Faber and Kell's Heating and Air-conditioning of Buildings

Ninth edition revised by

D. R. Oughton MSc FREng CEng FCIBSE MInstE MInstR

S. Hodkinson BTech CEng MCIBSE MInstE

.f" L L E ~ \ E I N E M A N N

OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEWYORK PARIS . - SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO

Contents

Preface to the ninth edition xi Preface to first edition xiii Acknowledgements xv

1 Fundamentals 1 Units and quantities 2 Criteria which affect human comfort - definitions 4 Thermal indices 10 Methods of measurement 12 Application 15

2 The building in winter 19 Conservation of energy 20 Heat losses 21 Legislation 30 Atypical construction features 33 Condensation 42 Air infiltration 45 Temperature difference 5 1 Miscellaneous allowances 56 Continuous versus intermittent operation Steady state and dynamic response 64

3 The building in summer 66 Conservation of energy 67 Solar heat gains 69 Air infiltration and ventilation 89 Miscellaneous heat gains 89 Temperature difference 93 Intermittent operation 94

4 Survey of heating methods 96 Condensation - a warning 97 Electrical off-peak storage systems 97 Direct systems - solid fuel 98 Direct systems - liquid fuel (primarily convective) 99 Direct systems - gaseous fuels (primarily radiant) 100

vi Contents

Direct systems - gaseous fuels (primarily convective) 103 Direct systems - electrical (primarily radiant) 107 Direct systems - electrical (primarily convective) 11 1 Control of direct systems 112 Indirect systems - liquid media 113 Indirect systems - vapour media 114 Indirect systems - gaseous media 115 Factors affecting choice 116

5 Electrical storage heating 120 Methods of storage 120 Capacity of the heat store 121 Capacity of room stores 123 Capacity of central stores 127 Equipment for room stores 128 Equipment for central stores 134 Electrical supply to storage equipment and installations 142

6 Indirect heating systems 144 Water systems - characteristics 144 Water systems - piping arrangements 151 Steam systems - characteristics 158 Steam systems - piping arrangements 163 Air systems - characteristics 165 Pipework heat emission 168 External distribution systems 171

7 Heat emitting equipment 176 Principal criteria 176 Radiant heating 178 Combined radiant and convective heating 187 Convective heating 194

8 Pumps and other auxiliary equipment 203 Pumps 203 System pressurisation 212 Non-storage calorifiers 216 Condensate handling equipment 220 Steam pressure reduction 223 Heat meters 224 Hours-run meters 227 Air venting, etc. 228 Air venting 228 Corrosion 229

9 Piping design for indirect heating systems 232 Water systems - principles 232 Water systems - applications 236 Water systems - footnotes 247 Water systems - gravity circulation 248

Contents vii

Steam systems - principles 251 Provision for thermal expansion 255

10 Boilers and firing equipment 260 Basic considerations 260 Criteria for boiler selection 262 Boiler houses - size and location 267 Types of boiler 268 Boiler fittings and mountings 276 Boiler firing - solid fuel 278 Boiler firing - oil fuel 282 Boiler firing - gaseous fuel 287 Miscellaneous burner equipment 292 Instrumentation 294

11 Fuels, storage and handling 296 Solid fuel 296 Liquid fuel 300 Natural gas 308 Liquefied petroleum gas 3 1 1 Electricity 3 13 Miscellaneous fuels 3 15

12 Combustion and chimneys 317 Combustion processes 3 17 Sample calculations 320 Chimneys 323 Chimney construction 33 1 Special methods for flue gas disposal (Natural gas) 334 Air supply to boiler houses 337

13 Ventilation 340 Air supply for human emissions 341 Air supply for other reasons 343 Air change rates 345 Legislation and other rules 346

p 755 Criteria for air supply to occupied rooms 346 Methods of ventilation 349 Kitchens 36b Special applications 366 Recirculation units 370

14 Air-conditioning 373 General principles 374 Traditional systems 377 High velocity systems 382 All-air systems 383 Air-water systems 390

viii Contents

Other systems 396 Alternative methods of cooling 404 Summary of systems and application 408

15 Air distribution 409 General principles 409 Distribution for air-conditioning 416 Special air distribution applications 43 1

16 Ductwork design 436 Ductwork 437 Ductwork components and auxiliaries 442 Pressure distribution in ducts 447 Thermal insulation of ducts 457 Sound control 458 Noise dispersal 464 Commissioning and measurement 470

17 Fans and air treatment equipment 474 Fan types and performance 474 Position of outside air intake 484 Air filtration 484 Air humidification 493 Air heating and cooling coils 498 Packaged air handling plant 502 Air-to-air heat exchangers 503

18 Calculations for air-conditioning design 514 l Heat gains 514 l p I Psychrometry 5 15 l Application 5 19 - % '

Design calculations for other systems 527 5&+ ! J System diagrams and automatic controls 529

l 19 Refrigeration: water chillers and heat pumps 530

I Mechanical refrigeration 530

I Refrigerating media 533 l Types of refrigeration plant 536

' 1 1 Choice of refrigeration plant 542 11 Refrigeration plant components 546 I ' Heat recovery 554

Ill Heat pumps 557

I 20 Hot water supply systems 563 l Pipework losses 563

Local systems 564 1 ~ Central systems 572 Cylinders, indirect cylinders and calorifiers 578 I Requirements for storage capacity and boiler power 584

'l it l

:I

Contents ix

Feed cisterns 591 Unvented hot water systems 592 Water treatment 593 Materials, etc. 595 Solar collectors 596

21 Piping design for central hot water supply systems 598 Primary circulations 598 Secondary outflow and return pipework 600 System arrangements 614

22 Automatic controls and building management systems 620 Building regulations 621 Sensing devices 624 Control devices 627 Controller modes of operation 635 Systems controls 639 Heating system controls 641 Air-conditioning system controls 643 Building management systems 653

23 Running costs 659 Primary energy 661 Heating systems - Part L regulations 662 Period of use 666 Mechanically ventilated buildings 672 Air-conditioned buildings 674 Hot water supply 676

\ Energy targets 677 Maintenance 679 Investment appraisals 68 1

24 Combined heat and power (CHP) 688 Basic considerations 688 CHP systems - criteria for selection 696 Emergent technologies 699 Conclusion 70 1

Appendix I Temperature levels 702

Appendix I1 S1 unit symbols 703

Appendix III Conversion factors 704

Index 707

Index Note: Numbers in italics represent Tables and Figures.

