeith Kornelias, Director of Public Works, KenaiBob Lane, VPI Marine Experiment Station, Hampton, VAJong Lee, Fishery Industrial Technology Center, KodiakRalph Matlack, Kalt ManufacturingJohn Merritt, Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Halifax, Nova ScotiaDoris Montgomery, Bioresource Engineering, Oregon State UniversityBrian Parsons, Formerly with Eagle Fisheries, KodiakBrian Paust, Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, PetersburgSteve Pearson, Cool-TecGary Perkins, Zer-O-Loc, Inc.Hank Pennington, Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, KodiakDave Rogers, international Seafoods of Alaska, KodiakJeff Sanders, Fisherman, BethelJohn Sund, Silver Lining Seafood, KetchikanWells Williams, City of SitkaCraig Young, Seattle RefrigerationPaul Zirnmerman, Kenai Packers, Kenai

4~40a'O'W~~!~~~~MMI~&i.%4~~~&~~!~~M.!%&W&e'~i,~C~M~i~~4N

Author Biographies

Edward KOLBE

Department of Bioresource Engineering and Food Science and TechnologyOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR 97331-3906�03! 737-6305

Edward Kolbe is Professor of Bioresource Engineering at Oregon StateUniversity. For the last 20 years he has conducted research and extensioneducation programs to improve seafood processing and refrigeration. Kolbewrote the facilities part of this book while he was visiting professor at theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks, Fishery Industrial Technology Center in Kodiakin 1991. Kolbe's academic degrees are in the field of mechanicalengineering.

Donald KRAMER

Marine Advisory ProgramUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks2221 E. Northern Lights Blvd,Anchorage, AK 99508-4140 907! 274-9691

Donald E, Krarner is Professor of Seafood Technology with the University ofAlaska Fairbanks School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, He also serves as

Chairman and Seafood Specialist for the Alaska Sea Grant Marine AdvisoryProgram. Prior to corning to the University of Alaska, Kramer worked for 14years as a research scientist with the Canadian Department of Fisheries andOceans. His research interests are the handling, processing, and storage offish and shellfish, Kramer holds masters and doctorate degrees inbiochemistry from the University of California at Davis.


introductionVl

Tab/e ofContents

PeA I - Q~igillftg &e FacllNmChapter 1: Buildings

2 General Description4 Sizing and Layout6 Insulation

9 Accessories

12 Foundations

14 Permits and Codes

15 Costs

Chapter 2: Refrigeration17 Heat Loads

19 Machinery Options20 Refrigerants20 Evaporators and Condensers

Chapter 8: Fhre Cold Storage Units in Alaska23 introduction

24 Wrangell Walk-in: 5,000 Ib of Bait Herring26 Sitka Cold Room: 20,000 Ib of Processed Entrees28 Bethel Building: 200,000 Ib of Headed and Gutted Salmon30 Kenai Cold Store: 500,000 Ib of Salmon and Halibut32 Kodiak Cold Store. 1,000,000 lb of Multiple Products

Peek lI - Stel'inIQ IFrezen PmclalctChapter 4: Seafood Temperature and Shelf LifeThe Processes of Quality Loss34 Protein Denaturation

35 Oxidation Reactions

36 Enzyme Activity36 Lipid Hydrolysis37 Desiccation

The Causes of Quality Loss37 Raw Material Quality38 Holding Temperature39 Temperature Fluctuation42 Packaging42 Re processingRecommended Frozen Storage Conditions42 Time-Temperature-Tolerance43 Recommended Holding Temperature44 Temperature Control; Limits of Fluctuation44 Packaging Recornrnendations

References45

Appendix49 Cold Storage Equipment and Facility Suppliers

Index53

Current seafood processing improvements such ascontrolled freezing, transport, and storage areresulting in a continuing increase in quality.Freezing and storage help to even out seasonalcatch rates, providing a more uniform supply ofhigh quality raw material to consumers and tosecondary processors. Some of this secondaryvalue-added processing is now getting under wayin Alaska. Processors are recognizing the need toexercise greater control over their products as theyare shipped to international customers. Manylook to high quality storage as a means of stabiliz-ing temperatures and accumulating complete lotswhich might then be shipped directly to buyerswith minimal repacking, transfer, and tempera-ture fluctuation.

All of this points to a need for cold storagefacilities that are carefully planned, constructed,and operated and that support maximum seafoodquality at feasible costs. Information on coldstorage planning and design is available through avariety of sources. These include books e.g,,Dellino, 1990; Hallowell, 1980!; some excellentreports written for the Food and AgricultureOrganization FAO! of the United Nations theseinclude Graham, 1977, 1984; and Londahl, 1981!;various reports from the engineering literature;and of course the advice of contractors, consult-ants, and manufacturers who have demonstrated

experience with cold storage design.The appendix of this report lists U,S, compa-

nies producing modular-panel cold storage


Introduction

facilities. In many cases the product literaturesupplied by these companies is a valuable source ofdesign and planning information. For recommen-dations on storage temperature and duration forseafood species, see Part II, Storing Frozen Product,Tables 22 and 23 on pages 40 and 41.

This report is written for seafood processors inthe cold storage planning stage, It is based oninformation and recommendations from all of the

sources noted in the acknowledgments and fromthe literature cited above,

Although the optimum size of a cold storagefacility may be in the range of 500,000 to 2 millioncubic feet specified by Londahl, 1981, presumablyreferring to an optimum cost per unit of storedmaterial!, most Alaska needs are smaller than that.%le've limited the scope of this report to includeroom sizes capable of storing between 5,000 and 1million pounds of product which could be storedin a room of about 140,000 cubic feet. And al-though most discussion focuses on facilities tosupport frozen storage temperatures, some of thisinformation might be adapted to chilled unfro-zen! storage as well. There are several motivationsfor constructing such facilities: maintaining highquality aquaculture feeds and fresh seafoods;potential shellfish sanitation rulings that mayrequire product storage at temperatures below 38'F Paust, 1990!; and the potential in some regions ofstoring natural ice during summer months,

a checklist

for pLanninga cold storagefacility

Suppose you' ve decided to build a cold storage facility adjacent toyour plant,

What is the nature of the building site? What will it take to prepareit for con-struction? What will the foundation involve? How far is the site from freezers,

and how much temperature increase can you tolerate between freezer andcold store? Wil! trucks, ships, or barges have easy access for rapid dischargeof goods?

~ How big will the storage be? How much product must be stored at any onetime? How accessible do the products need to be, so how many aisles orracks must be included? How much will it cost to build?

~ What kind of electrical or fue!! power will be required and is currently avail-able? What are the anticipated costs of power and other operating ex-penses?

~ What products will be stored and how will they be packaged? How long willthey be stored and what temperature must be held in the room? How muchtemperature fluctuation can these products tolerate, so how uniform mustthe room temperature be held?

~ Who will install and maintain the refrigeration? What are the good and badpoints of various refrigerants? What kinds of heat loads must you anticipatefor the refrigeration contractor? Will product loaded into the room have ahigher temperature than that maintained in the room? How often will doorsbe opened or lift trucks and workers be present? What kinds of insulation isnecessary in the walls?

Contemplating these and many other questions is an importantfirst step in planning a cold storage facility, This report addressessome of the points to help processors formulate ideas, plans, andquestions as they deal with contractors and suppliers, The ultimategoal is to encourage well designed cold storage facilities that will sup-port high quality and affordable seafoods from Alaska.

Part 1 Designing the FacilÃm

Figuire 1.

1. Outside metal skin. Galvanized steel, patterned aluminum,white or sand tan polyester over galvanized steel, Ga valume orstainless steel

GENERAL OESCRIPYIOil

2. Bally wash primer for optimum foam adhesion.

3 Urethane insulation, foamed-in-place poured, not frothedj.R-value: 34 for 4" panel; 42 for S" panel.

4. Tongues and grooves onpanel edges are accuratelymolded urethane.

5. Patented cam-action Speed-Lok joining mechanism.

6. Heavy-gauge steel strapsconnect locking arms withlocking pins on opposite edgesof each panel.

7. Interior metal skin.

Galvanized steel, patternedaluminum, white or sand tanpolyester over galvanized steel,Galvalume or stainless steel.

8. Interior meta floor panelskin. I-cavy-gauge galvanizedsteel, optional smoothaluminum or stainless stee

9. Exterior meta floor panelskin. Usually supplied in samefinish as vertical pane s. Edgescapped with matching metalwhen stainless steel, white or santan polyester over galvanized stespecified for verticals.


Chapter 1: Buildings

The initial step in a cold store plan is to considerthe structure � its size, capacity, construction,and its ability to keep out the heat.

All buildings discussed in this report are single-storystructures, following current practice, Walls andceiling typically consist of insulated panels similarto those in Figure 1. Outside surfaces can be stain-less or galvanized steel, or coated steel or alumi-num. Selection depends on needs for toughness,brightness of color, ease of cleaning, or perhapssome requirement to satisfy a local sanitation ordi-nance. Prices vary.

Generally panels are assembled on-site, in manycases with the aid of a latching system built intothe edges of the panels. For the system shown inFigure 2, the assembler uses a large hexagonal set-screw wrench to tighten a cam-operated lock thatholds panels together, often against a gasket sealingthe joint. In this way, walls, ceiling, and floor canbc bound into a finished, pre-designed box such asthe small walk-in model shown in Figure 3. C:amlocks, when used, are apically spaced every 4 feetalong the panel's edge. Designers have used variousschemes to transmit the holding force throughoutthe panel to prevent the latch from pulling out. Insome cases, the latch mechanism is attached to aheavy wood or high density foam frame. At leastone manufacturer has tied latch mechanisms to-

gether with metal straps imbedded in the insula-tion. The quality of panels, based on uniform shapeand fit, surface coatings, latch mechanisms, andhomogeneous insulation, are best judged by inspec-tion and by interviewing past customers.

The building in Figure 3 is typical of small struc-tures that can support themselves without externalor internal framing. For buildings bigger than 3,000cubic feet approximately 375 square feet of floorspace!, ceiling spans must exceed 12 to 15 feet and

One manufactureVs insulated

panel design

courtesy Bally Engineered Structures, inc.!

Figure 2. for joining panels

courtesy Hussman Corp.!

A typical modularFigure 3. walk-in

courtesy Ram Freezers and Coolers Mfg. Inc.!

Buildings

additional steel or wood framing is required. Thisis especially true for externally cons~cted build-ings subjected to high wind and snow loads. Theframing can be internal Figure 4! or external Figure 5!.

Many companies manufacture components forinsulated cold storage buildings. The appendixcontains an incomplete listing of 22 manufacturersin the United States and Canada, plus three com-panies in the business of leasing refrigerated vansor railroad cars. Many of these companies can sup-ply useful materials and can advise on system lay-out and design.

from Londahl, 1981!

SIZING AIIID LAVOIIT

The focus of this report is on single-story modularsystems, such as those supplied by manufacturersin the appendix, But cold storage units can be builtin the shape of a multi-story cube, which keeps thesurface-to-volume ratio low and minimizes heat

gain from the outside. Buildings of this type alsomaximize the amount that could be stored on a

given piece of land. Two disadvantages of themulti-story design are cost and more difficult load-ing and unloading access ASHRAK, 1982!. Given

Qenskies of frozen scmfolxl

Table 1. loaded on palletsoIulation

Density lb/ft !

8-11

Product

bairier

b floor

heating

Whole salmon, stowed loosein wooden boxes

Shelled shrimp in blacks 45- 55

25-30

IQF = Individually quick frozenSource: Graham, 1984


IQF fillets in polystyrene trays withstretch wrap, in cartons

IQF fillets In bulk catering packs, in cartons

Fish portions, in cartons

Fish portions in sauce, in cartons

Fillet blocks

Whole, gutted cod in large blocks

Whole, gutted cod, stowed as single fish

Whole, gutted halibut, in wooden boxes

Breaded shrimp in consumer packs,master carton

15-21

18-27

25-27

37-52

40- 55

25-30

30- 35

33-35

Panel-bnik cold store with

Fignre 4. IntiLmaal strIIctnre

the current high quality insulations available, at-tempts to minimize surface area may not be worth-while from a heat leakage point of view.

Several factors influence the size of the build-

ing, At the top of the list are the space and moneyavailable. To determine those requirements, youmust first determine how much product will bestored at a time, the projected production ratethrough the freezers, the amount to be stored forothers on contract, storage time for various prod-ucts, and the time and frequency at which a prod-uct will be shipped out.

The volume occupied by a product depends on

Typical one-story external h'arneFigure S. construction with insulated hung ceiling

from ASHRAM, 1982!

Buildings

packaging and product form. Graham �984! y'ves"stowage rates" product densities! for a long list ofpackaged and unpackaged seafoods, Table 1 pro-vides a few examples of how this value varies. Notethat the density of fish muscle might be on the or-der of 64 pounds per cubic feet.

The building will not be filled with product�aisle spaces must be available for lift trucks or carts.The more product diversity and turnover, the morestorage must be managed to get at things, Thismeans a higher percentage of space is required foraisles. Rack framework is often required, particu-larly if pallets are to be stacked more than twohigh e,g,, Figure 6!, Spacing at the outer walls re-sults from curbs e.g., Figure 4!, often recom-mended to prevent wall damage from lift trucksand pallets. Good cold air circulation between pal-lets and the outer wall also requires a space of 6 to12 inches Young, 1990!. Graham �977! recorn-mended 4 inches of clearance on the floor and 8

inches of clearance at the walls to minimize local

heat gain that leads to sublimation freezer burn!and quality loss. Ceiling space must also accom-modate structure, air handling or coil systems,lights, and in some cases, a sprinkler system.