Absolute air filters 487, 491, 491 Absolute humidity 9 Absorbing glasses 79 Absorption

cooling 698 dehumidifiers 501 refrigeration 540-1, 540 sound 465, 468

Accelerahon, bollers 260-1 Access (ductwork) 445 Accumulators 120 A a d dew point 318-19 Acid smut formabon 332-3 Acidity (flue gases) 265 Acoustic energy 465 Activated carbon filters 349 Active attenuation 469, 469 Actlvity comfort criteria 7 Adams, F S 377 Adiabatic effect 549 Admittance 65 ADP1 see I r distnbuhon

performance index Adsorption 487,493, 501 AFC see Alkahne fuel cells Alr

cleamng 485 cleanliness classes 432-3 combustion 321 composihon 317 contamnants 4845,485 cooled condensers 548-9 coollng coils 499-500 dehumidifiers 501-2 diffusion terminology 416 distribution 347, 409-35, 470,

682-3 elimnation 161-2, 164 excess in combustion 318 filtration 48493 flow 450-2,470-3 handling plants 502-3, 682 heating coils 498-9, 498

heating systems 165-8 humidification 493-8 infiltration 45-51, 58, 89 inlet sizes 427 mixture 522 movement 7, 347 pressure gauges 473 pressure/speed 436,437 purity 7-9,8, 348-9 speed/pressure 436,437 treatment 503-13,505-13 velocity 15, 454 venting 228-9,229, 617 volume 6-7 washers 487, 4957,496-7

Air change rates heat losses 21, 46-7 ventilation 345-6

Air distribution performance index (ADPI) 427-8

Air supply air-conditioning 386 boiler houses 336-9, 338 fuel combustion 338 human emissions 341-3 occupied rooms 346-9

Air-conditioning systems 373-408

air distribution 416-3 1 automatic controls 643-53 design 5 14-29 running costs 6 7 4 6 temperature control 92-3

Air-to-air conduction loss 27-9 heat exchangers 503-13 pumps 116

Air-water systems 390-6 Airborne noise 465 Airtightness standards 33 Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)

700 All-air systems 382-90

Altitude gauges 276-7 sun path diagrams 69-72

Aluminium boilers 269, 271 ductwork 441 radiators 191-2, I92

Ammonia 534,535 Amplitude sound 460,460 Anaerobic bacteria 23 1 Anchors (pipework) 258-9 Anderson, B. R. 34 Anemometers 15,471-3, 472-3 Angelery hot water

generators 582-3, 583 Angle of incidence (solar) 72-3 Annual fuel consumption

669-70 Anti-flash margins 215 Anti-freeze 510, 510 Apartnients see multi-storey

buildings Apportioning meters 227, 227 Arrestance tests 486 Articulated bellows 257, 257 Ash 296, 299-301,390 Assembly halls 4 3 3 4 Assmann humidity meters 15 Asynchronous combined heat/

power systems 692-3 Atmospheric dust 485 Atmospheric gas burners 268-9,

270,288-9,288 Atmospheric solids 485 Atomisation 282-3,498 Attenuation (noise) 467-8 Auditoria 346,433-4 Automatic controls 620-58

air-conditioning 643-53 heating systems 641-3 sensors 621, 6 2 4 7 valves 629-33

Automatic stoker boilers 279-81

708 Index

Auxiliary equipment (costs) 670-2, 671

Axial bellows 256, 257 Axial flow fans 477-6, 480-3 Azimuth, sun path diagrams

69-72, 70

Bacharach scale 295 Backward curved fans 476 Bacteriological growth 231 Bacteriostatic 508 Bag filters 491, 491 Balanced flues 266-7, 335,

337 Balancing dampers 445, 445 Banded weather data 674 Barometric pressure 51 5-17 Baseboard convectors 196, 197 Basements (pipework) 173 Batteries 217-18, 377, 631 Baumgartner, Th. 407 Beckett, H. E. 83 Bellows 256-7, 256-7,624-5 Belt driven pumps 206,207 BEMS see Building energy

management systems Bi-metal thermostats 624-5 Billington, N. S. 53, 61, 187 Bivalent energy systems I47 Bivalent heat pumps 559 Black box translators 655

.. Blinds 82 Block storage radiators I29 Body odour 342 Boiler houses

air supply 336-9, 338 location 267-8 size 267-8 ventilation 359-60

Boilers 260-95 condensing 265-6, 265-6 controllers 642-3 economic life 682 efficiency 261-2 firing 278-92 fittings 276-8 heating controls 642-3 instrumentation 294-5 margins 262-3 mountings 276-8 packaged modules 263-4 power 260-1, 584-91, 5 8 5 4 selection criteria 262-7 standards 663 storage 265 types 268-76

Booster gas boilers 291, 292 Booster heaters 13 1-2 Bowerbarifing 574 Brabbee, K. 252

Branch connections 442,443 BRE see Building Research

Council 'break in' (noise) 468, 469 British Isles

degree-days 665-6, 666 electricity 313-14 external temperatures 54 notional temperatures 74-6,

75 Brush air filters 489,490 Bubble-top calorifiers 582 Builders' construction work

(ducts) 440-1 Building Energy Codes 677 Building energy management

systems (BEMS) 653-8, 656-8

Building Regulations 30, 664 Building Regulations 1 991 Part

L (amended 1995) 30-1, 621 Building Regulations 2000 Part L

(March 2001 interim draft) 31 air-conditioning 373-4 conservation of energy 661 heating systems 662-6 summer time 67-8 ventilation 341

Building regulations heaters 662-6 liquefied petroleum gas 3 11 oil boilers 286

Building Research Council (BRE) energy assessment 661 energy model 59,664 ventilation 341

Buildings control systems 621-4 fabric heat gain 519 insulation 29-30, 29 orientations 85 overnight cooling 94-5 shapes 83-5 summer time 66-95 winter time 19-65

Bull, L. C. 602 Bunker underfeed stokers 281-2 Bunkers (solid fuels) 298 Buried pipe coils 185-6, 185 Burner controls 2867,290 Butterfly valves 630, 633 Bypass dampers 635, 635

Caking qualities 296 Calorific values 261-2, 3 19-20 Calorifiers

condensate coolers 218 hot water supply 580-4 mountings 219 non-storage 216-19

power ratings 584 ratings 219

Canopies 361-4 Capacity

secondary pipework 61 6-17 storage 121-8,296, 584-91

Capillary washers 496-7, 497 Capital allowances 660-1 Capture velocity 361 Car parks 346 Carbon

combustion 319 emission factors 661, 663 intensity 662-4 particles 332

Carbon dioxide combustion 317, 319, 321, 323 emissions 660, 661, 679 refrigerating media 534 ventilation 341-2, 342 ,

Carbon Index 664 Carbon monoxide 317 Cast aluminium boilers 269, 271 Cast iron

radiators 187-8, 188 sectional boilers 268-9, 269

Cavity insulation 36-9, 37-9 Ceilings

air distribution 414, 417-20 air-conditioning 403-4 electrical heating 108-10 fan coils 391 heating 108-10, 110 kitchens 3666,364-5 shells 364-6, 364-5

Celsius to Fahrenheit 702 Central air-conditioning control

systems 644-5, 644 Central heating 116-17 Central hot water supply

systems 572-8, 598-619 Central intelligence I 656 Central plant 377-9, 555-6 Central storage heaters 121

capacity 127-8 control 142 equipment 134-42

Centrifugal compressors 539, 540 fans 475-6, 478-80 pumps 203-10,204-10

CFC see Chlorofluorocarbons CFD see Computational fluid

dynamics Change over systems 393-4 Change of section

(ductwork) 442 Charge controllers 133-4, 142 Chilled beams 403-4, 404 Chilled ceilings 403-4, 404 Chilled water systems 651-2

Index 709

Chiller systems 652-3, 652 Chimney effect 194 Chimneys 323-39

areas 331 Clean Air Act 328 construction 33 1-4 design principles 323-39 economic life 682 height 328, 329 infiltration 47 liquid fuels 324-7 losses 320-1, 320-1 solid fuels 324-7

Chlorinated rubber paint 442 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) 534 CHP see Combined heat and power Churches 370-2 Cigarette smoke 342-3 Circular galvanised steel

ducts 439, 439 Circulating pressure (CP)

249-50,249 Circulating pumps 148, 618-19,

619 Circulators (storage

heaters) 569-70, 569 Cisterns 591-2, 591 Clark, I. T. 422 Classification (ductwork) 438 Clean Air Act 328 Cleaning filters 489-93 Cleanrooms 43 1-3, 432 Climate change 659 The Climate Change Levy