Graham's 1984 report presents a number ofcold storage layouts for different mixes of the prod-ucts listed in Table 1. The two examples of smallercapacity rooms �20,000 pounds! in Figure 7 dem-onstrate several points. First, pallets representedby the small rectangles! are stacked against a curbaway from the wall, to allow cold air circulationbetween the product and wall. Second, aisles aremost efficient if laid out in a straight line. Widthsmust be sufficient to accommodate the turning ra-dius of whatever carts or forklift trucks are to be

used. Of the two examples shown in Figure 8, the"counter balance truck" tends to have a wider �Sto 40 percent! turning radius requirement than the"reach truck" Londahl, 1981!.

A third point demonstrated in Figure 7 is thatloading patterns depend entirely on the productsand their requirements for access. Figure 7a showsaccess to each pallet. Total store density or stow-age rate! when full would be 5.3 pounds per cubicfoot. The packing in the store of Figure 7b showsless access but a higher total density of 7 poundsper cubic foot. Table 2 shows density and otherdimensions of interest, taken from the examplespresented in Graham's report, Maximum stowagerates in working cold stores are obviously muchlower than stowage rates product densities! ofTable 1, and generally higher in larger stores.

Figure S. Static rac

from Toole, 1990!IIIISULATIOIII

It is the insulation in walls, ceiling, and floorthat minimizes the influx of heat, The type andthickness will influence both the cost and

effectiveness of the cold store.

peratures above freezing Hallowell, 1980!. Somecontractors have found that fiberglass, without aneffective and long-lasting moisture barrier, will takeup water, sag, and lose its insulating quality. Allthree insulation types will work if installed andmaintained correctly. As stated by the American So-ciety of Heating, Refngerating and Air ConditioningEny'neers, "The success or failure of an insulationenvelope is due directly and entirely to the vapor

Two types of insulation are commonly available inpanels for frozen storage: urethane foam and ex-panded polystyrene EPS!. A few panel rnanufac-turers also list fiberglass, although this material ismost commonly specified for coolers with tern-

Table 2. Speclllcations for cold store layouts

Nominal

capacity Ib!Approx. insidetotal dimensionLxWxH ft!

Total floorarea

curb to curb ft !

Tata I roomvolume ft !

Number ofpallets high

Approximatestowage rate

Ib/ft !

220,000

220,000

1,100,000

2,700 5.4

2,060 7.1

11,300 6.4

7,290 10.1

6,920 6.6

5,790 7.6

10.94,490

5,520 6.6

4,680 7.9

3,740 10.9

10,730 14.2


1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

4,400,000

Source: Graham, 1984

43,700

33,480

179,070

115,740

179,770

1 50,080

108,740

177,050

1 50,200

112,040

319,280

69 x 40'4 x 1 5'4

69 x 31 x 15'4

171 "f2 x 67 x 15'/2

89 x 81'4 x15'/2

148 4 x 46 4 x 25

78 x 74'h x 25

77 "h x 59'6 x 23'fz

119" jz x 47'f2 x 31

76x 63x31

64'h x 59'4 x 29

116 x 94x 29

from Graham, t 9S4!

69'69'6'/2' I/2

1/2 31'

Figure lb.Access to five differentproducts. Pallets stacked twohigh; 15'/~' ceiling.

Figure 7a.Access to each pallet.Pallets stacked two high;15'h' ceiling.

Buildings

barrier systems to prevent water vapor transmis-sion into and through the insulation" ASHRAE,1982!.

Urethane, also called polyurethane, is a rigid,usually buff-colored foam that forms in a moldwhen chemical components are mixed. One of thecomponents is a chlorofluorocarbon refrigerantgas, either R-11 or R-12, that acts as a blowingagent to fill the cells in the foam, These gases arebeing phased out because of their highly detrimen-

Two Iayoarts for 220,000 IbFlgllro 7. copSC~

tal effect on atmospheric ozone, Foam manufactur-ers are seeking workable substitutes.

Although urethane foam is sometimes sprayedonto surfaces with a gun as in a fish hold or exist-ing structure!, panels are more often "foamed inplace" or "poured in place," With the right tech-nique, a predetermined amount of chemicalspoured into the bottom of a vertical mold will reactand expand about 30-fold! into a uniform-densityfoam, The foam fills the void and adheres to the

panel skin, which is typicallymade of coated sheet metal. Pan-

els are available in thicknesses be-

tween 2 inches and 8 inches

depending on the manufacturer.Urethane used for wall panels isfrequently advertised as being I IIclosed cell, tmplytng that watervapor is effectively although notcompletely! sealed out. The sheetmetal skin acts as an additional

moisture barrier.

Varying the chemical compo-nents will vary the density. Thisin turn affects the heat-insulatingproperties and the compressivestrength of the foam, For foampanels to be used as insulation,densities are typically around 2pounds per cubic foot. The insu-lating properties or thermal con-ductivity value! are affectedsomewhat by age, as air slowlydiffuses into the cells and replacesthe gas originally used as a blow-ing agent ASHRAE, 1985!.

Although urethane will notreadily burn with a match, un-coated or unlined urethane can

burn violently in small enclosures such as fish holds!. Foam addi-tives are generally designed tolimit flammability to meet localcodes.

Some panel manufacturersuse the terms isocyanurate andpolyisocyanurate to describe their

urethane foam insulaflon. According to one insula-tion supplier, isocyanurate refers to a slight chemi-cal variation of urethane that allows use under

higher temperature conditions McKay, 1991!.

R = � x L = �! = 5.1 1

k OZ

Counterbalance forklift truck left!,

Figure $. aud reach truck right!


Insulation characteristics are the same Russell,1990; Fabian, 1991!.

A second common insulation used in modular

panels is expanded polystyrene EPS!, sometimesreferred to as styrene in product literature. This lowdensity plastic material forms in a mold when highpressure-high temperature steam is applied tosmall polystyrene beads. Thus the blowing agentin this insulation fills the void cavities with water

vapor, which is soon replaced by air. Manufactur-ers say EPS has insulating properties that are fairlyconstant over time.

EPS is usually less dense than urethane � typi-cally 1 pound per cubic foot, versus 2 pounds percubic foot for urethane. Since its insulating proper-ties are not as good as urethane, a greater wallthickness is required to achieve the same insulat-ing value, Nevertheless, suppliers claim it is stillless expensive than urethane, EPS adheres well orcan be laminated! to metal, wood or sheetrock,thus giving panels reasonable strength inconstruction.

About R-value

The property describing the ease with which heatconducts through a material is its thermal conduc-tivity, k, In English units, k is the rate of heat flow Btu per hour! that will pass through a unit area� square foot! of the insulation, which is one unit

� inch! thick, when a temperature difference of oneunit � F! exists between its back and front surfaces.

A good insulating material has a low thermal con-ductivity value in the neighborhood of k = 0.2. Thisis in contrast to plywood k = 0.8, cement k = 5.0, andsteel k = 314.

The R-value is the reciprocal of k multiplied bythe material thickness, All the R-values reported inthe United States result from k described in Englishunits, and thickness expressed in inches. While k de-scribes how well heat will flow through a material, Rdescribes how good an insulator it is. For insulation1 inch thick, the R-value is

A 4-inch-thick piece of that insulation wouldhave an R-value of 5 x 4 = 20.

About Flame SpreadMost manufacturers give a "flame spread" value or"flame spread index" FSI! for the insulating mate-rial. A typical value reported for urethane panels is25. The index results from a test standardized by theAmerican Society for Testing and Materials ASTM,1989!. In this test the insulation material is mountedon the ceiling of a 24 foot regulation tunnel venti-lated with moving air. After a gas burner ignites the

Table R. Insulation properties

Urethane21b/ft

Fiberglass1 b/ft

EPS1.51b/ft

EPS11b/ft

0.250.14b�.16e!

0.22c0 24cThermal conductivity k'

4.04.17 4.54R-value for 1" thickness 7.1�.5e!

14.5fg0h!

15 - 21910 - 149Compressive strength psi, at 10'/o deformation!

NOTESia. k expressed as Btu per hour! sq. ft! l'F temperature difference perinch!.b. For 25'F aged urethane faced with aluminum foil; source: ASHRAE, 1985.c Measured at 25'F; source: ASHRAE, 1985.d. Normally manufactured wi th binder to make semi-rigid batt; source: ASHRAE, 1985.e. For 25'F, aged, unfaced urethane foam originally expanded with R-11 refrigerant; source: ASHRAE, 1985.

Note that literature g ves urethane k values over a range of 0. 11 to 0. 17.f. Source: Russell, 1990.g. Source: lnsulfoam Corp.h. Source: Burtin Corp. Fabian, 1991!.

Pressure Relief Ports

Buildings

ceiling at one end, data on the spread of the flamealong the length of the tunnel are used to calculatean FSI relative to two other materials. One is a

non-flammable cement board, FSI = 0; the other isa select grade red oak, FSI = 100. The amount ofsmoke developed during burning and the fuel usedin the gas burners are also recorded with this test.

SpecificationsThermal conductivity values vary with density,temperature, and age as with urethane!. Valuesdiffer somewhat according to the source of the in-formation. Table 3 gives some specifications forthree insulating materials. Note that the total R-value for a 4 inch wall of urethane, according tothis table, is 4 x 7.1 = 28.6. To achieve the same R-value with low-density EPS, a wall thickness of28.6/4.17 = 7 inches is needed. Note also that if amanufacturer reports an R-value of 34 for the ure-thane insulation in their 4 inch panel, it meansthat the manufacturer is assuming the thermalconductivity k! to be about 0.12 instead of 0.14used in Table 3!, Such a low value is generally ex-pected for new insulation. One manufacturer hasreported that metal-sheathed wall panels willmaintain a k-value as low as 0,11 regardless of theirage because cell gases are unable to escape throughthe metal skin Fabian, 1991!.

ACCESSORIES

Cold storage rooms, from the smallest walk-ins to the largest warehouses, consist of afoundation, an enclosure, and a refrigerationsystem. The pieces that remain are calledaccessories.

Doors

Many of the manufacturers listed in the appendixmake or sell freezer doors. Some doors are hinged,some are sliding, and some come built into panelsthat then become part of the wall Figure 3!, Allhinged doors have an option of a heater wire in-stalled in the jamb Figure 9!. This is important toprevent the build-up of ice. Sliding doors are com-mon on larger rooms where forklift trucks moveproduct in and out. An important door accessory isa pattern of protective posts Figure 10!, withoutwhich door damage is almost assured.

As doors suddenly open or temperatures go up ordown, a slight change in pressure can produce a de-structive force on the doors. This is particularly truefor small, tight rooms, A '/4 psi pressure differencewill apply a 1,300pound force on a 5'x 7' door. Toprevent this, room designers specify an appropriatenumber of pressure relief ports to equalize this pres-

Position of prehmthre posts recommendedFiyIIre 10. for sliding storage doors

from VanderSpek and Atkinson, 1990!

CORRECT PROTECTIONPOST ARRANGEMENT

~ Door in open position ~

POST ARRANGEMENT

~ ~ Door in open position

Planning Seafood Cold Storage10

Three heater wires shown in a

Filinre 9. manufacturer's door design

courtesy Bally Engineered Structures, Inc.!

sure see example in Figure 11!, The relief ports alsohave heater wires to prevent ice blockage.

Shelves or Racks

Every processor has a different idea of an appropri-ate shelf system on which to stack products, andracks to support pallet loads, The design dependson the layout of the room, the product mix andweight, how accessible different products have tobe, and the strength and size uniformity of cartonsand pallets. Many vendors of small walk-ins supplyshelving as an extra. Racks in big rooms are re-garded as a separate expense. The rack system for arecent 5-million-pound facility was listed at $42,000 Williams, 1991!, and higher costs have been notedfor smaller facilities.

LightingManufacturers of small walk-ins have various guide-lines on how much lighting is appropriate. One, forexample, recommends a 100 watt light for each 100square feet of floor space. The Alaska Department ofEnvironmental Conservation �990! requires thatstorage areas have lighting to provide "at least 20foot-candles of light, evenly distributed, measured30 inches from the floor." One plan for a 5-million-pound storage facility with a 20 foot ceiling calledfor about 5Z watts of lighting per 100 square feet inthe form of "low profile high pressure sodium

courtesy W.A. Brown 8 Son, Inc.!

Miscellaneous

Buildings

Heated pressure relief portFigure ~. Kason heated ventilator port!

lights" Kornelias, 1990!.Options for large rooms include several types

of low temperature fixtures with safety globes toprevent broken glass from contaminating fooditems � another DEC requirement, Any detailsneed to be worked out with the help of designers.

Fire Protection

Particularly with the urethane and EPS foams usedas insulation, most rooms having a floor area largerthan 400 square feet will require some kind of fireprotection. Options include either a dry sprinklersystem or an approved thermal barrier on the sur-face of the walls. If the room is located within an-

other building, these measures are required bothinside and outside the cold store.

Sprinklers mounted to the ceiling are generallyadequate. With high-piled storage in a room with ahigh ceiling e,g,, 25 feet or greater!, pallets at thelower rack levels may be hidden from the sprinklerspray patterns, and the fire marshal may requirespray heads at multiple levels,

The alternative to sprinkler systems is thermalharners on panel surfaces � typically 'A inch sheetrock or '/4 inch plywood. Note that these surfacesrequire coatings that meet approved sanitationstandards,! Although such a barrier adds weightand cost to the panel, there may be an overall costbenefit if a sprinkler does not have to be installedand maintained. Kornelias �990! reported a 5 mil-lion pound cold store plan, where the sprinklersystem supplies 200 gallons per minute of water at45 pounds per square inch. The projected totalsprinkler system cost is $240,000 or about $8 per

square foot, based on the entire building with an en-gine room. A recently constructed large storage facil-ity in Sitka, Alaska, has no sprinkler system but wallslined with a thermal barrier Williams, 1991!.

Fire protection measures are less stringent forrooms with less than 400 square feet of floor space,and with flame spread index of less than 25 for theinsulation panels. In these cases, the Alaska StateFire Marshal generally follows the recommendationof the Uniform Building Code and waives require-ments for sprinklers or thermal barriers McGary,1991!. The general recommendation is to clearbuilding plans with the appropriate fire inspectionoffice before proceeding too far.