660-1, 688 Clinker handling 299,300 Closed centrifugal fans 478 Closed circuit water coolers 551 Closed stoves 98-9, 99 Closed-loop control systems 621,

64 1 Clothing comfort criteria 7 Coal 297-9, 300 Coanda effect 414, 416 Codes of practice

environment 374 smoke control 3 6 6 7

Coefficient of performance (COP) 532, 557-61, 558-9

Coking boilers 279, 279-80, 281 Cold deck 380 Cold draw pipework 257-8 Cold feed supply

expansion pipes 248 pipework design 605 storage heaters 566-72 water heaters 591-2, 591

Colthorpe, K. J. 61 Combination boilers 265 Combination water heaters

576-8

Combined exhaust heat exchangerlsilencer 694, 695

Combined heat and power (CHP) systems

concept 688-96,689-96 domestic heating 116 fuel cells 699-701 running costs 663-4 selection criteria 696-8

Combined radiantlconvective heating 187-94

Combustion air 283 process 3 17-20 products 324 reactions 318, 322-3

Comfort criteria 4-1 1, 16 Commissioning procedures

ductwork 470-3 summer time 68-9 water pipes 245

Communication 657 Compensator controls 641 Compressors 531

drives 560-1, 561 Computational fluid dynamics

(CFD) 46 Computers

ductwork design 456 heat gains 91-2, 92 simulation 674-5, 675 workstations 398-9

Condensates centrifugal pumps 208 cooler units 218, 218 handling equipment 220-3 pipe sizes 254-5, 255 receiver sets 223, 223 removal 222, 222 return pumps 223, 223 steam heating 159, 160, 164-5

Condensation heating systems 97, 98 ventilation 344 winter time 42-5

Condensers boilers 265-6, 2 6 5 6 evaporative coolers 550 refrigeration 53 1, 547-9 water treatment 554 water units 652, 653

Conditional maintenance 680 Conditioned air 89 Conductance 23 Conduction

air to air losses 27-9 definition 5 losses 21-3, 27-9 solar heat gain 85-6, 88 temperature difference 85-6,88

Conductivity 5-6, 23

Cone-type ceiling diffusers 418, 418

Conservation of energy 20,67-8, 68 1

Conservation of Fuel and Power 661

Constant fan speed 481 Constant flow regulators 246 Construction

atypical features 33-42 chimneys 3 3 1 4 pumps 211

Consumption correction factors 123, 123

Containment rooms 432 Contaminants

air 484-5, 485 indoor 8 ventilation 342-5

Continuous natural convectors 1954, I96

Continuous versus intermittent operation 60-5

Contract maintenance 680 Controls 621, 639-53

air-conditioning 643-53 boilers 276-7 closed loops 621 combined heatlpower

systems 692-3 components 627-35 dampers 633-5, 634-5 direct heating 1 12-1 3 economic life 683 gas boilers 290 heating 641-3, 641 hot water supply 589-93 objectives 620-1 oil boilers 286-7 operation modes 635-9 regulations 6214, 622-3 room storage heaters 133-4 sensors 621, 624-7, 6 2 5 4 storage heaters 142 unventilated hot water

systems 592-3 valves 629-33,629-32

Convect~on 6, 201 heat transfer 176, 178 panels 403,404

Convective heaters 194-202 direct systems 103-7, 111-13 radiant combined 187-94 temperature relationships 53

Conversion factors, units 704-5 Cooling

buildings overnight 94-5 capacity 522-3 coils 379, 524, 644-5, 646 cross flow evaporation 551,

551

710 Index

degree-hour 676 heat pumps 558 loads 71, 71, 79,80-1, 82 methods 405-8, 406-7 plant 377 towers 5504,652, 653

COP see Coefficient of performance

Copper ductwork 441 water content 147

Copper pipes embedded floor panels 184 heat emission 610 liquefied petroleum gas

flow 313 outflow design 606-7,608 primary design 599 sizes 235, 612 thermal expansion 255-9

Cornish single-fl ue boilers 272 Corrected effective

temperature 10 Correction factors

blinds 82 consumption 123, 123 design heat loss 123, 123 ductwork 452 floor heating 126 shading 81

Corrective maintenance 679 Corrosion 229-31,442 Counterflow 271 CP see Circulating pressure Critical point 531 Cross flow evaporative

coolers 551,551 Cross-linked polyethylene

tubes 184-5 Cross-talk attenuation 469-70,

470 Cup burners 2845,285 Currents (electrical) 142-3 Curtain walling 50, 76 Cylinders

hot water 578-84 oil storage 302-3, 304

Daily service tanks 308, 309 Daily use (heating systems)

666-7,667 Dampers

air-conditioning 379, 380 authority 634 characteristics 633, 634 coils 392, 392 control devices 633-5 draught control 333,333 ductwork 445-6,4456 fans 392, 392, 481,482

Data inputs, building energy management systems 655

DDC see Direct digital control Dead water space 141 Dead-band thermostats 626 Dead-legs 600, 601 Decibels 460-1, 461, 465 Decrement factor 65 Deep plan constructions 83-5 Degree-days 665-6, 666, 684 Degree-hours 676. Dehumidification

combined heatlpower systems 698

desiccants 501-2, 698 summer time 519-24,520,

523-4 Delivery

coal 297-8 liquid fuels 301-2 liquefied petroleum gas 31 1 natural gas 309

Demand controlled ventilation 369-70

Demand units 602-3, 603 Dense phase methods 299 Deposition 23 1 Desiccants 501-2, 698 Design

calculations 514-29 ductwork 442 temperatures 177

Desk-tops 396-8, 396,424, 425 Dew points 45, 318-19, 518 Diamond break 439,439 Diaphragm air pressure

gauges 473 Dick, J. B. 64 Diesel engines 693 Diffuse solar radiation 72-3 Diffusers 385-7, 3 8 5 4 Digital instruments 473, 473 Dip pipes 150 Direct acting controls 622 Direct air humidifiers 493 Direct digital control (DDC) 623 Direct expansion 533, 547 Direct heating systems

categories 96, 97 choice factors 116-19 condensation 98 control 112-13 electrical 107-13, 142 elements 142 energy consumption 672 gaseous fuels 10&7 liquid fuels 99-100, 99 preheat 64 solid fuel 98-9

Direct hot water supply systems 5734, 574-5, 576

Discharge rates 602 Discount rates 685-6 Displacement ventilation 398 Distributed intelligence 656 Diversity of motor ratings/

loadings 92, 92 Dixon, J. C. 12 Door entrances 49 Dosing (water treatments) 594 Double duct systems 528 Double glazing 36 Double seat valves 630 Double windows 36,430 Double-deflection 421, 422 Down-feed pipework 616 Down-flow air distribution

412-14 Down-flow air-conditioning 399 Dr Arnott ventilator 349 Drain cocks 276-7 Draughts

boilers 283 chimneys 326, 327, 330 control 333, 333 diverters 289 dividers 335

Draw-off points 6024, 602-4 Drives, fans 478-80,479 Dry

air properties 166, 518 back boilers 272 bulb isotherms 94,94 bulb temperatures 377,377,518 coil free cooling 545-6 core boilers 121, 127-8, 136,

137 resultant temperature 11-12

Dual vertical spindle centrifugal pumps 210,210

Dual-duct systems 388-90, 649, 650

Dual-fuel burners 290, 291 Ductwork

auxiliaries 442-6, 442-6 classification 438 commissioning 470-3 components 442-6, 4 4 2 4 design 436-73 fittings 442, 442-3, 451-2 kitchens 366 measurements 470-3 noise dispersal 464-70 pressure 447-57 sizing chart 451 sound control 458-64 thermal insulation 457-8

Dust capacity 487 particles 484 spot tests 486 staining 429

Index 711

Dwelling ventilation 346 Dynamic action 681 Dynamic response 64-5

Ears (sound control) 458 Economic boilers 272 Economic life (equipment) 682-3 Economy 7 boilers 137-8 Effective temperatures 10, 11 Efficiency

boilers 261-2 condensing boilers 265-6 fans 475 filters 488, 488 heat reclaim 504-6, 505-6 ventilation 372

Efflux velocity 324 Egg-crate extract grilles 429 Electric control systems 622-3,

628, 628 Electric heat meters 225, 226 Electric heat pumps 560, 561 Electric motors 92, 628, 683 Electric storage heaters 12043

off-peak 97-8 water 570-2, 570-2

Electricity auxiliary equipment 670-2 consumption 670-2, 671 generation 3 13-14 hot water storage 587-8 space heating 314-15 tariff structures 3 14

Electrochemical water treatments 595

Electrode boilers 138, 274-6 Electromagnetic

conditioning 595 Electronic control systems 622-3 Electrostatic air filters 487, 492,

492 Embedded ceiling panels 183-4,

183-4 Embedded floor panels 184-8,

185-7 Embedded panes 245 Emulsification 283 En mass solid fuel conveyors 299 Energy

air-conditioning 674 audits 678 balance 92 building management 653-8 conservation 20, 67-8, 681 content 678 . . cost premium 685 estimating usage 664 flow 240-1,599 fuels 678 input rates 690

loadings 241-2 pipes 241-2 prices 660 production efficiency 689 targets 677-9, 679 viability charts 684-7

Energy Code 661 Energy consumption 669-70

hot water supply 676-7 structural shading 83

Energy Ratings 661 Energy savings

canopies 361-4 ceilings 365-6, 365 radiators 193 viability charts 684-7

Enhanced capital allowances 660-1

Enthalpy efficiency 505 psychrometry 518 sensors 627 steam properties 160

Envelope insulation 3 1-3 Environmental audits 678-9 Environmental code of

practice 374 Environmental temperature 12,

52 Equivalent diameters

rectangular chimneys 326 rectangular ductwork 452

Equivalent hours 667-9, 668-9 Equivalent stored

volume 588 Equivalent temperature 10 Escape routes 366-7 Eupatheoscope 10 Evaporation 545 Evaporative coolers

heat exchangers 512-13 methods 405 refrigeration 531, 545, 547,

549-53 Evaporative proportioning

meters 227, 227 Excess air in combustion 318 Excitation current 693 Exhalation 341 Exhaust fumes 368-9,369 Exhaust heat exchanger/

silencer 694, 695 Expansion

boiler pipes 2 7 6 7 cold water pipes 248 joints 256, 257-9,258-9 loops 256,257-9, 258-9 offsets 256, 257-9, 258-9 pressurisation 212-13, 213 refrigeration 53 1 thermal cylinders 141-2

External pipework constraints 232 distribution systems 171-5

External storage 304 External temperatures

temperature difference 93 variation 54 winter time 52-3

External wall U values 25 Extract ducts 358, 358 Extract grilles 429-3 1

Fabric air filters 487, 489-90 Fabric tube supply ventilation

systems 369 Face dampers 635, 635 Facing gauge 447 Factory ventilation 346 Fahrenheit to Celsius 702 Fan-coil units

air-conditioning 38 1, 390-3 air-water systems 390-3 control 646-7, 647-8 design calculations 528

Fanger's comfort criteria 10-1 1 Fans

air-conditioning 377, 387-8 centrifugal 475-6, 478-80 characteristics 474-8 convectors 197-9, 198-9 dampers 481,482 diluted draught 3365,334 draught 550 ductwork 443-4 duty 456-7 efficiency 475 heat gains 673 laws 475 mixed flow 476,478, 478 noise 463-4 performance 47484,475-84 pressure 448-50,456-7 propeller 476 speed 481 tests 475 types 474-84, 47544 variable volume 387, 388,

481-3 Feed cisterns 591-2, 591 Feed pipes (boilers) 276-7 Feolite 128 Fibrous plaster radiant ceiling

heating 182, 183 Fill pipes 301-2 Fill terminals 301 Film cooling towers 551 Films, vapour resistance 43 Filters

air 484-93, 485, 488-93 air-conditioning 377

712 Index

cleaning 489-93,489-93 dust capacity 487 efficiency 488, 488 liquid fuels 306 occupied rooms 349 tests 486-7

Filtration, air 484-93 Fire

dampers 445-6,446 tests 457 tube boilers 272-3, 273 valves 306

Firing equipment 260-95 Firing rates 286 Fixed carbon 296 Flame failure devices 287 Flash points (closed) 300-1 Flash steam 159, 162, 163 Flat oval ducting 440, 440 Flats see Multi-storey

buildings Flexible ductwork 446 Floating controllers 637, 638 Floor heaters

capacity 124-7 correction factors 126 electrical 110-1 1 radiant panels 184-8 storage equipment 132-4

Floors air distribution 4 2 3 4 air-conditioning 397-8 cavity insulation 39 heat emission 125 radiant heaters 184-8 storage heaters 121 U values 34-5, 35

Flow probability 603 rates 606-7, 606-7 sensors 627

Flues air heaters 330 boilers 265-6, 267, 330 condensing boilers 265-6 construction 3314,332-3 gases 294, 318-19, 334-6 infra-red heaters 101 natural convectors 103 warm air systems 105-6

Fluidised bed boilers 2 9 3 4 Force units 2 Forced convectors 197-9

electrical 112, I13 gaseous fuels 104

Forced draughts boilers 283 cooling towers 551, 552 fans 330 gas burners 288-90, 289

Forward curved fans 476

Four-pipe air-conditioning system 392, 395

Free cooling air-conditioning 37&7 induction air-conditioning 395 refrigeration plant 544-6

Freons 534 Frequency of sound 459,459 Fuel

cells 699-701 choice factors 118-19 combustion analysis 3 18 consumption 60, 669-70,684 continuous/intermittent

operation 60-5 emissions 660, 661, 679 handling 296-316 shut-off 291-2 storage 296-316

Full-load operation 665, 667-9, 668-9

Fume cupboards 367-8,368 Furnace linings 285

Galvanised steel ducts 438-40, 439

Galvanised steel pipes hot water supply 595, 595 outflow design 606-7 primary design 599

Gas boosters 291, 292 burners 268-9, 270 fired boilers 560 flues 294, 318-19,334-6 pressurisation 148, 214-16,

215 sets 148 specific heat capacity 4 storage water heaters 568-70 thermal expansion 4 turbines 69 1,692 see also Liquefied petroleum

gas; natural gas Gaseous diffusion 185 Gaseous fuels

boiler firing 287-92 chimneys 330 combustion 322-3, 322 direct heating 100-7 flues 294, 318-19, 334-6 indirect heating 115

Gassing 231 Gate valves 246 Gateway access software 655 Generation (steam) 159-60 Generators 692-3 Glass

diathermic properties 13 fibre resin bonded slabs 441-2

solar heat gain 76-80, 87 tube heat exchangers 507 U values 35-6, 36

Global warming 534-5, 659, 678 Globe thermometers 13-14, 13 Glycol anti-freeze 510, 510 Goodman, W 515 Gravimetric tests 486 Gravity circulation

primary pipework 598-600 water systems 248-51

Gravity flow 254-5 Greenhouse effect 659-60, 678 Gross calorific values 261-2,

319-20 Ground coils 407 Ground cooling methods 405 Ground reflection (solar

radiation) 72-3 Guides (pipework) 258-9 Gun-type pressure jet

burners 2834 ,284

Halls 525-7 Handling systems (fuels)