Many additional accessories are available thatimprove convenience, safety, and product quality:

~ Digital readout or dial indicating thermometers andrecorders � note that the U.S. Food and Drug Administra-tion requires an accurate temperature-monitoring deviceinside the room Peterson, 1992!.

~ Alarms that indicate when temperatures rise above adanger level.

~ Thermostats to control optimum door heater temperatures.

~ Plastic air curtains in doorways to minimize air infiltration,

~ 5pecial floor surfacing or matting to prevent slipping.

~ Heavy "kick plates" on doors and bumper guards orcurbs inside the room to minimize door and wall

damage.

FOlJlllDATIQhlS

from Graham, 1977!

gravity went systems or forcedFigure 13. draft vent system

from Russell, 1990!

Finished floor and curb

Insulation

Vapor seal

Base slab

Venti ation pipesset into sub-base


~ Inside safety push handles or automatic openers fordoor s.

~ Foot-operated treadles pedals! for hands-free dooropening.

~ Various roof kits and door awnings or drip shields rainhoods! for outdoorinstallation of small walk-ins,

The foundation for the cold store must meet sev-

eral criteria. First, it must support the weight of theroom or building. Second, it must provide goodunderground drainage, ventilation, and in manycases, heat. Third, it must be insulated, And fourth,it must have an inside load-bearing surface strongenough for the product and loading equipment be-ing used,

For all but the smallest walk-ins you shouldconsult a reputable design engineer to lay out therequired foundation for the room or building, Thefoundation can be a conventional network of con-

crete footings or a "floating" reinforced concreteslab. The permafrost of western Alaska may requirea frame resting on pilings, or maybe a series ofwooden cribs that rest on the surface Henzler,1990!, In any case, the foundation must supportthe weight of the building and its contents with

ice formation resulbng in theFigure 12. frost heave of a cold store

enough safety margin to withstand local earthquakehazards,

Particularly for frozen storage rooms, it is impor-tant that the floor of the building be insulated andthat moisture be excluded. Without a proper mois-ture barrier and drainage, water will collect underthe floor and turn to ice at the point where the tem-perature falls below 32'F. As ice begins to accumu-late, it can heave and crack the floor, potentiallydistorting the building, as shown by Graham �977!

tion pipes are typically 4 inch or 6 inch diameterperforated drainage pipe on 6 foot centers. In Figure13 the insulated enclosure rests on top of the con-crete slab, An alternative is the pit type constructionof Figure 14, which places the cold store floor at thesame level as that of the floor outside. Note that inboth cases, a "thermal break" minimizes the con-duction heat leakage coming from the warm flooroutside the room. The thermal conductivity of con-crete is about 30 times that of insulaflve materials,

Outside wall of walk-in

Building floor� indoors onlyCaulkingConc~etc building floor

dQd

Slaburethane

Grade line � outdoors onlyD .. I ID y w ' w Q P

~ d ',, d Q. d ' rI I.411

Concretesub-slab I

I I6 milpolyethylene orasphalt pape~barrier

2" clean rock

aggregate 3'-0" Maximum

Drain pipes shouldnot exceed this

dimension betweenany foundation or

column pier

DPerforalocated

Buildings 13

in Figure 12. This problem is similar to lack ofproper moisture barrier in walls and ceilings,

The solution to this is proper insulation in thefloor � inches is typical!, a good vapor barrier,ground water drainage, and in many cases, somesource of heat or a supply of warm ambient air. Fig-ure 13 shows a foundation that lets air circulate un-

der the insulated floor and ensures good drainage,One vendor suggests this type of construction forfloor areas that exceed 225 square feet. The ventila-

A pit or depressed pad typeFigure 14. of insulated floor

courtesy Bally Engineered Structures, Inc,!

P

d'h~ V

Vq

Il .'dq

d PP

hpP

P

Vd ' P

h

P ~ P,

d ~

1" D. drainage holes to remove waterseepage. Spaced on 6 ft centers

If installation is made outdoors,footings and piers must be poured

extending below frost line

Estimates for a S million Ib cold store in Kenai �991 dollars!Table 4.

220,000252,000

77,000252,000453,000483,000403,000220,000147,000125,000

Land costsSite preparation surveying, engineering, clear and fill!Engineering and architecture servicesFoundation/loading dockPre-engineered metal building including refrigeration equipment space!Cold store roomRefrigeration �50 HP!Sprinkler systemMiscellaneous utilities, well/water storage, monitoring system, etc!Contingency 5'!0

TOTAL 52,632,000

PERMITS AhID CODES

Planning Seafood Co/d Storage14

The combination of a cold, damp atmosphereand high ground water tables is characteristic ofmany Alaska locations, It is under these condi-tions that frozen storage foundation heating be-comes necessary. A few Alaska cold storageprojects have employed some form of heat source.In fact, one building industry advisory board rec-ommended that "a decision to omit a heat-inputsystem under freezer areas must be a calculatedrisk by the owner and designer" National Re-search Council, 1963!,

One option is to cast a grid of plastic tubinginto the sub-slab and circulate warm ethylene gly-col, A logical heat source is waste heat from thecompressor � possibly the cylinder head coolers inan ammonia system. Another option is to blowair heated by the refrigeration condenser througha system of ventilation tubes as in Figures 13 and14, A third is an electrical resistance heater mat

located under the foundation insulation. Where

heaters are needed, it is also important to installthermocouples to monitor foundation tempera-tures periodically.

For small walk-ins a foundation heater is not

usually required. But many vendors recommendthat an air space be provided between the floorand foundation using wooden spacers, Note thatwith raised flooring, interior or exterior ramps areneeded when using loading carts Figure 15!. Suchramps can be a nuisance if carts or pallet jacks arein use. Loads become hard to move and can easilytip if a wheel goes off the~dge.

All insulations used in the floor � particularlyurethane and EPS � are rigid enough to handle thetotal distributed loads imposed by products, lifttrucks, and workers. Manufacturers and designers

tend to divide wearing surface recommendationsinto three categories. If products are carried in byhand, as in small walk-ins, a wear surface of 14 or16 gauge galvanized or stainless steel is adequate.Overall load bearing capacities of 600 pounds persquare foot are common, On floors supportinghand lift trucks, '/4 inch steel or aluminum dia-

mond tread, or ~/4 inch plywood, is often ern-ployed, Higher loads and the use of mechanicalfork lift trucks generally call for a floor wear surfaceconsisting of 4 inches of reinforced concrete asshown in Figures 13 and 14. A 1~/2-inch coated ply-wood floor resting on 2 by 6's spaced on 12 inchcenters has also been employed for this situation Young, 1990!. A minimum 6-inch curb at theedge is effective in protecting the wall from ma-chinery and in ensuring an air gap between storedmaterial and the wall.

Any building project will require permits from anumber of agencies. The list may depend on thelocation. This section addresses only a few of thepermits and codes involved,

A local building permit is required, and the lo-cal fire marshal must approve the project and mayrequire an internal sprinkler system.

The Alaska Department of Environmental Con-servation DEC! oversees fish processing plants.DEC requires that a new cold storage facility passstandards outlined in the appropriate regulation Alaska DEC, 1990!. Although not specific indetail, these regulations generally seek to ensureproper sanitation and related food safety measures.For a new cold store facility, DEC regulations

Buildings 15

would require that walls and flooring have non-toxic coatings and that surfaces be easily cleaned,that floors be well drained and corners filled to

allow adequate cleaning, that fixtures provideadequate lighting and be shielded to avoid the pos-sibility of falling glass, and that a thermometer bemounted to indicate room temperature.

One organization frequently cited in rnanufac-turers' literature is National Sanitation Foundation

NSF!, a nonprofit private organization that testsand certifies products. The NSF "Standard No. 7,"covering food service refrigerators and storagefreezers, addresses many of the same sanitationand safety issues covered by DEC, but generally interms of much more specific numbers and designdetails NSF, 1990!. NSF approval is in most casessufficient to gain approval by DEC Soares, 1991!.

Interior and exterior rampsFilure 1S. used on small walk-ins

courtesy Bally Engineered Structures, Inc,!

As room size grows so does the difficulty in pre-dicting costs. For example, Graham �984! pro-jected the cost of a 4.4-million-pound store to beabout $420,000 corrected to 1991 dollars byMeans, 1991!. But his figure assumed the storewould be built within an existing building, pre-sumably with an existing foundation, and assumedthe site to be within 200 miles of the major equip-ment suppliers. In contrast, two recent plans for 5-million-pound Alaska cold stores estimated costs ofclose to $2.2 million and $2.6 million when all theparts are taken into consideration. One of theseplants in Kenai never constructed! included theestimates shown in Table 4, corrected to 1991 dol-lars Kornelias, 1990!.

What this shows is that as the building project

Table S. Estimated costs of cold storage construction in Alaska

Floor space Estimated volume Estimated capacity Estimated cost Specific cost

Ibs! �991 dollars! Dollars/ft ! Dollars/ft !

$11,000 $137 $17.2080 640 5,000

280 20,000

200,000

500,000

2,250

15,200

37,200

133,200

40,000 143 17.80

149,000 98 9.80

356,000 172 9.60

1,520

2,068

5,328 1,000,000 884,000 166 6.60

Costsinclude foundation, building, and refrigeration constructed at vanous Alaska sites, and are based on averages from the scenarios in Chapter 3.They do not include site purchase or preparation, electrical service panels, adjoining offices /work areas, or water sources for fire protection.

Planning Seafood Co/d Storage16

increases in size and scope, more costs arise relat-ing to extra accessories and the unique features ofthat building. For example, eny'neering, site acqui-sition and preparation, and miscellaneous andcontingency costs represent almost a third of thetotal estimate. Without these costs, the Kenai coldstore project estimate mentioned previously wouldhave been $1,81 million. The manager of one re-cent cold store project commented that estimatingequipment costs was easy; more difficult were theextras and unplanned events like hauling trash tothe dump, and buying a battery charger for thefork lift! for which you must add about 20 percent Sund, 1990!,

A further difficulty in estimating cold storageconstruction costs is that the unit is often com-

bined with shared missions � for example, a newfish-processing room housed in the same buildingor new loading docks to serve the entire plant.

Thus the cost estimates presented in Table 5 re-flect the relatively easy part � i.e., equipment andfoundations with a 10 percent contingency addedon, They are based on industry estimates collectedfor five scenarios described in more detail in Chap-ter 3. Building capacities range from 5,000 to onemillion pounds of seafood. As expected, the con-struction costs per volume steadily decrease as thebuilding increases in size, The costs calculated onthe basis of floor space are not so well defined, andappear to be somewhat meaningless when build-ings of such a range in volume and ceiling heightare compared.

Chapter 2: Refrigeration

HEAT LOADS

32'/019'/04'/o30/D

33'/o4'/o5 '/o

Heat flow through the boundariesAir infiltrationLightsPersonnelNew product loadedFansDefrost

Source: Graham, 1971

17Refrigeration

The vast topic of refrigeration is changing as wegrow more concerned with costs and efficien-cies, energy utilization, and environmentalissues, The intent of this report is to aid seafoodprocessors in planning and in making decisions.While most refrigeration issues are bestaddressed by industry engineers, designers, andcontractors, reflection on a few topics may helpthe buyer or planner resolve questions as thedesign and selection proceeds.

The load and power estimates in Chapters2 and 3 assume that one refrigeration unit isdesignated for a single cold store, even thoughcold storage rooms added to existing plantsoften share refrigeration equipment with otherstorage or freezing operations,

Designers will size the refrigeration system to re-move heat from many sources, typically underworst case conditions. Graham �977! calculatedthe daily average heat load on a 35,000 cubic footroom Z,150 square foot floor! at about 100,000 Btuper hour, He listed the contributions of each source see Table 6!,

Heat flow through boundaries depends prima-rily on the overall temperature difference, and oninsulation thickness and quality. This well-insulated example room was maintained at -22'F,with an outside temperature of 95'F.

The optimum insulation thickness reflects atradeoff between costs of insulation, refrigerationmachinery, and refrigeration energy, among otherfactors. Designers and eny'neers can evaluate thosetradeoffs for each situation, In addition to an opti-mum thickness, Graham �984! recommendsmaintaining a thickness minimum, This is thevalue that will maintain a sufficiently high outsideskin temperature to prevent moisture condensa-tion. The minimum is generally less than the opti-

mum. Condensation depends on relative humidity dewpoint temperature! and wind conditions aswell. Graham's general recommendations areshown in Table 7.

Air infiltration through open or poorly fittingdoors adds a significant heat load, Although opendoors caused 19 percent of the heat gain in this ex-arnple building, open doors can account for 70percent of the total heat load in older, multi-storybuildings Fleming, 1976!. Plastic curtains, auto-matic closers, air curtains, and air locks are impor-tant energy savers. Besides adding a heat loaddetrimental to the products, warm air brings mois-ture that frosts refrigeration coils, lowering effi-ciency and requiring more frequent defrosting Figure 16!. Graham's calculations assume Z,7 airchanges per 24 hours, VanderSpek and Atkinson�990! and ASHRAE �985! summarize a number ofempirical equations or models! that predict air in-filtration loads under different conditions.

Lights contribute the heat equivalent of thepower supplied � 1,000 watts in Table 6.

Personnel working in the room generate heatthat must be removed by the system. This exampleassumed two men generating a heat load at ratescommonly listed in handbooks such as ASHRAE�985!. The use of mechanical loading equipmentwas not considered.

Heat loads calculated forTable 6. a room of RS,OOO cubic feet

Flowing cold and warm air masses that occurFigure 16. when typical frc~r doors are open

from ASHRAE, 1985!

~ For walk-ins having less than1,000 square feet of floor spaceand ceilings lower than 10 feethigh, try one ton per 225 squarefeet of floor space.

~ For intermediate rooms up to5,000 square feet with 15 to 20foot ceilings, try one ton per 200square feet of floor.