296-316 Hardness of water 574, 593-5 Hardware, building

management 654-5 HCFC see

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Head end 654 Head of water 604 Headers I56 The Health and Safety at Work

Act (1974) 30 Heat

canopy ventilation 3 6 1 4 capacities I29 distribution 113-1 5 flow 2 generation (adult human) 7 generators 148 human 342,342 input 261-2 meters 224-7, 225-7 output 121-3,261-2 pipes 508-9, 509 reclaim efficiency 504-6 rejection 690 storage 121-8, 129 transfer 85-6, 85, 176-8 transmission gradient 22 units 2 unwanted 3 4 2 4 ventilation 6 7 2 4

Heat emissions copper pipes 610 embedded floor panels 186 floors I25

Index 713

isothermal enclosures 191-2 natural convectors I95 pipework 168-71, 240-1,

61 0-1 1 radiators 189 steam pipework 171 steel pipes 610

Heat emitters 114-15 combined radiant/convection

heating 187-93 convection 194-202 principle criteria 176-8 radiant heating 178-87 radiators 187-93

Heat exchangers 503-13,622, 643, 694-5

Heat gains air-conditioning 514-15,

519-21 computers 91-2, 92 ductworks 458 equivalent full-load hours 667,

668 lighting 90-1,91 machinery 91-2, 92 occupants 89-90, 90 office machinery 91-2, 92 process equipment 91-2, 92 solar 69-88 ventilation 673

Heat losses 21-33, 28 allowance 588-9 correction factors 123 ductworks 458 pipes 241 running costs 664-5

Heat pumps control 650 domestic heating 116 economic life 682 refrigeration 557-62

Heat recovery to air 698, 698 combined heatlpower

systems 693-6, 694-6 reciprocating engines

693-6 refrigeration 554-7, 555-6

Heat to power ratio 690 Heaters

batteries 217-18, 377 controls 641-3, 641 economic life 682 liquid fuels 306-8, 308 refrigeration pumps 558 regulations 662-6 survey 96-1 19 usage 666-7, 667

Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association (HVCA) specification 438

Heavyweight buildings 79 HEC see Hydrofluorocarbons Height

allowances 56-8 chimneys 328, 329 factors 58, 58

Hermitic compressors 536-8 High level storage capacity

616-17 High temperature

panels 107-8,110 water heating 145, 149-52 water pipework 170

High velocity systems air distribution 428 air heating 167-8, 168 air-conditioning 382-96 attenuation 470 ductwork 455-6

High voltage electrode boilers 275

High-rise buildings see Multi- storey buildings

Hitchen, E. R. 376 Hollow floor systems 405-6 Holmes, M. J. 376-7, 426 Home heating choice

factors 116-17 Hopper underfeed stokers 28 1-2,

281-2 Hopper window ventilator 351 Horizontal shading devices 82-3,

83 Hospitals 346 Hot deck 380 Hot gas by-pass valves 547 Hot water

air heaters 631 demand 586 expansion 568,568 heating systems 145, 146-52

Hot water pipework 169-70 design 598-619 insulation 601 losses 563-4 primary 598-600,599 return 600-14, 601-13 secondary outflow 600-14,

601-13 Hot water supply systems

boilers 584-91, 585-8 central systems 572-8 cylinders 578-84, 578-83 design temperatures I77 feed cisterns 591-2, 591 local systems 564-72 materials 595-6, 595 on peak storage heaters

566-72, 566-72 running costs 676-7,677 solar collectors 596-7

storage capacity 584-91 unventilated 592-3 water treatments 593-5

Hot-wire anemometers 15, 473

Hourly use (heating systems) 666-7, 667

Eours-run meters 227-8 Howarth, A. T. 41 1 Humans

comfort criteria 17 heat gains 89-90, 90 moisture 342, 342 unwanted heat 342, 342

Humidifiers 377, 493-8, 524-7 Humidity

air-conditioning 398-9 comfort criteria 17 definition 9, 9 measurements 14-15, 14 occupied rooms 348 sensors 626-7

IlVCA see Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association

Hybrid circuits 154 Hybrid hot water circuits 157-8 Hydraulic gradients 243-4 Hydraulic water systems 247 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFC) 534 Hydrofluorocarbons (HEC) 534

Ice storage 544 Ignition arch 28 1 Ignition temperature 3 17 Immersion

heaters 13940, 142 Imperial units to S1 units 704-5 In-duct attenuation 468 Incidence (solar radiation) 72-3 Index circuits 243 Indirect air humidifiers 493 Indirect cylinders 578-80 Indirect evaporative coolers

512-13,513 Indirect heating

systems 96 air 165-8 choice factors 116-19 design 232-59 external pipework 171-5 gaseous media 11 5 heat emission 168-71 liquid media 113-14 options 98 pipework 168-71, 232-59 steam 158-65 vapour media 114-15 water 144-58

714 Index

Indirect hot water supply systems 574, 576, 576

Indoor contaminants 8 Induced draughts

boilers 283 cooling towers 551, 552 fans 330

Induction systems air-conditioning 393-6 control 649 design calculations 528 high velocity air-conditioning

384,384 Industry

fumes exhaust 368-9, 369 heating system choices 118 ventilation 351-3, 356-7,

370-2 warm air units 100, 105-7

Inferential gas meters 309 Inferential meters 225, 226 Infiltration

air-change basis 50-1 heat gains 520 summer time 893 ventilation loss I22 whole building 58 winter time 45-51

Infra-red heaters 101, 107-8 Inlet louvres 338 Inlet vane dampers 481-3, 482 Instantaneous heaters 564-6 Insulation

hot water pipes 601 hot water systems 596 methods 36-9,37-9 sound 465-6,467 standards 31-3 U values 41 winter time 29-30,29

Insurance 68 1 Integral controllers 637-8 Intelligence systems 656 Intensity solar radiation 72-3 Interface temperatures 26-7 Intermittent operation 60-5,

94-5 Internal heat gains 59, 521 Internal temperatures 52, 93 Internal wall U values 25 International Energy

Agency 405 Interstitial condensation 42-3 Investment appraisals 681-7 Ionisation 9-10 Iron oxide 128 Iron radiators 187-8, I88 Iron sectional boilers 268-9 Isothermal enclosures 191, 192 Isotherms 94,94 Isovel 416

Jackman, P. J. 398,426 Jamieson, H. C. 52 Jet burners 2834,284 Jones, W. P. 20, 515

Kata thermometers 15 Kitchens 360-6, 361-5

L. pneumophilia 549, 597; 600 Labour 680 Ladder hot water circuits 157 Lancashire twin-flue

boilers 272 Latent heat 2

gains 515 seasonal influences 67

Latent heat of evaporation 159

Lateral systems 414-16, 416 Lean phase methods 299 Legionnaires disease 348

air-conditioning 379 heat exchangers 513 hot water supply 589 refrigerators 542, 548

Legislation 30-3, 346 see also Building regulations

Level indicators 305 Life cycles 681-3, 682-3, 698 Lighting 90-1, 428,428-9 Lightweight buildings 79 Linear ceiling diffusers 420, 421 Liquid fuels

chimneys 324-7 combustion 321-2 deliveries 301-2 direct heating 99-100 handling systems 306-8 indirect heating 113-14 properties 300-1,301 storage 302-6