A West Coast designer hassuggested a ton for each 250square feet of floor space onthese kinds of units. In any case,Hallowell's rules should be con-

sidered only as rough startingpoints, Good design procedurescan be found in a number of

handbooks supplied by equip-rnent manufacturers, such asthose by Krack �977! and Bohn undated!.

WARM INFLOW

LOADlNG DOCK

-25'C, 909o rhFREEZER

"iced" floor


When new product is loaded, it will typicallyhave a temperature higher than the storage tem-perature. That heat must be removed by the stor-age room system, An ASHRAE �982! handbooksuggests that designers ought to assume thatproduct will be 10-20 F warmer than the room,Graham used a value of 18OF warmer than the

room to arnve at the above load calculation. It is

important to keep this temperature difference aslow as possible. Removing heat to bring a productfrom -12 to -22'F, for example, is a minor coolingload but can have some effect on product qualityif the heat is not removed. Sometimes due to de-

lays or to an overloaded freezer, product will beloaded into storage at a temperature above 20-25'F. This is a problem. Temperature of the newproduct is still in the latent heat zone. Comple-tion of slow freezing in the cold store will have adetrimental effect on that product's texture andquality, In any event, product in storage may ex-perience a heat gain that will lead to desiccation

� drying due to surface ice sublimation, also calledfreezer burn.

Fans will generate the heat equivalent of thehorsepower used to operate them � three 'i~ HP fansin Table 6.

Defrost heat might be applied for an hour or soeach day. Electric resistance heaters, hot refrigerantgas, and warm water are all used to melt and re-move frost from coils and fins,

If the total amount of heat averaged over 24hours were removed by machinery operating 18hours per day, refrigeration capacity would have tobe 133,000 Btu per hour �4/18 x 100,000!, or147,000 Btu per hour if a 10 percent safety factor isemployed ASHRAE, 1985!. This is the same as 12,2refrigeration tons one ton is 12,000 Btu per hour!.And according to refrigeration performance data,this system would require a driver supplying closeto 40 HP Carner, 1984!,

The above procedure is representative of thatused by designers, although all have their own

variations, safety factors, andrules of thumb based on experi-ence. Hallowell �980! suggestedthe following rules for cold stor-age heat loads, assuming mini-mal new product load and roomtemperatures above -10'F.

Reumamended minimum thickness inches!Table 7. for cold store insulation

Assumedthermal

conductivity

Material Storage temp. 'F!Ambient temp 'F!

-4 -13 -22 -5814

k = 0.242 8 9 119 9 1310 11 14

6886104

Polystyrene

5 6 76 6 87 7 9

k = 0.16 6886104

Polyurethane

a. k expressed as Btu per hour! sq. ft.! 1'F temperature dkfference per inch!Source: Graham, 1984

MACHllIERV OPTlONS

Refrigeration capacity and power recommended by vendorsfor the range of scenarios in Chapter 3Table 8.

Approximate maximum ambient = 73'F; all examples assume continuous loading of some relatively warm product.Refrigerant ~s R-502; SDTa = 90'F.

Refrigeration Refrigeration Resulting

floor area

per ton ft~/ton!

Scenario Storage

temp.

'F!

Room

Floor Ceiling volume

ft'! ft! ft'! tons 4! SST!b

0.8 O-20

1.8 @-20

3.5-4.65 O-20

13.2 O-30

27.5 O-30

HP!

100640 -1080 8

-10 155280 2,250

7'/2-121 5,200 430-320-101,520 10

3/,200 -20 304 2 068 18

5 5,328 25

'l 57

19462133,200 -20

SDT = Saturated discharge temperatureb. SST = Saturated suction temperature

Refrigeration 19

Most of the small systems considered here arepowered by refrigeration units of less than 15 or 20HP, meaning that a 15 or 20 HP motor is suffi-ciently large to drive the compressor. The largestroom we consider requires a 62 HP system seeTable 8!. Almost all of these small systems woulduse a reciprocating piston! compressor with a di-rect dry! expansion evaporator: refrigerant sprayedinto the low-pressure evaporator coils collects heatfrom the room air as it evaporates, leaving the coilas refrigerant gas. Some of these small compressorsare hermetic or semi-hermetic, while others areopen-type. Hermetics have the motor and com-pressor sealed in a single, welded-shell housing.Semi-hermetics have the motor and compressor in

a housing that encloses the shaft, Semi-hermeticscan be disassembled easily for repair; hermeticscannot. In both of these cases, the compressorturns at motor speed, and refrigerant rarely leaksfrom the compressor because no shaft seals arerequired,

Open-type compressors have an exposed shaftand a greater chance of leakage, but do have someadvantages. Speed can be controlled so the com-pressor can be run at a slower speed to make it lastlonger. They tend to be more efficient, because re-frigerant gas is not being used to cool the motor, asin the hermetics. It is also easier to modify andcontrol motors for a graduated soft! start in thosesmall systems where the available power primarilyhigh starting current! is limited,

Refrigerant efl'ecton atmospheric ozoneTable 9.

Ozone depletion potential ODP!Refrigerant

R-11

R-12 1,0

R-115 0.6

R-22 0.05

R-717 ammonia!

Source Schoemaker, 1990

0.0

As systems exceed about 20 HP, other optionsbecome worthwhile to consider in the interest of

efficiency. Multi-stage refrigeration cycles, floodedsystems instead of dry expansion!, and the use ofscrew compressors may all have some merit, par-ticularly for large systems and when the cold storeis operated with other units such as plate freezersor chill rooms, In some Alaska areas with limited

or expensive electrical power, it may also makesense to consider engine or even turbine drives asalternatives to electric motors.

REF RICERJLNTS

The common refrigerants used for low temperaturestorage are R-502 for small systems, and ammoniafor large systems. Refrigerant 22 R-22! also is usedoccasionally. Which is best? It depends on cost,safety, local supplies, local refrigeration sources,service experience, other refrigerants used in theplant, and system efficiency. Another factor thataffects the use of refrigerants is environmentalsafety,

There is evidence that atmospheric ozone is be-ing depleted, leading to action against a few of theeveryday chemicals like R-22 and R-502, UnitedNations Protocols in 1987 and 1990 identified rela-

tive dangers and called for the complete ban ofsome of these substances in developed countries bythe year 2000. Several commonly used refrigerantsand their ozone depletion potential appear inTable 9. Refrigerants with a value of 1.0 are themost dangerous. R-502 is a mixture of two refriger-ants, R-22 �8.8%! and R-115 �1.2%!.

The U.S. Clean Air Act and various state laws

have followed the UN lead. In general, R-11, 12,115, and 502 will be unavailable by the year 2000,

EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

For most air blast systems, evaporators the heatexchangers removing heat from the air! consist ofa finned tube bundle. Air is circulated by a fan,which not only creates a high velocity through thefins but also throws air throughout the room, One

IJ.S. federal excise taxes

on refrigerantsTable 10.

Refngerant 1991 excurse taxes/lb

$1.37R-11

$1.37R-12

$.82R-115

R-502 $.42

$.00R-22

R-717 ammonia!

Source: Refn'geration Sales, l991

$.00

perhaps sooner. In fact, since July 1, 1992, it hasbeen against the law to vent these refrigerants tothe atmosphere. The U.S, Government has placedexcise taxes on several refrigerants, the worst beingR-11, a blowing agent in urethane foam insulation,and R-12, a refrigerant in higher temperature airconditioning and chilling applications. Onewholesale supplier lists refrigerant tax rates � ratesthat will nearly triple by 1995 Table 10!, This ex-cise tax is meant to encourage use of alternative re-frigerants and to collect money for research andeducation.

What does this mean for your cold storageplan? First of all, R-50Z will begin to get scarce andmore expensive. Second, R-22 may be a temporaryoption to consider for the smaller system, It is anenvironmentally safer fluorocarbon refrigerant, be-cause its chemical structure does not lead to the

more serious ozone destruction committed by R-12and others. But it is eventually scheduled for pro-duction limits in Z015 or earlier, and for completephase-out in the year 2030.

Third, ammonia ought to be more stronglyconsidered, and certainly for the larger system�that is, greater than ZO HP. Although it has its ownsafety problems, ammonia is environmentallyharmless and, with care, can be a relatively safe,cheap, and energy-efficient option,

20 Planning Seafood Cold Storage

alternative is a ducting system to distribute the air.Although this takes up some space, it saves fan en-ergy and decreases room air velocities Daniels andPage, 1990!.

Condensers for the small systems considered inthis report are almost always air-cooled finnedcoils, typically mounted on the roof. In larger ca-pacity systems, water-cooled shell-and-tube con-densers are more common, with the cooling wateritself often cooled in a rooftop spray tower.Londahl �981! suggests that systems smaller than15-20 HP are more economical with air-cooled

condensers, Water-cooled condensers enable op-eration with a lower "high side" pressure, which isan important and controllable operating character-istic that influences overall energy efficiency. Caremust be taken to insure that a combination of lowoutdoor temperatures and low refrigeration loadwill not lead to freezing of condenser water, whichcirculates through an external system, The relativecosts, influences on energy efficiency, and othertradeoffs are outside the scope of this report andcan be best addressed by a reputable refrigerationengineer.

Refngerati on 21

---- � ------------ � Locations for See hypothetical colci storage Iwnits in coastal Alaska

22

KODIAK

Planning 5eafood Cold 5torage

A -10'F frozen storage for 5,000 pounds ormore! of herring to be used for bait would belocated in Wrangell, Alaska, The project de-scription appears in Table 12; room layout is inFigure '! 7. The owner would build shelves alongeach side of the room.

The room would sit on a concrete slab or

leveled gravel foundation. Two vendors recom-mended refrigeration systems using R-502refrigerant and powered by a 2 HP motor.Assembly for vendor 1 would take one man-day. Installing utilities would require one man-day each for a refrigeration contractor andelectrician. Although this building is to belocated outside, some cost saving due primar-ily to a lighter roof can result from locating itinside an existing building. Vendor 1 estimateda difference of $700 if the walk-in were locatedinside.

Lsyeek for smaIRyue» 'I' t. lhheag»ll Ilfalk-le

Planning Seafood Co/d Storage

Table 11. Rstlmated costs for Wrammgell Walk-in

Vendor 2 Vendor 3Vendor 1

9,200 includes refrigeration!

5,060Box

RefrigerationRoad transportation to SeattleBarge to Wrangell from SeattleAssembly/utilities10% contingency

2,040500a700b980c

930

1,400700b360c

1,170

S1O,OOOdQ2,83Q$10,21QTOTAL

a. Estimated by commercial trucking companyb. Estimated by commercial barging companyc, Estimated by authord. A rough estimate based on vendor's recent experience

Cokl Sewage Project 1TaMe 1L Wranyell, ALaska

General

Small walk-in; out-of-doors adjoining existing buildingWrangell, Alaska

Type of storeLocation

Application

Amount and type of productStorage temperatureRate and temperature of new product loadedNumber of door openings per dayWorker and machinery activity in room

5,000 Ib of fishing bait herring!10oF

1,000 Ib per day of 10'F product loaded in April101 worker in the room for brief periods with hand-truck

Construction and Assembly

Estimated total room volumeSuggested layout

Maximum snow loadMaximum windDoorAccessories

Foundation preparationMethod of shipping construction goodsAssemblyFoundationHook up refrigerationLocal codes that may influence

Refrigeration

Maximum summer temperatureMinimum winter temperatureElectrical supplyCondenser unit

73'F dry bulb!; 61'F wet bulb!-4'F

Single phase, 110 or 220 vAir cooled

Five Colct Storage Units in Alaska

640 ft'10'x8'x8'ceiling, single door at one end,

product loaded in shelves on each side of the door50 psf90 mphHinged, 4 ft min.! widthDoor jamb heater, lights, pressure equalizer port, dial thermometer on exterior

wall, external ramp. Buyer will supply shelving.Insulated/ventilated concrete, as necessaryBarge from SeattleBuyer will assembleBuyer will prepare foundation according to vendor's recommendationBuyer will hire local refrigeration contractorNone

This scenario describes frozen storage of pro-cessed salmon or halibut portions in a Sitkasecondary processing operation. The project de-scription is in Table 14; room layout is in Fig-ure 18. The product would be hand-stacked onshelves supplied by the owner,

Both vendors suggested a 3 HP R-502 refri-geration system, although detailed calculationsby vendor 1 showed a tradeoffbetween refrigeration powerand insulation thickness. The

estimate shown assumes 5/zinches of urethane insulation

in the walls and ceiling. For athinner, 4 inch layer, this ven-dor would have specified a 6HP refrigeration system.

Installation costs are signifi-cantly different for the twovendors because the unit ofvendor 2 actually a 12' x 28'room! is assembled at the fac-tory. In both cases, the cost ofa slab foundation with a stripfooting is included. The foun-dation of vendor 1 also in-

cludes a recessed insulatedfloor with a heavy woodenworking floe r on joists.

Minor cost savings wouldresult from locating these twoinstallations indoors: $430 couldbe saved for roofing from ven-dor 1; a savings of $2,000 forstructural reinforcing would begained from vendor 2.

Flooe' yhm fer theAgeable %$. 558aa Cohl Roem

20'

Planning 5eofood Cold 5torctge

TaMe Li. Kstiaasated coals for Sitka Cold Roam

Vendor 1 Vendor 2

9,130430a

28,000{inc! udes

refrigerationassembly!

BoxRoofing

Refrigeration equipmentTrucking to SeattleSea shipping from SeattleFoundationInstallation box and refrigeration!1 0% contingency

5,550430b

1,3204,220a

15,2103,630

3,100l,520»

2,6301 730a

3,700

Q9,920TOTAL

a. Esti mated by authorb. Estimated by commercial trucking companyc. Estimated by commercial shi pping company

Cold Storage Project 2Table i4. Sitka, Alaska

General


2,250 ft'14'x20'x8'ceiling, door at one end30 psf100 mphHinged, 4 foot min.! widthDoor frame heater, lights, pressure-equalizer port,

dial thermometer on external wallInsulatedhientilated concrete, as necessaryBarge from SeattleVendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractSanitation Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation!

Refrigeration


73'F dry bu!b!; 61'F wet bulb!� 4'F

One or three phase availableAir cooled

Five Cold Storage Units in Alaska 27

Application

Amount and type of productStorage tem peratureRate and temperature of new product loadedNumber of door openings per dayWorker and machinery activity in room


Estimated total room volumeSuggested layoutMaximum snow loadMaximum windDoorAccessories


Outdoor single story, adjoined to existing building on gravel lotSitka, Alaska

20,000 Ib, processed salmon or halibut portions-20 F

1,000lb per day at 5 F101 worker, brief periods, electric pallet truck

38'

6' 8'

Planning Seafood Cold St'oroge

This scenario describes a 38' x 40' room located

in Bethel, Alaska, expected to hold 200,000pounds of headed and gutted salmon at -10 F.Refrigeration in all cases uses R-502 refrigerant:vendor 1 specified a 7.5 HP refrigeration unitand vendor 2 specified two 6 HP units.

The foundation would be a wood beam-

and-joist structure capable of supporting a fullyloaded building with asafety factor of 1.3. Costs,support loads, and ar«hi-tects and engineers feewere taken from Means�991!. It is assumed thatsuch a wooden founda-

tion is necessary in thepermafrost conditions ofwestern Alaska.

Because floor spacefor this freezer exceeds

400 square feet, the costof a dry pipe sprinklersystem ordinary hazard,which includes applica-tions to cold storage sys-tems! is estimated ac-cording to Means �991!.The estimate includes a 4

inch standpipe, distribu-tion, and valving. It does.not include external

pumps and attachmentsthat may be necessary.

Neem 3eynut forFief+ '59. Setlmoi SaiicliIII

TaMe 15. SsNsnaCeal costs fer SetlIeI BaIIcliacy

Vendor 3Vendor 2Vendor 1

43,220included

54,130included

BoxLightsWarranties

Refrigeration equipmentTrucking to Seattle and in BethelBarge to BethelFoundationA8 E 9% of foundation and box!Sprinkler systemInstallation box and refrigeration!10% contingency

5182,300 f132,760TOTAL

a. Estimated by authorb. Estimated by commercial shi pping companyASE = Architecture and Engineering

Colal Storage Ptejeco' ,3TaMe %6. IIetheI, Alaska

General

Outdoor, free-standing, single-story buildingBethel, Alaska


200,000 Ib, headed/gutted salmon in cartons-10*F

Max. of 3,500 Ib per day at 5'FMax. of 10'I worker, brief periods, electric pallet truck

15,200 ft'40'x38'x10'ceiling, door at one end25 psf100 mphHinged, 4 foot min.! widthDoor frame heater, lights, pressure equalizer ports,

dial thermometer on external wallOn wooden/piling foundation appropriate to local permafrost restrictionsBarge from SeattleVendor will subcontractBuyer will subcontractBuyer will subcontractSanitation Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation!

Refrigeration


70'F dry bulb!; 59'F wet bulb!- 27'F

One or three phase availableAir-cooled

Five Co/cl Storage Units in Alaska 29

Application




Foundation preparationMethod of shipping construction goodsAssemblyFciundationHook up refrigerationLocal codes that may influence

87,750260

1,00015,8102,210

11,310b23,450a

2,110a9,270a

12,560a16,570

13,680900

15,50023,450a

2,110a9,270a

12,560a12,070

14,000a200a

5,40023,450a

2,1'10a

9,270a12,560a12,110

The Kenai Cold Store is a single story facility inKenai that can store up to 500,000 pounds ofheaded and gutted salmon and dressed halibutin cartons at -20'F. Table 18 defines this sce-

nario in some detail; the layout is in Figure 20.

12'

44'

Planning 5eafood Cokj Storage30

Lsyeek Ocr sk2eespe%yore 20. ef Kessl Cel4 Stere

Facanalhahoa ssscwmscl ferFkckaare A. Keosk sack Kecliskc Colck Stoics

A diagram of the foundation, the cost of whichwas estimated from Means �991!, appears inFigure 21. Design includes one footing �' x 3'x 12" deep! under each support post �2 in Ke-nai Cold Store, 30 in Kodiak Cold Store!,

Estimated costs fee KewalTable 1X Cohl Store

Vendor I

The vendor in Table 17 specified 4 inches ofurethane insulation all around, a single, man-ually operated sliding door, and a single 30 HPrefrigeration compressor using R-502. Shippingwas calculated based on a total equipmentweight of 54,000 pounds with an assumedloading density of 13 pounds per cubic foot!.Costs for racks to allow stacks of four palletswere estimated from the square foot costs ofan existing project.

$356,290TOTRL

a. Estimated by authorb. Estimated by mmmercial shipping companyc. Estimated by author with input fram refrigeration contractorABE = Architecture and Engineering

Cold StomaIe Prefect 4Table 18. Kenal, AIaslca

General

Outdoor, free-standing, single-story buildingKenai, Alaska


500,000 Ib, headed/gutted salmon in cartons, halibut in boxes-20'F

Max. of 20,000 Ib per day at 5 FMax. of 502 workers and electric forklifts

37,200 ft344'x47'x18' ceiling, door at one end40 psf100 mphSliding on track, 6' min.! widthLights, pressure-equalizer ports, external-reading thermometers for two internal

locations. Vendor will supply racks to permit 4-high pallet stacks � and 2!.Insutatedlventilated concrete as necessaryBarge from Seattle trucking also possible!Vendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractSanitation Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation!,

fire protectionlsprinkler system


Refrigeration


71'F dry bulb!; 58'F wet bulb!- 7'F

Three phase availableAir-cooled roof units


App/ication




BoxLightsRacks

Refrigeration equipmentTrucking to SeattleSea shipping to AnchorageTrucking, Anchorage to KenaiFoundationA8 E 9'%%d of foundation and box!Sprinkler systemInstallation box and refrigeration!10 io contingency

141,300690

20,680a

59,3903,410

19 190b4,920b

20,170a14,53013,220a26,400c32,390

?2"

PIanning Seafood Caid Storage32

The Kodiak Cold Store consists of a one million

pound capacity, -20'F storage room in Kodiakaccording to the specifications of Table20. Thelayout of Figure 22 al! ows access to a variety ofproducts on a rack system supporting 4-highpallet loading. Two manual sliding doors areincluded in the box design and estimate. One

vendor supplied a partial list of cost estimates,which are included in Table 19. A second ven-

dor gave an estimate of $122,450 FOB Seattledock! for just the panels, doors, and floor andceiling insulation. This would have to be housedand installed within a metal building construct-ed for the job.

The refrigeration is supplied by two 31 HPunits operating on R-502. The foundation is.

constructed as a double insulated slab as shownin Figure 2't. ln this case, 30 columns and foot-ings are included to support an internal steelframe similar to that shown in Figure 4. Becauseof the complexity of the structure with 25-footceilings, the 9 percent architecture and engin-eering cost was calculated on the basis of boththe foundation and the box structure.

Vendor 1

SS83,SSOTOTAL

Ookl Sterage Prejeco: 5Table 20. KoIliak, Alaslca

General

Outdoor, free-standing, single-story buildingKodiak, Alaska


Application

Amount and type of product 1,000,000 lb of mixed products to include headed/gutted fish,packaged fillets, blocks

- 20'F

Max. of 60,000 Ib per day at O' F100Daily activity with two electric fork-lift trucks



133,200 ft374'x72'x25'ceiling; two doors in one side20 psf110 mphSliding on track; 8' widthDoor heaters. Lights, pressure equalizer ports, external-reading thermometers for

two intemai locations. Vendor will supply rack system to permit 4-high stacking� and 2! according to suggested layout,

Insulated/ventilated concrete as necessaryBarge or container ship from SeattleVendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractVendor will subcontractSanitation Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation!,

fire protection/sprinkler system


Refrigeration


70'F dry bulb!; 57'F wet bulb!10'F

Three phase availableAir-cooled roof units


Storage temperatureRate and temperature of new product loadedNumber of door openings per dayWorker and machinery activity in room

BoxLightsRacks

Refrigeration equipmentTrucking to Seattle and in KodiakSea shipping to KodiakFoundationARE 9% of foundation and box!Sprinkler systemInstallation box and refrigeration!10% contingency

a. Estimated by commercial shipping companyb. Estimated by authorARE = Architecture and Engineering

407,5901,720

54,300139,220

10,69021,890a52,870 b41,44023 320b50,470 b80,350

Part ll Stering Frozen Preduct

Chapter 4: Seafood Temperatureand Shelf Life


When chilled storage of seafood does notallow enough holding time, the best way topreserve quality is to freeze it and hold it infrozen storage. Chilled storage provides at besta few weeks of shelf life, whereas frozenstorage provides a few months to more than ayear for fishery products that have goodstorage characteristics,

Frozen storage has several important advantages:

~ Fishing vessels can harvest on grounds farther from theport where they will be landing the catch, and they canfish longer when necessary to get a large-enough catchto make the trip profitable.

~ The large increase in storage life allows processors andwholesalers to hold inventories for a longer time,

~ The increased storage life allows products to be shippedgreater distances, with the potential of opening up newmarkets.

~ Frozen storage allows year-round marketing for speciessuch as salmon, which are harvested over a short timeeach year.

~ /f freezing is carried out soon after harvest, a higherquality product results than for fish kept in chilled stor-age until marketed.

~ Building interna/ freezing and cold storage facilities indeveloping countries provides export opportunities for awider range of fishery products, The same is true forAlaska, which is a long distance from the markets for itsseafood products,

Tl4E PROC,'ESSES OF QUALITY LOSS

During frozen storage, food is held at a tempera-ture where bacterial changes are stopped and en-zyme action is greatly retarded. Freezing andfrozen storage conditions are much more critical

for seafood than for other foods. Although freezingconditions are not discussed in this report, it is cer-tainly important to use proper freezing procedures,especially to avoid slow freezing rates. A freezingrate at which the product is frozen in 8 hours orless is satisfactory. However, most deteriorativechanges occur during frozen storage rather thanduring freezing, and these changes are the subjectof this chapter.

In today's world market, competition fromfarmed fish and shellfish makes it necessary for fro-zen fishery products to be of the highest quality,especially frozen salmon and frozen shrimp. Stor-ing seafood below 15 F stops the growth and mul-tiplication of bacteria. Fnzpne action, however, isnot slowed sufficiently to make this a good tem-perature for storing frozen seafood. For very shortstorage periods, O'F or lower is needed, For longerstorage times or for fishery products that do nothave very good storage characteristics, a holdingtemperature of -20'F or lower is necessary.

Protein Denaturation

One of the two major losses of quality in fishmuscle during frozen storage is the development ofa toughness and dress that is related to proteindenaturation Sikorski et al., 1976!, It is the majorcause of quality loss during frozen storage of leanfish. Taste panels describe the cooked fish as tough,fibrous, chewy, and rubbery, The cause of thetoughness is protein denaturation and aggregationaccompanied by loss of water-holding capacity.This results in high thaw Wp loss and cook driploss, Ice crystallization contributes to denaturationof the protein by disrupting the water structurearound hydrophobic areas of the protein and bybreaking up the water-mediated hydrophobic-hydrophilic interactions Sikorski and Kolakowska,1990!.

~ ice crystal. damage~ concentration of inorganic salts

' +' dessieation from surface sublimation~ protein dehydration due to freezing out of water~ free fatty aod formation

. ~- lipid oxIdation products~ formaldehyde

suifhydrYI. group reactictns

35Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life

Protein denaturation involves the myofibrillarprotein, specifically the actin-myosin-actomyosinsystem, tropomyosin, and whole myofibrils. Dena-turation consists of an alteration of the secondaryand tertiary protein structure with the breaking ofhydrogen, hydrophobic, and ionic bonds but notcovalent bonds, Subsequently, there is some refor-rnation of bonds, leading to protein aggregation.'1 his aggregation may be due to non-covalent«ross-linking both intermolecular and intramo-

Protein denaturation

Figure 23. and aggregation

tecularj of muscle proteins, in particular myosin.During freezing and frozen storage of fish, ad-

verse etfects leading to protein denaturation andaggregation are caused by several factors. '1 heseinclude the concentration of inorganic salts, freetatty acid formation, reaction with the productsof lipid oxidation, and formation of formalde-hyde in some members of the family Gadidae bythe enzymic breakdown of trirnethylamine oxide

'I'okunaga, 1974!. These relationships app ar inFigure 23.

Reducing the rate and amount of protein dena-turation depends on good quality raw material, lowstorage temperatures with minimum temperaturefluctuation, and proper packaging to prevent desic-cation. The rate of protein denaturation decreases asstorage temperature decreases. Seafood studies haveshown that a storage temperature of -20'F or lower isneeded to provide a long storage time.

Oxidation Reactions

The second of the two majorcauses of quality loss during fro-zen storage of seafood is lipidoxidation, the most importantcause of quality loss in fatty fish.Lipid oxidation causes loss of fla-vor and nutrition. The result is

the unpleasant odor ancl flavorcalled rancidity, In chill-storedfish, bacterial spoilage lowers thequality to "poor" before appre-ciable lipid oxidation occurs,Bacterial spoilage is retarded infish stored frozen, and very oftenrancidity becomes a problem.Fatty fish such as herring can be-come rancid in a month or less if

storage conditions are not con-trolled.

Seafood lipids are healthful,but they are susceptible to oxida-tion because the fatty acids arehighly unsaturated, In fish, asmuch as one-third of the fattyacids are unsaturated. The oxida-

tion of unsaturated fatty acidsproceeds by a free-radical mecha-nism involving the formation ofhydroperoxides and their subse-

quent breakdown to aldehydes, ketones, alcohols,short-chain fatty acids, and other hydrocarbons,Volatile carbonyl compounds are thought to causerancid odor and flavor.