Liquids distribution 682 thermal expansion 4

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) copper pipes 313 deliveries 3 11 flow 313 pipework 3 12-13 properties 308, 309, 312 steel pipes 313 storage 31 1-12,312

Lithium bromide 508 Live steam 159 Loadings (pipes) 241-2 Local fume extraction 367-8 Local hot water systems 564-72 Loudon, A. G. 23, 77 Low emissivity coatings 79

Low temperature hot water pipework 169 panels 108 water heating 144-8, I45

Low velocity ductworks 454 Low water content boilers 274 Low-ram 281 LPG see Liquefied petroleum gas Luminous fires 100, 100, 107

Machinery heat gains 91-2 Magazine boilers 278, 278 Magnetic conditioning 595 Magnetite 23 1 Mains losses 242-3 Maintenance 679-80, 698 Manholes 305 Maritime climate 66 Masonry materials 23-4 Mass

atmospheric dust 485 atmospheric solids 485 flow (water) 233

Materials chimney construction 334 flue construction 334 hot water systems 595-6 properties 2-4, 3

Measurements air velocity 15 ductwork 470-3 humidity 14-15, 14 temperature 13-14, 13

Mechanical atomisation 283 draughts 330 extraction 355-60 heat meters 225, 226 inlets 359-60, 359 refrigeration 530-3, 531-2 separators 494, 495 steam traps 220 ventilation 672-4

Mechanised design (water systems) 247

Medium density polythene 303 Medium temperature water

systems 145, 148-9, I70 Metabolic rates 7 Metal radiant ceiling

heating 181-2,181-2 Metal radiant panels 17840, 179 Meteorological data 376-7,

376-7 Meteorological Office 665-6,666 Meteorological wind speed

354-5 Meters 15, 224-7, 309, 463 Methylene blue 486 Micro turbines 699

Index 715

Micro-bore hot water supply 155-6, 156, 581,581

Micro-manometers 472 Microtherm storage

equipment 128 Min, T. C. 49 Mitre bends 442,442 Mixed flow fans 476,478,478 Modular boilers 2 6 3 4 , 263 Modulating controls 623 Moisture

content 518 human 342,342 masonry materials 23-4 unwanted 344

Moler insulating brick 285-6 Molten carbonate fuel cells 700 Morton, A. S. 41 1 Motors 92, 628,683 Mounts 140-1,211-12 Moving bed automatic stoker

boilers 279, 27940 , 281 Multi-directional ceiling

diffusers 418-19, 419 Multi-storey buildings

air-conditioning 379-82 extract ducts 358, 358 flue gas disposal 335,336 forced convectors 198 heating system choices 117 secondary pipework 617-18 summer time 84, 84 ventilation loss 122

Multi-vane linear ceiling diffusers 420

Multiple flues 332, 333 Multiple single-pipe hot water

circuit 153, 153 Multiple two-pipe hot water

circuits 155, I55 Multiple zone pipe circuits

244-5, 245 Municipal waste 315-16, 316 Mushroom ventilators 431,

431-2 MVM Starpoint scheme 661

National Home Energy Rating (NHER) scheme 661

Natural convection 194-6 coefficients 178 electrical 11 1 exponents 178 fundamental equations 201 gaseous fuels 103, I04

Natural draughts 550 Natural extraction 349-53,

359-60 Natural gas 309-11, 334-6, 338 Natural infiltration 122

Natural inlets 349-59, 3 5 0 4 Natural ventilation 341 Neat flame gas burners 287-5 Net calorific values 261-2,

3 19-20 Networks 654-5 Neutral shields 275 NHER see National Home Energy

Rating Night ventilation 405 Nipples 268 No flame boilers 290 Noise

attenuation 467-8, 468 criteria 462 dispersal 464-70 fans 4 6 3 4 rating curves 462 rooms 464 transmission 466-7, 466

Non-change over systems 394-5, 394

Non-homogenous constructions 34

Non-storage air humidifiers 4 9 3 4

Non-storage calorifiers 216-19 Normal U values 24 Northcroft, L. G. 221 Notional temperatures 74-6 Nozzles 422

Occupation air supply 3 4 6 9 halls 525-7 heat gains 89-90,90 periods 6667,667 preconditioning 525

Octave bands 459,459 Off-peak storage

heaters 97-8 Office buildings

air-conditioning 381-2 heating choices 117-1 8 see also Multi-storey buildings

Office machinery 91-2 Oil

boilers 268, 282-7 consumption 684 deliveries 301-2 filled radiators 1 11 flow 308 handling 3 0 6 8 ring mains 307-8,308 storage 302-6,302-3 tanks 302-3

On peak storage heaters 566-72

On/off time switches $39 Opaque surfaces 73-6

Open centrifugal fans 478 fires 98 loop controls 641 vent pipes 276-7

Operation modes (controllers) 635-9, 636-8

Optimum start control 63940 Ordinary propeller fans 477 Orientations 85 Orsat 294 Oughton, D. R. 53 Outer shells (calorifiers) 217-18 Outflow

draw-off points 602-4 pipework design 604, 605-6 via return pipework 614

Outlet valves 306 Output (boilers) 261-2 Outside air 341, 484 Outstations 655, 656 Overground pipework

distribution 172-3 Overnight cooling 94-5 Oxidisation 3 17 Ozone layer 534-6

Packaged air cooled centrifugal

plant 549, 549 air handling plants 502, 503 boilers 263-4, 2 7 3 4 cooling towers 554 gas burners 288-90 heat pumps 561-2 plant 696, 697

Paddle blades 627 PAFC see Phosphoric acid fuel

cells Page, J. K. 20,66 Painting radiators 193 Pan humidifiers 497 Paper air filters 487 Parallel flow 387, 388 Parallel single-pipe circuits 239 Payback periods 683 Peach, J 187 Peak loads (boilers) 260-1 Pearson, S. F. 545 PEM see Proton exchange

membrane Per cent annual fuel

consumption 60 Percentage saturation 9, 518 Perforated ceilings 414, 417 Perforated-face ceiling

diffusers 418, 419 Periodic occupancy 6667,667 Permanent water hardness 594-5 Petherbridge, P. 53, 70

716 Index

Pharmaceutical cleanrooms 433

Phon (sound intensity) 461 Phosphoric acid fuel cells

(PAFC) 700 PI see Proportional plus integral PID see Proportional plus integral

plus derivative Pipe coils 185-6, 185 Pipe stressing software 257 Pipe-in-pipe systems 175, 175 Pipework

arrangements 614-19 combined heatipower

systems 696 combined radianticonvective

heating 187 constraints 232 distribution systems 171-5 heat emission 168-71 heat storage 264 hot water systems 595-6 insulation 172 liquefied petroleum gas 3 12-13 losses 5 6 3 4 natural gas 3 10-1 1 refrigeration 546-7 selection 232-55 steam heating 163-5 thermal conductivity I72 thermal insulation 169-71

.. water heating 151-8 see also Water pipework

Pipework design expansion 255-9 hot water supply 598-619 indirect heating 232-59 mains losses 242-3 outflow 604, 605-6 secondary returns 609-10 steam systems 251-5 thermal expansion 255-9 water systems 232-51

Pipework sizes condensates 254-5, 255 copper 235,612 draw-off points 602 primary design 599 saturated steam 253 steam systems 251-5,252-5 steel 234, 253 water 234-9, 2344, 240