The rate of oxidation depends on lipid compo-sition, the presence of catalysts or antioxidants,pH, and storage temperature, Free fatty acidsformed by the hydrolysis of triglycerides are moresusceptible to oxidation, whereas those formed by

hydrolysis of phospholipids are less susceptible.Oxidation reactions also cause undesirable color

changes, Oxidation of carotenoid pigments is re-sponsible for fading flesh color in fish such assalmon and of skin color in several species of rock-fish and some shellfish. In some fish and shellfish

with white or creamy white flesh, oxidation reac-tions cause yellowing or darkening during long-term cold storage. The term "rust" or "rusting"refers to the migration of oil to the surface of fishduring cold storage, giving a yellow or light browndiscoloration, The rust discoloration has been at-

tributed to Maillard-type reactions of amino acidsor free amino groups of proteins with reducingsugars or with some lipid oxidation products.

To prevent undesirable oxidative changes, keepoxygen away from the seafood product. This canbe done by glazing to provide a covering of ice,packaging with an oxygen-impermeable material,and using an antioxidant in a dip or glaze, Themost effective protection is vacuum packaging, us-ing a film with low permeability to oxygen in com-binaUon with an antioxidant dip such as sodiumerythorbate.

Enzyme ActivityFreezing does not inactivate the enzymes in food,In fact, enzymes are responsible for destructivechanges that take place during freezing and frozenstorage. An example is soft texture caused bybreakdown of muscle connective tissue by pro-teolytic enzyme action. For vegetables, blanchingor applying enough heat to inactivate enzymesprovides longer frozen storage life, Except for craband shrimp, however, most seafood is frozen with-out heat treatinent,

Low temperature is important in reducing un-wanted enzyme activity. Below about 15 F, en-zyme-catalyzed reaction rates decrease. At O' F, theyare slow enough to allow short storage times forfishery products with good-to-excellent frozen stor-age characteristics. For longer frozen storage timesand for fishery products with fair-to-poor storagecharacteristics, a temperature of -20'F or lower isneeded. Species with fair-to-poor storage character-istics include those with high lipid content andthose with enzymes that catalyze the change oftrimethylamine oxide to dimethylamine andformaldehyde.

The usual effect of lower temperature on a

chemical reaction is to decrease the reaction rate,

Experimental work with several different enzymesin fish and shellfish shows that reaction rates are

higher when fish muscle is partially frozen in the15 to 30'F temperature range French et al., 1988;Nowlan and Dyer, 1969; Toyomizu and Shono,1972!. Protein hydrolysis is fastest at 26 to 28'F,phospholipid hydrolysis is most rapid at about25'F, ATP breakdown is highest at about Z9'F, andglycoside breakdown at 25 to Z6'F, These highrates are due to a concentration of enzymes and re-actants caused by the freezing of water molecules.Also, large ice crystals disrupt cells, releasing en-zymes and increasing the susceptibility of the tis-sue to enzyme breakdown.

The temperature zone from 30' down to 23 or24'F has been called the "critical zone," Avoid

long, slow freezing conditions that hold the prod-uct in the critical zone longer than absolutely nec-essary. Holding at partial freezing or superchillingtemperatures has been used successfully to trans-port salmon intended for canning, because bacte-rial action is greatly reduced at these temperaturesand is very slow at the low end of this range. Fishintended to be frozen, however, should never bekept in the critical zone,

Lipid HydrolysisDuring frozen storage of fish, lipids hydrolyze tofree fatty acids. Both phospholipids and triglycer-ides are hydrolyzed, with the phospholipids beingthe more susceptible of the two. Cholesterol estersand waxes undergo very little change during fro-zen storage, The rates of phospholipid and triglyc-eride hydrolysis vary with species and storageteinperature.

The fish lipases that hydrolyze lipids resist lowteinperatures and continue to be active in frozentissue. In some cases, there is an increase in theamount of active enzymes released during freezing.However, the usual effect of temperature onchemical reactions, including those catalyzed byenzymes, is a slowing of the reaction rate as theteinperature is lowered. An exception is the tem-perature zone a few degrees below the freezingpoint of water, where the reaction rate of lipid hy-drolysis increases rather than decreases. Below 15'Fthe reaction rate decreases gradually, althoughlipid hydrolysis doesn't stop completely even at-20'F.

36 Planning Seafood Cold Storage

The free fatty acids formed in seafoods by lipidhydrolysis do not themselves lower product qual-ity. The increase in free fatty acids is associatedwith the denaturation of myofibrillar protein andthe resulting undesirable texture. The increase offree fatty acids also affects the rate of oxidativelipid changes.

Oessication

Dehydration of frozen seafood products is a com-mon cause of quality loss, but it is much more eas-ily prevented than protein denaturation and lipidoxidation. Moisture loss shows up as frost onfreezer walls, cooling coils, and the inside of pack-ages prepared for retail markets.

Moisture loss results in undesirable changes intexture and flavor loss due to loss of volatile com-

ponents, Weight loss is also an economic loss, Inproducts prepared for retail market, this weight losscan cause packages to fall below the declaredweights. Dehydration in an advanced state is calledfreezer burn. In extreme freezer burn, the skin of

the fish has a dry, wrinkled look, the surface takeson a dull, chalky-white color, and the flesh be-comes dry and tough. Desiccation of seafood accel-erates the rate of both protein denaturation andlipid oxidation.

Prevent desiccation by glazing or by packagingwith material having low permeability to water va-por. Fluctuating storage temperatures increasemoisture loss, and should be minimized. The op-erator must avoid fluctuations in cold storage tem-perature caused by I! adding warmer products, �!leaving doors open, �! starting and stopping refrig-eration machinery, �! lack of air curtains, and �!small package size. To avoid dehydration of un-wrapped, unglazed fish or fish products, keep therelative humidity as high as possible, A relative hu-rnidity of 85 to 90 percent usually is adequate, butspecial design of the cold store can give a relativehumidity of 98 percent or higher if needed. Gener-ally, operating a cold store with high humidity isnot advisable because of ice buildup. Avoid theneed for high humidity by storing seafood wrappedor glazed.

THE CAUSES OF QUALITY LOSS

Most quality deterioration in frozen seafoodoccurs after freezing, unless unusually slow

freezing rates are used and the product is heldfor a long time in the critical zone �3 to 30'F!.The rate of quality loss of frozen seafooddepends on the storage temperature andamount of temperature fluctuation.

The quality of any frozen food also dependson the "PPP" factors, or product-processing-packaging, "Product" refers to quality of theraw material, "processing" refers to theproduct form, and "packaging" refers to theprotection used to avoid the problems ofdesiccation and oxidation.

Raw Material QualityThe production of high quality frozen seafoodproducts is critical to meet the standards imposedby producing companies, by customers, by countryof oriy'n, and by importing countries. Freezingdoes not improve fish quality. If freezing and coldstorage are properly carried out, however, the qual-ity of the fish will be maintained very close to whatit was at the time of freezing, Consequently, goodquality frozen seafood requires good quality rawmaterial. There are two aspects of raw materialquality: I! intrinsic quality, and �! prefreezingtreatment.

Intrinsic quality is the quality or value of thefish when it is harvested. The harvester can' t

change or control intrinsic quality. Important fac-tors that affect intrinsic quality are species, sex,fishing ground, nutritional condition, size, matu-rity, season, food consumed, parasites, and envi-ronrnental contarninants. They all affect the rawmaterial quality and the price the fisherman getsfor his catch.

Prefreezing treatment is handling and storage ofthe raw material between catching and freezing.The fisherman and fish processor control theprefreezing treatment, which includes:

~ length of time between harvesting and freezing

~ holding temperature

~ stage of rigor mortis when freezing

~ processing procedures product form!

These factors are just as important as intrinsicquality factors. Fish subjected to improperprefreezing treatment will not be of high qualityeven if they get excellent treatment during freezingand frozen storage.

Seafood treatment should be as good for fish in-

Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life 37

Relative rates of seafood spoilaIe and loss of equivalent daysTable 21. on ice for different temperatures and times

Relative Equivalent days on ice as a function of initial time at elevatedrate of temperature

4hr 8 hr 12 hr 18 hr 24hr 36 hr 48hr 72 hr

Temperature

-2 284 0.64 0.1

0 320

2 356

4 392

6 42.8

1.00 0.7

1.44 0.2

1.96 0.3

2.56 0 4

8 46.4 3.24 0.5

10 500 4.00 0.7

12 53.6

15 590

4.84 0.8

6 25 1.0

A relative spoilage rate r!isa comparison to the rate fora product held at 32'F for 24 hours where ris equal to 1!Because of biological variability within a species, numbers are only meaningful to one place past the decimal point.


tended to be frozen as for fish intended for the

fresh market. All fish and shellfish should be

chilled quickly and completely immediately aftercatching, with ice or with chilled or refrigerated seawater. Hold raw herring and other small or fattyfish at 3Z F for 1 day or less. Hold raw halibut andother species with good-to-excellent frozen charac-teristics at 32'F for 3 to 5 days or less. Estimate lossof raw matenal quality from holding at highertemperatures from Table 21 Doyle, 1989!. It is im-portant to keep the chilled storage temperature asclose as possible to 3Z'F, and to keep the chilledstorage time as short as possible.

Only the highest quality raw material shouldbe used to prepare frozen products. Poor qualityfrozen seafood is too often caused by freezing stalefish. The practice of freezing seafood near the endof its chilled storage life must be eliminated. Whenlower quality frozen seafood is the result of a delayin freezing, the product should be labeled and soldas a cheaper brand in markets where lower qualityis acceptable,

Holding TemperatureHolding temperature affects the storage life of fro-zen seafood more than any other factor. The hold-ing temperature must be low enough to stop or

0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.9

0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0

0.5 0.7 1.1 1.4 2.7 2.9 4.3

0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.9 3.9 5.9

0.8 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.8 5.1 7.9

1.1 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.9 6.5 9.7

1.3 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 12.0

1.6 2.4 3.6 4.8 7.3 9.9 'l4.5

21 31 47 62 94 125 187

greatly retard bacterial action, enzyme changes,and nonenzyme chemical reactions.

Lowering the temperature of frozen seafood de-creases the rate of deterioration at all temperaturesexcept in the critical freezing zone �3 to 30'F!,where enzyme-catalyzed reactions increase. Belowabout 15'F, bacterial growth and replication stops.At O' F, enzyme and other chemical reactions areslow enough to allow storing frozen seafood forshort periods, A storage temperature of -20'F isneeded to store frozen seafood for longer periods,and to store fish or shellfish with high lipid con-tent or high enzyme activity. Higher temperaturescause flavor loss and nutritional loss.

Tables 22 and 23 give frozen storage characteris-tics of some Pacific fish and shellfish. Species differconsiderably in the length of time they will retainhigh quality in frozen storage. For many species,an extremely wide range of frozen storage times isreported in the literature, This is due to variationin intrinsic quality and handling of the raw mate-rial, and variation in how the end point of storagelife is determined. Learson and Licciardello �986!found literature values for the shelf life of haddock

at O'F to range from 24 to 72 weeks, a three-folddifference.

When using Tables ZZ and 23, it is important toconsider the following points:

1, The time and temperature values in thetables are from scientific literature, and from fishprocessors and fisheries technologists involved inhandling and storage research. Few references givevalues that can be put directly into the tables,since a variety of methods were used to determineend of shelf life. Some researchers used sensorymethods, while others used chemical methods.Those who used sensory methods evaluated rawfish in some cases and cooked fish in other cases,

Consequently, literature values were used only asa starting point and were modified after inputfrom processors and researchers. The modifiedvalues appear in the tables.

2. Experimental values for storage life of frozenseafood are often not comparable. Chemicalanalysis data often does not correlate with sensoryanalysis data. In addition, sample size and controlsamples are sometimes not adequate to measurequality loss,

3. The storage times given in the tables shouldbe regarded as the best attainable, The raw mate-rial is top quality, handling and processing are asgood as possible, and protection is provided dur-ing storage by glazing or by packaging in materialwith low oxygen and water vapor permeability.Under normal commercial conditions, seafood

may not store as well as indicated by the tables.4. The maximum storage temperature values

in the first two columns of Tables 22 and 23 are

not comparable to the storage life values in thesecond two columns see the two footnotes forthese tables!. Temperatures in the first two col-umns provide what Sikorski and Kolakowska�990! called high quality life HQL!. HQL is thestorage time of initially high quality product tothe moment when the first statistically significantdifference in quality appears. The product ismaintained very close to the quality of a properlychilled fresh product no more than a few days af-ter harvest.

The shelf life values in the second two col-

umns give what Sikorski and Kolakowska calledpractical storage life PSL!, PSL is the storage timeduring which the product retains its suitability forhuman consumption. The ratio of PSL over HQLis usually between 2 and 5. The storage life valuesin the second two columns of the tables may beslightly lower than the PSL of Sikorski andKolakowska, as the definition of practical shelf lifeused here presumes the quality is not simply suit-

able for consumption but is high enough to beconsidered "good" and a consumer would likelypurchase it again.

5. Although we give single values in the twotables rather than a range of temperatures or stor-age times, the variation within species is largeenough so that in some cases a range may bemuch more appropriate. For example, chinooksalmon from the Yukon River may have very dif-ferent storage characteristics from chinook salmonfrom Cook Inlet,

Although cold storage temperature is the mostimportant influence on storage life of frozen sea-food, other factors can also be very important, Theseafood industry has a great need for the manualproposed by Learson and Licciardello �986!, withstandardized methods of measuring frozen storagelife of seafood.

Temperature FluctuationStorage temperature fluctuation is another factorthat decreases frozen shelf life, It is impossible tokeep food in frozen storage at a constant tempera-ture, because of the cyclical operation of the refrig-eraOon equipment and movement of product inand out of storage during transport from processorto wholesaler to retailer.