Piston compressors 538, 538 Pitot tubes 471, 471 Plant

components 452 connections 443-4 duties 523, 524 noises 465 rooms 696 size 63-4

Plaster radiant ceiling heating 182, 183

Plate-type heat exchangers 218-19, 50&7

Plate-type water heaters 5 8 3 4 Plenum

chambers 136,421 heating 165-8, 168 ventilation 369

Pneumatic control systems 622, 624 solid fuel conveyors 299 valves 629-30, 629

Pollution air 484-5, 485 comfort criteria 7-9, 8 indoor 398 ventilation rates 342-3

Polypropylene 441 Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 606-7 Port valves 630, 632-3 Positive displacement meters 309 Positive displacement pumps 203 Pour points 301 Power

calorifiers 584 cooling towers 553-4 fans 474-5, 482 mechanical ventilation 673 storage heaters 142-3 variable volume fans 482

Preheat capacity 62-3, 62 Present value (PV) 6 8 3 4 Pressed steel radiators 188-91 Pressure 212-16

atomisation 2823 condition 247 difference 47 distribution 447-57 drop 252-4, 253-4 ducting systems 454 enthalpy diagrams 531-2, 532 expansion 212-13, 213 gases 214-16, 215 gauges 473 head of water 604 jets 2834, 284 pumps 213-14,214, 215 reducing set 2234,224-5 reduction 162-3, 223-5 sensors 627 steam properties 160 storage heaters 570-2 thrust 257 units 2 water heaters 148-9, 151

Pressure losses chimney design 325 oil distribution 308 secondary circulation 613 water systems 236, 237-9

Preventative maintenance 680

Primary energy consumption 68, 69, 661-2

Primary pipework 598-600, 599

Prior, M. J. 12 Process equipment (heat

gains) 91-2, 92 Propeller fans 476 Proportional controllers

636, 637 Proportional full-load

operation 665 Proportional plus integral (PI)

controllers 638-9, 638 Proportional plus integral plus

derivative (PID) controllers 639

Proton exchange membranes (PEM) 699-700

Proximate analysis 318 Psychrometry 14-15, 515-18,

523 Puddling 270 Pumps 203-12

centrifugal 203-10, 204-10 construction 21 1 discharges 254-5 liquid fuels 307-8, 308 mountings 21 1-12 pressurisation 213-14, 214 speed control 21 1

Punkah louvres 422,423 Purge sectors 508 Purity (air) 7-9, 8, 348-9 PV see Present value PVC see Polyvinylchloride

Quarl 284 Quartz lamp heaters 107, 109

Radiant heaters 177-87, 201 ceiling 1814, 181-4 convective combined 187-94 direct systems 100-3, 107-1 1 embedded floor panels 184-8 gaseous fuels 102-3, 102-3 temperature

relationships 53 Radiant panels 178-80, 403-4 Radiant strip heating 180-3 Radiation 6, 72-3, 177 Radiators

combined radianticonvective heating 187-95

electrical 11 1 gravity water units 250-1

Radius bends 442,442

Index 717

Reciprocating engines combined heatlpower

systems 691-2 heat recovery 693-6, 694-6 refrigeration 536, 537

Reciprocating pumps 203 Recirculation units 370-2 Rectangular chimneys 326 Rectangular ductwork 439, 452 Reflective glasses 79 Reflective surfaces 193 Refrigeration 530-62

condensers 547-9,548-9 cycles 511, 531-2 evaporators 547, 549-53 heat pumps 557-62,55741 heat recovery 554-7, 555-6 media 533-6,535 pipework 546-7 plant 536-54, 682

Regenerative heat exchangers 5074,508

Regulating valves 246, 246 Regulating Variable Flow Rate

Systems 470 Regulations see Building. . . Relative humidity 9, 9 Relay joints 165, 165 Relief valves 276-7 Resistance 23 Resistance factors 355 Resistivity 23 Respiration 341 Restrained expansion

joints 257 Resultant temperature 17 Return air grilles 429-3 1 Return pipework 600-14 Return pumps 223, 223 Reverse cycle heat pumps

399-401, 400-1, 650 Reversed-return water pipes 157,

244 Rietschel, H. 252 Ringlemann charts 295 Roof-top boiler houses 308-9

flues 335-6, 338 Roofs

cavity insulation 38 conduction gain 88 solar heat gain 83, 88 solar radiation 76 U values 25-6 ventilation 351-3, 356-7

Room air-conditioning systems 398-9

Room controls, heating 642

Room storage heaters 120-1, 123-34

Rooms (noise) 464

Rotary compressors 538 cup burners 284-5, 285 distributors 280 gear pumps 203 vane anemometers 471-2

Run-around coils 509-1 1 Runners (centrifugal

fans) 476 Running costs 659-87

air-conditioned buildings 674-6

hot water systems 676-7 primary energy 661-2 ventilation 672-4

Safety 291-2, 592-3 Sankey diagrams 693-4, 694 SAP see Standard Assessment

Procedure Saturated air 518 Saturated steam 160-1, 253 Saturation

humidity 9, 9 psychrometry 518 steam generation 159

Schools 346 Screens 655 Screw compressors 539 Screw conveyors 299 Scrolls 276, 538, 538 Sealed bellows thermostats

624-5, 625 Sealed compressors 536, 537 Seasonal influences 67

heat conversion , efficiency 669-70

see also Summer time; Winter time

Secondary air 284 circulation 613 outflow pipework 600-14,

601-13 pipework 615, 616 returns 609-10, 610

Selection criteria boilers 262-7 combined heatlpower

systems 696-8 direct heating 116-19 fuel 118-19 indirect heating 116-19

Semi-hermitic compressors 536

Sensible heat 67 Sensible heat gains 514-15 Sensors 621,624-7,655 Series flow 387, 388 Series hot water circuits 157

Service tanks 308, 309 Severe U values 24 Shading devices

computer plots 84 correction factors 81 design 71 solar heat gain 78, 80-3

Sheet steel 441 Sheltered U values 24 Sherratt, A. F. C. 411 Shields 275 Shoe valves 630 Shorter, D. N. 61 Shunt meters 225, 226, 309 S1 unit symbols 703

to Imperial units 704-5 Side-wall inlets 420-2, 421-2 Side-wall outlets 425, 426 Silica panels 128 Silos 298 Simple payback periods 683 Simulations (air-

conditioning) 674-5, 675 Single feed indirect

cylinders 580,580 Single point draw off 566-7 Single resistances 233-5, 236 Single seat valves 630 Single stage absorption

plant 540-1, 540 Single-deflection air

distribution 422 Single-duct air-conditioning 383,

383 Single-duct terminal reheat

systems 527 Single-flue Cornish boilers 272 Single-pipe circuits 1524,153-4,

237-8, 237, 239 Single-pipe gravity return 164 Siting radiators 192-3, 193 Skirting convectors 196, I97 Skirting heaters 11 1, I11 Slab cooling systems 406, 407 Sling psychrometer 14-15, 14 Sludge formation 23 1 Sludge valves 305 Small-bore hot water

circuits 154, 154 Smart windows 79 Smoke

chimney construction 332-3 cigarette 342-3 control 36&7, 650-1 dampers 445-6, 446 density indicators 295 indicators 295

Sodium aluminium silicates 594

Sodium flame tests 486-7 Software 655

718 Index

Sol-air temperatures 12 solar heat gain 74 winter time conditions 52-3

Solar collectors 596-7, 596-7 control films 79 control glasses 79 heat gains 69-88 heating 116 radiation 72-3, 72 thermometers 13-14, 13

Solenoids 629,629 Solid floor U values 34-5, 35 Solid fuel

boiler firing 278-82 cells 700 chimneys 324-7 combustion 321-2 direct heating 98-9 storage 296-9