For fish or fish fillets stored at 0 F, fluctuationsin temperature to 15 F as may occur during trans-port! are very detrimental Dyer et al., 1957!. Con-siderable deterioration takes place, reducing shelflife greatly. For seafood products held at -20'F, fluc-tuations to -15 or -10'F cut storage life to one-halfand fluctuations to 0' cut shelf life to one-third.

The effects of temperature fluctuation are cumula-tive, Shelf life loss can be estimated if a record of

storage temperature is kept and storage characteris-tics of the species are known,

The problems with quality loss caused by fluc-tuating storage temperature are mainly due to icerecrystallization, moisture loss, and enzyme orother deteriorative chemical reactions. Reforma-

tion of ice crystals damages tissue structure andmay lead to undesirable texture. The tissue damageincreases the rates of dehydration and deteflorativechemical changes, Moisture loss due to sublima-tion of the ice at or near the product surface can bea serious problem in unpackaged raw material andin products with poor packaging. Frost or ice mayform on the inside of seafood retail packages as the

Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life 39

F~en stereos tenace'acute end Sterale Imfml fee merlee fish eeetTedge 22. SslI predicts

Storage hfe months! ReferencesMaximum storage temperature 'F!

Product

2 months to 6 months toconsumption consumption

H8 6 salmon Chinook 14 6,21,27,32,39�51, 89

-10 -20

-10

-15

Sockeye -10

Pacjfic cod HSG

-10 -20

-10

Alaska pollock HB G

1 QF fillets

-10 -20 14 6, 7, 19, 27, 33,34, 42, 48, 85

-20

-10

-22

20 21, 27, 34, 48,49, 81, 82

Pacific halibut HAG -10 10

-20Fletches -10

Floundertsole Arrowtooth 10 27, 33, 34, 51,

Dover 10

10

-20

-10 10

-20

14 21, 32, 48, 49,51, 81

-10

-10

Dusky -20

14 21, 27, 34, 81

6 9, 10,27, 34,43, 48

-30

Herring roe -10 -20

Salmon shark

H8 5 = Headed and gutted.: IQF =. lrrdt'vidualfy quick frozen

-10 -20

be almOSt aS gOOd aS freSh fiSh that haS been held prOperfy Chilled and iS within a feW dayS after hatVeSt..

Storage life is' defined as the length of time' the'prodkct remains in a condition that can be described as gaiod qualityConsumer's purchasing this product rvould be /ikely to purchase it again. At longer storage times," tfre proq'uct qyjll be bf fair td arbor' quality;Although i t may still be edible, it is not the quality of seafood that the industry should be rnarketirg.

Sableflsh

Herring

IQF fillets

Fillet blocks

Fillet blocks

Surimi

Flathead

Greenland turbot

Yellowfin

Pacific ocean perch

Yelloweye

18 6, 21,27,32,33, 34, 43, 44,

48; 51, 8115

i-reaeaa storale temperature aud storaaye life for sheltflsia aaaaaiTable 2S. ether aaaariue laaarerlebraates

Storage life months! ReferencesMaximum storage temperature 'F!

Product

-20*FO' F6 months toconsumption

2 months toconsumption

15 21, 49Spot shrimp Raw in shell

Cooked meat -20

12 6,18,21,49,51, 65

Raw in shell

Cooked meat

Raw in shell

Pink shrimp -15

-30-20

Sidestripeshrimp

-10

Cooked meat

Cooked in shell

Cooked meat

Cooked in shell

-30-20

15 6, 18,21, 51King crab -20-10

-10

-20-15Dungeneasr.rab

Cooked meat

Cooked in shell

-20 -30

Tanner/snowcrab bairdo

Cooked meat -15

Tannerfsnow Cooked in shellcrab opilio!

-15 -20

Cooked meat -30-15

0 -5 8 14

0 -10 6 12

Sea cucumber Raw

Storage life is defined as the length of time the product remains in a condition that can be described as good guabty. Consumers purchasingthis product would be likely to purchase it again. At longer storage times, the product will be of fair to poor guality; although it may st/ beedible, it is not the guali ty of seafood that the industry should be marketing.

Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life

Storage temperatures given are the highest that will still allovv minimal loss of guality. At the end of the frozen storage period, the product willbe almost as good as fresh shellfish that has been held properly chilled and is within a few days after harvest.

result of temperature fluctuation, and consumersoften won't buy these products. Fluctuating tem-perature accelerates a number of chemical changesin seafood. The most important are oxidativechanges leading to rancidity lipid oxidation! anddiscoloration.

PackagingAlmost as important as temperature control in ob-taining maximtun shelf life is protection by sometype of packaging. The functions of packaging in-clude the following:

~ Envelope the product to assistin moving it to market,

~ Protect the product from dehydration, oxidation, con-tamination, and mechanical damage.

~ Identify the product to assist in storage managementand to provide consumer information.

Frozen product should be packaged as soon aspossible after freezing. The packaging should bestrong, waterproof, stain-resistant, and should notcontaminate the product, Closeness of fit is also animportant property, The packaging matenalshould be impermeable to fats and oils. To reducethe rate of dehydration, the material should have alow permeability to water vapor. To reduce the rateof oxidation, the material should have low oxygenpermeability.

ReprocessingDouble freezing describes a storage and processingoperation in which the product is frozen, thenthawed or partly thawed to facilitate processing,then refrozen, Seafood processors often store fishand shellfish in bulk as frozen raw material, thenthaw it to create the final products, and then re-freeze some of those products, An example is fro-zen, dressed halibut, which is sometimes partiallythawed for steaking, then frozen for storage.

There is some quality loss during freezing, evenwith quick freezing, However, if the initial qualityis very high that is, if the first freezing is donewith very fresh fish!, double freezing can still resultin very good quality, Fish frozen at sea are suitablefor processing methods in which a second freezingis necessary,

Studies on cod, flounder, and rockfish showthat refreezing can result in a very good quality

product, especially if the first freezing is done be-fore rigor mortis sets in MacCallum et al,, 1969;Peters et al., 1968; Tomlinson et al,, 1969 and1973!. Experimental work with pollock indicatesthat conditions for the first freezing and for thaw-ing are more important than conditions for thesecond freezing to obtain a good quality product Choe et al., 1975!.

RECOMMENDED FROZEN STORAGECONDITIONS

Damage to frozen food from high orfluctuating temperatures cannot be corrected.Temperature abuse fluctuations, even if theyare not extreme, can cause a serious damageproblem, The following guidelines areimportant to maintain the quality of frozenseafood,

Time-Temperature-ToleranceThe time-temperature-tolerance TIT! concept wasintroduced very early in the study of frozen foodstability. Tlt uses the time-temperature history offrozen food during storage to describe shelf life Edhborg, 1965!, TIT is based on the followingassumptions;

~ For every frozen product, there is a relationship betweenstorage temperature and time stored at this tempera-ture during which the product may change in quality.

~ Quality loss at different frozen storage temperatures isirreversible and cumulative.

~ The sequence of quality changes does not influence thetotal quali ty change,

Data from frozen storage studies can be used toproduce quality maintenance diagrams, referred toas TIT diagrams see Figure 24!. TIT diagramsshow the relationship between storage life andstorage temperature and have been developed formany food products. If the three assumptionsabove are correct, TIT diagrams can be used toevaluate the effect of fluctuating temperature onthe quality of a frozen product and to estimate re-maining shelf life.

Application of the TTT concept depends first onaccurate time and temperature data. Many tem-perature recording devices are available that cangive the needed data.

Second, a satisfactory method of determining


Time - Temperature - Tolerance TTT!Figure 24. of frozen haddock and herring

from Sikorski and Kolokowsko, 1990!

70

60

40

30

tl

~ 20

't5

5 -30 -20

Temperature 'C!

1 = PSL for haddock 3=PSL forherring2 = HQL for haddock 4 = HQL loss for haddock

HQL high quality ii fe! is defined as the time of storage of theiniti ally high quality product tothe moment when the first statistically significant p <0. 0 t! di fference in quality appears.

PSL practical storage iife! is defined as the period of storage during which the product retainsits characteristic properties and suitah fity for human consumption ori ntended process.

the end of shelf life is needed. Storage life must bemeasured by overall acceptability, which has sev-eral limiting factors. The importance of these fac-tors varies greatly depending on species, storagetemperature, type of packaging, and others. Tasteof the product is usually the limiting indicator, butother indicators texture, for example! can becomemore important in overall desirability. Conse-quently, no single measure of quality, whetherphysical, chemical or sensory, can be used as astandard measure for all seafood. Because of this,

frozen storage stability estimates vary dependingon the quality indicator.

Most seafood researchers and processors be-lieve that temperature fluctuation itself is detri-mental to the quality of frozen seafood see

discussion of temperature fluctuation on page 39and discussion of temperature control on page 44!.This means that for seafood, quality loss duringtemperature fluctuation is more than simply a to-tal of the loss at each holding temperature.

Recommended Holding TemperatureWhen designing a cold storage facility, you shouldconsider all products that will be stored there andthe length of time they will be held. If only a fewspecies will be stored and the length of storage isknown, Tables 22 and 23 will help in deciding onthe holding temperature. A cold store operatorshould use the lowest practical storage tempera-ture, since he may not know about all the species

that will be stored, and some

products may stay in storagelonger than the time intended,

Temperature of the incomingproduct should be as close aspossible to the temperature ofthe cold storage room to mini-mize temperature fluctuation inthe product. Cold store operatorsshould check temperatures fre-quently to be sure everything isoperating properly and to have acontinuous record of product

temperature,The American Frozen Food

Institute, the National FisheriesInstitute, and the National Fro-

zen Food Association all recom-

mend 0 F as a storagetemperature for frozen foodwarehouses and retail displaycases. This may be fine for mostfoods, but not for seafood. A

storage temperature of O'F issuitable only for some fish and

-5 shellfish species held for brief pe-riods. For most species, storage atO'F results in appreciably lowerquality. And for long-term stor-age of all species, a lower tem-perature is needed. Any frozenstorage temperature above O'F isunacceptable for seafood,

It is strongly recommendedthat all seafood be held at -20'F

Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life

or lower and that cold storage facilities be de-signed using this as a guideline. Although -20'1' isconsidered a very good holding temperature formost seafood, even lower temperatures are better.Holding at temperatures below -20'F reduces qual-ity loss and promotes longer shelf life, but it is noteconomical except in special cases. For extra stor-age life or for very demanding products like fattyfish to be held for up to a year!, a holding tem-perature of -30 to -40 F is needed. For fish or shell-fish to be used as top grade sushi or sashimi, astorage temperature of -60 to -70'F is recom-mended.

Temperature Control: Limits of Fluctuation'I emperature fluctuation during frozen storage ofseafood is detrimental to quality. It results in tis-sue damage caused by ice recrystallization and itpromotes dehydration, If a frozen storage tem-perature fluctuates 5 or 10 F, the product storagelife is reduced to one-half of what it could be.

Under commercial conditions, a 5 or 10'F fluc-

tuation in frozen storage temperature is not un-usual. To avoid temperature fluctuations;

~ Do not leave a door open longer than necessary whenadding or removing products from the cold store.

~ Do not put products into the cold store before they arefrozen completely to below the cold store temperature.

To reduce moisture loss, minimize fluctuationsin seafood storage as much as possible. Keep tem-perature fluctuation to 5'F or less, With a record-ing thermometer, monitor the cold store and alltransit temperatures. A good record of time andtemperature during transit will let shippers knowwhere warming of the product occurs and allowthem to correct any problems.

Packaging RecommendationsGive considerable thought to the use of packagingto protect frozen seafood from dehydration, oxida-tion, and contamination. A good packaging mate-rial is strong, tight fitting, low in permeability towater vapor, low in permeability to oxygen, andinexpensive low labor and material costs!. Thefollowing types of packaging are discussed here:

~ glazing

~ hydrocarbon polymer films

~ films made from cellulose

~ chlorinated polyvinyl chloride films

~ hermetically sealed metal cans

Glazing consists of adding a layer of ice to aproduct by dipping, spra!nng, or brushing, It is in-expensive, provides a tight fit, and has low perrne-ability to both water vapor and oxygen. Conse-quently, it provides good protection against dehy-dration and oxidation. However, glazing is lost bysublimation, and periodic inspection and reglazingare necessary. The glaze is not very strong and willcrack off if the product is mishandled. Additives,such as sugar, corn starch, salt, sodium aly'.nate,and carboxymethylcellulose can be added to theglaze water to strengthen the glaze. Antioxidantssuch as ascorbic acid and sodium erythorbate aresometimes added. Glazing is now used primarilyfor whole fish. Fish or fish fillets packed as a shat-ter pack are glazed with an interweaving of waxedpaper or plastic sheeting between fish or fillets sothey can be taken apart without thawing.

Hydrocarbon polymer filins such as polyethyl-ene and polypropylene are strong and inexpen-sive, but they do not provide a good barrier towater vapor and oxygen. Therefore, they don' tprevent dehydration and oxidation. Polyethylenebags are often used to hold glazed seafood prod-ucts like individually quick frozen IQF! fillets orshrimp, Also, small whole fish, fish fillets, andshrimp can be frozen with added water in polyeth-ylene bags.

Films made from cellulose, such as cellophane,are not good packaging material for seafood be-cause of their very high permeability to water va-por and relatively high permeability to oxygen,

Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride films likepolyvinylidene chloride or Saran wrap! providevery good protection against dehydration and oxi-dation, because their permeability to water vaporand oxygen is very low. These are shrink films andcan be used in vacuum-packaging processes.

Packing seafood in a metal can that will beevacuated, hermetically sealed, and frozen is anexcellent way of protecting against dehydrationand oxidation. This process has been used com-mercially to pack picked crab and shrimp. It is notwidely used except for institutional packs, possiblybecause consumers, mistaking the product for onethat has been retorted, may believe it can bestored at room temperature.


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62, Nowlan, S,S, and W,J, Dyer. 1969. Glycolytic and nucleotide changes in the critical freezing zone,-0,8 to -5'C, in prerigor cod muscle frozen at various rates. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 26:2621-2632.

63. Paust, B. 1990. Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, Petersburg. Personal communication.

64. Peters, J.A., W.A. MacCallum, W.J. Dyer, D.R. Idier, J.W. Slavin, J.P. Lane, D.l. Fraser, and E.J.Laishley. 1968. Effect of stage of rigor and of freezing-thawing processes on storage quality ofrefrozen cod. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 25:299-320.

65. Peters, J.A. and D.T. McLane. 1959. Storage life of pink shrimp held in commercial and jacketedcold-storage rooms. Commercial Fisheries Review 21:1-7.

66. Peterson, P. 1992. Compliance Branch, USFDA, Seattle. Personal communication.

67. Poulsen, K.P. 1986. Energy use in food freezing industry, pp. 155-178. In: Energy in WorldAgriculture: Energy in Food Processing, Vol. I, R.P. Singh ed.!. Elsevier.

References

68. Poulsen, K.P. and S.L. Jensen. 1978. Quality-economy relations of frozen foods. Proc. InternationalInstitute of Refrigeration, Budapest.

69. Refrigeration Sales Corp. 1991. Long Beach, CA. 1/91 Data Sheet.

70. Russell, B.A. 1990. Store insulation. In: Cold and Chilled Storage Technology, C.V.J. Dellino ed.!.Blackie Br Son, Glasgow.

71, Sbrana, F. and M, Rossi. 1988. I.ow energy consumption, cold stores for frozen foods, optimum ofthe refrigeration cycle, lowering of therm. loss, computer, conti, Proc, International Institute ofRefrigeration, Wageningen, pp. 187-192.

72. Schoemaker, R. 1990. Refrigerants of tomorrow. Infofish international, 5/90, Sept.-Oct., pp. 25-29.

73. Sikorski, Z.E. and A. Kolakowska. 1990. Freezing of marine food, Ch. 7, pp. 111-124. In: Seafood:Resources, Nutritional Composition, and Preservation, Z.E. Sikorski ed.!. CRC Press.

74. Sikorski, Z., J. Olley, and S. Kostuch. 1976. Protein changes in frozen fish. Critical Reviews in FoodScience and Nutrition 8:97-129.

75. Slutskaya, T.N. 1973. Effect of freezing on the nutritive value of echinodermata. Issled. Tekhnol.Rybn. Prod. No. 4, 16-22.

76. Soares, M. 1991. Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Anchorage. Personalcommunication.

77. Stoecker, W.F. 1987. Current trends in industrial refrigeration. Proc. International Institute ofRefrigeration, London.

78. Sund, J. 1990. Silver Lining Seafood, Ketchikan. Personal communication.

80, Tokunaga, T, 1974, The effect of decomposition products of trimethylamine oxide on the quality offrozen Alaska pollack fillet, Bull, Japan, Soc, Sci, Fish, 40;167-174,

81, Tomlinson, N., S,E, Geiger, and S.W, Roach. 1969, Quality of sea frozen fish from the north-easternPacific Ocean, pp. 68-75. In: Freezing and Irradiation of Fish, R. Kreuzer ed.!. Fishing News Books!Limited, London.

82. Tomlinson, N., S.E. Geiger, D.E. Kramer, and S.W. Roach. 1973. The keeping quality of frozenhalibut in relation to prefreezing storage. Fish. Res. Board Canada Tech. Rep. No. 363, 21 pp.

83. Toole, C.W. 1990. Bulk stores and associated services. In: Cold and Chilled Storage Technology,C.V.J. Dellino ed.!. Blackie R Son, Glasgow.

84. Toyomizu, M. and T. Shono. 1972. Lipid hydrolysis, oxidation, and aging in frozen fish. Reito Refrigeration! 47:366-375.

85. Umemoto, S., K. Karma, and K. Iwata. 1971. Studies on the quality of frozen stored Alaska pollacksurimi. II. Changes in extractable protein of surimi during cold storage. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish.37:1100-1104.

86, VanderSpek, W, and G.S. Atkinson. 1990. Cold store doors. In: Cold and Chilled StorageTechnology. C,V.J. Dellino ed.!. Blackie 8 Son, Glasgow.

87. Williams, W, 1991, City of Sitka Planning Office, Personal cornrnunication,

88. Young, C. 1990. Seattle Refrigeration. Personal communication.

89. Yu, T.C., R.O. Sinnhuber, and D.L. Crawford. 1973. Effect of packaging on shelf life of frozen silversalmon steaks. J. Food Sci. 38:1197-1199.


79. Timbers, G.E., D.l. LeBlanc, D.M. Sidaway-Wolf, C. Vigneault. 1985. Some experience in the use ofwinter cold for food refdgeration applications. Proc. International Institute of Refrigeration, Orlando.

Cold Storage Equipmentand Facility Suppliers

Codes for Specialty ServicesS Small walk-ins to approx. 3,000 cubic feet!I Single-story intermediate-size buildings to approx. 30,000 cubic feet!L Large buildingsR Refrigeration equipment suppliedC Refrigeration subcontracted

ACCUTEMP, Div. of Frost-Air Inc. S!4214 Bertsos Dr.

Las Vegas, NV 89103-3737�02! 876-7699 800! 232-2653Fax �02! 364-2110

ADVANCE COOLER MFG., Div. of Advance Energy Tech. Inc. S,I,L,R!P,O, Box 387

Clifton Park, NY 12065�18! 371-2140Fax �'I 8! 371-0737

ALCHEM, INC. I,L!361 7 Strawberry Rd.Anchorage, AK 99502

907! 243-21 77

BALLY ENGINEERED STRUCTURES, INC. S,I,L,R!P.O. Box 98

Bally, PA 19503�15! 845-2311 800! 242-2559

or

1675 Crane WaySparks, NV 89431

�02! 358-2321

Appendix 49

NOTE: This list of services was selected by the authors from literature supplied by each ofthe vendors. The reader should contact individual companies for a more specific and currentrange of products and services,

W.A. BROWN S,I,L!2001 S. Main St.

Salisbury, NC 28144�04! 636-51 31 800! 438-2316 Outside of NC!

CHALLENGER, Div. of johnson Building Systems lnc. S,R!519 MacDade Blvd.

Collingdale, PA 19023�15! 532-8600Fax �15! 532-2098

COOL-TEC S,I,L!117 23rd SE

Puyallup, WA�06! 840-1 631

ELIASON CORP, S!P,O, Box 2128

Kalamazoo, Ml 49003�1 6! 327-7003 800! 828-3655Fax �16! 327-7006

ELLIOTT-WILLIAMS CO. S,I,L,R,C!2900 N. Richard Ave

Indianapolis, IN 46219�1 7! 545-2295Fax �17! 545-1977

GLOECKLER REFRIGERATOR CO. S,R!P.O. Box 1154

Erie, PA 16512

814! 838-1 928 800! 426-9566Fax 814! 833-8642

HUSSMANN CORP. S,I,L,R!7272 1st Ave, South

Seattle, WA 98108

�06! 763-9050 800! 562-8363

IMPERIAL MFG. S,I,L,C!10001 N. Polk Ave.

Portland, OR 97203�03! 286-5816 800! 238-4093

Planning Seafood Co/d 5torage

INTERNATIONAL COLD STORAGE CO. INC. S,R!2307 S. Oliver

Wichita, KS 67218�16! 682-4581 800! 835-0001Fax �16! 682-4585

ISOLOC MFG. S,I,L!P.O. Box 61522

Vancouver, WA 98666-1522

�06! 695-3230

JOHNSON BUILDING SYSTEMS INC. I!4659 Street Rd.

P,O, Box 115

Trevose, PA 19047

�15! 673-6050

JORDON SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTS S,R!Div. of Fogel Commercial Refrigeration Co.5400 Eadom St.

Philadelphia, PA 19137�1 5! 535-8300 800! 523-01 71Fax �15! 289-1597

KALT MFG. CO. INC. S,I,R!7320 N.E. 55th Ave.

Portland, OR 97218P.O. Box 13420

Portland, OR 97213-0420�03! 288-7311 800! 547-8043Fax �03! 249-8452

KYSOR/NEEDHAM S,I!4201 Janada St,P,O, Box 14248

Fort Worth, TX 76117

81 7! 281-5121 800! 633-3426

DAVID A. LINGLE AND SON MFG. S,I,R!P.O. Box 519

Russellville, AR 72801�01! 968-2500

4ppendix

RAM FREEZERS AND COOLERS MFG. INC. S,I,L,C!P.O. Box 1664

Miami Springs, FL 33266-1664�05! 635-2989�05! 887-1000Fax �05! 882-1000

TMP ACQUISITION CO. INC. S,I,R!P.O. Box 269

Graham St.

Hyde, PA 16843 814! 765-9615 800! 233-1 954Fax 814! 765-5410

ZER-0-LOC INC. I,L!¹119-9757 Juanita Drive NEKirkland, WA 98033

�06! 823-4588Fax �06! 820-9749

SYSTEMS FOR LEASE

GREATLAND GROUP

P.O. Box 93582

Las Vegas, NV 89199-9998This company leases converted railroad cars with built-in refrigerationequipment, including a diesel-driven electrical generator system forpower, if needed. Advertised temperatures go to -20 F.

PORTABLE COLD STORAGE, INC.7 Centre Drive, Suite 6

jamesburg, Nj 08831�09! 395-9279 800! 535-2445Fax �09! 395-9283

West Coast rep: Bob King, Marketing�1 5! 248-9572

This company leases 20- and 40-foot refrigerated vans that operate on208, 220, or 440 V 3-phase power. Advertised operating temperatures to-20 F.

STORE COLD DIV.

1601 Oceanic St.

Charleston, SC 29405 803! 723-6188Fax 803! 723-4941

This company leases 20- and 40-foot vans that are set on the ground.Refrigeration units operate on 230 or 480 3-phase power. Advertisedtemperatures to -10'F.

Planning 5eafood Cold Storage

Index

Antioxidants 36, 44

B

Glazing 36, 37, 44

Index 53

Bacteria

action 34, 38

growth 34, 38spoilage 35, 36

Bethel Cold Storage Building 19, 28 � 29Blowing agent 7 � 8, 20Buildingsassembling 2

Buildings, Chapter 1 2-16

Carn lock 2, 3Chlorofluorocarbon, as blowing agent 7Codes, building 11, 14 � 15Condensers 14, 20 � 21Costs 14, 15-16, 23-33

Critical zone, temperature 36, 37, 38

Defrost 17, 18Dehydration 37, 39, 42, 44Density, product 4, 5, 6Dessication 18, 37

Doors 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18

Enzyme activity 36, 38FPS polystyrene! 6-9, 19Evaporators 20 � 21

Fiberglass 6, 9Fire protection 11flame spread index 8sprinkler system 11thermal barrier 11

Flame spread index FSI! 8

Foundations 12 � 14, 30

Freezer burn 5, 18, 37Freezing rate 34Frost heave damage 12Frozen storage conditions, recommended 42 � 44

Haddock, TTT 43Halibut

Kenai Cold Store 30

Sitka Cold Room 26

Heat loads 17 � 18

HerringTTT 43

Wrangell Walk-in Cold Store 24High quality life HQL! 39, 43Holding temperature 37

recommended 43 � 44

Ice crystals, in frozen seafood 34, 35, 36Ice recrystallization 39, 44Insulated panels Z, 3Insulation 6-9, 17

fiberglass 6, 9in floors 6, 13

polystyrene EPS! 6 � 9, 19thickness 19

urethane polyurethane! 6 � 9, 19, 20Intrinsic quality, of seafood 37

Kenai Cold Store 14, 16, 19, 30-31Kodiak Cold Store 19, 3Z � 33

Kolbe, Edward ivKramer, Donald iv

Urethane 6-9, 20

Vapor barrier 6, 13Vent systems 12

W

Lighting 10-12Lipid hydrolysis 36 � 37Lipid oxidation 35-36, 37

Modular cold store unit 3

Oxidation reactions 35 � 36

Ozone destruction, by refrigerants 20

Packaging 42recommended 44

Panels, insulated 2, 3Permits 14 � 15

Polystyrene EPS! 6 � 9, 19Practical storage life PSL! 39, 43Pressure relief ports 9 � 10, 11Product density stowage rate! 4, 5, 6Protein aggregation 35Protein denaturation 34-35

Quality loss in seafood, causes 37 � 42holding temperature 37packaging 4Zraw material quality 37 � 38reprocessing 42temperature fluctuations 39, 42

Quality loss in seafood, processes 34 � 37dessication 37

enzyme activity 36lipid hydrolysis 36 � 37oxidation reactions 35 � 36

protein denaturation 34 � 35

R-value 8, 9Racks 5, 6, 10

Ramps 14, 15References 45

Refrigerants 20ammonia 20

blowing agent 7R-22 20

R-502 20

Refrigeration, Chapter 2 17 � 21compressors 19 � 20condensers 20 � 21

evaporators 20-Zlmachinery 19-20

Reprocessing 42Rusting, in seafood 36

Salmon 26

Bethel Cold Storage Building 28Kenai Cold Store 30

Sitka Cold Room 26

Seafood Temperature and Shelf Life, Chapter 434-44

Shelf life 34 � 44

Shelves 6, 10Sitka Cold Room 19, 26 � 27Spoilage rates, relative 38Sprinkler system 14

cost 14

Stowage rate product density! 4, 5, 6Sublimation 39, 44Suppliers of equipment and facilities 49 � SZ

Temperature control 44Temperature fluctuation 39, 42preventing 37, 44

Temperature, maximum for storing seafood 40�41

Thermal barriers 11

Thermal conductivity 7, 8, 9, 19Time-temperature-tolerance TTT! 4Z-43Trucks, forklift and reach 5, 8, 14

Wrangell Walk-in Cold Store 19, 24 � 25


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