Solids (thermal expansion) 4 Sound

absorption 465, 468 analysers 463 control 458-64, 458-63 insulation 465-6 intensity 460-1, 461 meters 463 transmission 459

Space heating 3 14-15 Sparge pipes 141 Specific " density 2

enthalpy 518 heat capacity 2 ,4 volume 518

Speed control 21 1 Spill valves 213, 215-16 Spindle centrifugal pumps 207,

207,210,210 Spiral wound galvanised steel

ducts 43940,43940 Split-casing pumps 148 Spray ponds 550 Spray washers 495-6, 496 Sprayed coils 497,499-501 Spread 416 Sprinkler automatic stoker

boilers 279-80, 279-80 Stack effect 47, 353-4,354 Stainless steel ductwork 441 Standard Assessment Procedure

(SAP) 30 Standards

airtightness 33 boilers 663 envelope insulation 3 1-3

Start controls 63940, 640 State points 505, 518 Static energy conservation 681 Static pressure 447, 449, 455

Steady state 21, 64-5 Steam

boilers 277-8 chest 217-18 drums 150 electrode boilers 275-6 flow meters 225 generation 159-60, 275-6 heating systems 158-65 injection 494, 494-5 , main relay 165, 165, 222 meters 225 pipework 171, 251-5 pressure 15 1,2234,224-5 properties 160, 160-2 traps 220-2,220-2 turbines 691 velocity 252

Steam-jet refrigeration 541-2 Steam-to-water

calorifiers 582 heat exchangers 218-19

Steel ductwork 43840,439,441 radiators 188-91, 190-1 sectional boilers 270 shell boilers 270-3 water content 147

Steel pipes heat emission 610 liquefied petroleum gas

flow 313 natural gas flow 31 1 oil flow 308 saturated steam 253 thermal expansion 255-9 water flow 234 see also Galvanised steel pipes

Step-controllers 636, 637 Stevenson screens 15 Stirling engines 700-1 Stoichiometric combustion 318,

320,322 storage air humidifiers 4 9 3 4 boilers 265 capacity 121-8,296, 584-91 equipment 134-42 fuels 296-316 liquid fuels 302-6 liquefied petroleum gas 31 1-12 methods 120-1 refrigeration plant 5 4 3 4 solid fuels 296-9 temperatures 589

Storage heaters capacity 121-8 conductor currents 142-3 electric 120-43 electrical supply 142-3 fans 120, 124, 131,132-3

hot water supply 566-72 off-peak electricity 97-8 preheat 64

Storage radiators 129, 130-1 capacity 1 2 3 4 room heaters 120

Stoves 98-9, 99 Straight ductwork 450 Straw burners 292-3, 293 Stroke period 628 Structural shading 80-3, 81-3 Stub-duct connections 105 Studios 434-5 Sub-atmospheric systems 164 Sub-tropics 375 Subjective temperature 11 Subways 173 Sulphur 301, 332 Sulphur dioxide 317, 328, 329,

534 Sulphur trioxide 3 17 Summer time

air-conditioning 375 considerations 6 6 9 5 cooling 519-24,520,5234 dehumidification 5 19-24 draughts 326 enthalpy efficiency 505-6

Sun path diagrams 69-72, 70 Suoer-economic boilers 272. 273 Super-lifting steam traps 223,

224 Superheat I63 Supply air quantity 521 Supply terminals 425-7, 427 Surface factors 65 Surface resistances 22-3, 22 Surface temperatures 26-7, 27 Suspended floor U values 34-5 Swimming pools 442 Swirl ceiling diffusers 420 Swirl effect 480 Synchronous machines 692-3 System draining 229 System effect (ductwork) 443-4 System flushing 245 System pressure 160, 212-16

Tanks 302-7, 303-7 Tariff structures 3 14 TDR see Test Discount Rate Television studios 434-5 Temperature

controls 60, 92-3, 589-91 conversion chart 702 corrections 189, 195 definition 4-5 difference 51-6, 93-4, 353-4 ductworks 458 efficiency 504

Index 719

gradients 57 hot water systems 177,

589-91 measurements 13-14, 13 occupied rooms 347-8 ratio values 55 scales 5 sensors 624-5 steam properties 160 summer time 92-3 thermal indices 10-12 winter time 51-6, 60

Temporary water hardness 594-5

Terminal diffusers 167 Terminal heat emitters 114-15 Terminal reheat systems 645 Terminals, flue gas disposal 335 Test Discount Rate (TDR)

683-4 Test Reference Year 675 Tests of filters 486-7 Theatres 346 Thermal balance points 68 Thermal capacity 73, 667-8 Thermal centre lines 250 Thermal conductivity I72 Thermal expansion

gases 4 liquids 4 pipework 255-9 sensors 624-6, 625-6 solids 4

Thermal indices 10-12 Thermal inertia 21 Thermal insulation

ductworks 457-8,457-8 materials 457 pipework 169-71 winter time 29-30, 29

Thermal response 60 Thermal storage 140, 265 Thermal storage cylinders

capacity 128 central storage heaters 121 power supply 142 storage equipment 13842

Thermal transmittance coefficient see U values

Thermal wheel heat exchangers 507-8,508

Thermistors 625 Thermocouples 625 Thermometers 13-14, 13, 276-7 Thermostatic control valves 623 Thermostatic steam traps 220,

220 Thermostats 624-6, 625-6 Thermosyphon free cooling 545 Three-pipe circuits 159, 395 Three-port valves 630, 632

Throttling dampers 48 1, 482 Throw 416 Timber 315, 315 Time (chimney design) 324 Time lag 60 Tobin tube ventilator 351 Toilets 346, 358, 431 Torque 628 Total heat diagrams 531-2 Total pressure 447, 449 Trace heating 307 Transmission

networks 654-5 noise 466-7, 466 sound 459 vibration 4667,466

Trap set 221 Trench convectors 196, 197 Tropics 375 Tube plate calorifiers 217-18 Tube steam-to-water

calorifier 217, 218 Tubular heaters 112, I12 Turbines 691, 692 Turbulent ventilation 43 1 Turn-down ratios 263 Twin-flue Lancashire boilers 272 Two-pipe

circuits 238-9, 238, 240 fan coil air-conditioning

system 392 gravity circulation 164, 164,

250 hot water circuits 154-6,

155-6 induction air-conditioning

393,393 Two-port valves 630,632, 633 Two-position controllers 635-6,

636

U values 24-6, 24-6 building regulations 30-1 ductworks 457-8,4574 envelope insulation 32-3 glazing 35-6, 36 ground floors 34-5,35 insulated materials 41 uninsulated constructions 40 windows 35-6,36

Ultimate analysis 3 18 Ultrasonic atomisers 498 Under sink water storage

heaters 567 Under-hearth insulation 285-6 Underfeed stokers 279-82 Underground

ducts 173-5 heat distribution 17!, 175 storage 304

Undirectional flow cleanrooms 43 1

Uninsulated constructions 40 Unit heaters 199-200, 199-201 Unitary controllers 656 Units 2

conversion factors 704-5 symbols 703

Unrestrained expansion joints 256,257

Unventilated hot water systems 592-3, 618, 618

Unventilated storage water heaters 571-2, 571-2

Up-feed pipework 616 upolyvinylchloride

(uPVC) 441 Upward air-flow systems 396-8,

410-12, 414 Utilisation efficiency 670 Utilisation of steam 159

Vacuum systems 164 Valve authority 631-2 Valves 305-6, 629-33,629-32

gas by-pass 547 gate 246, 246 relief 276-7 spill 213,215-16

Vane anemometers 15,471-2 Vaporisation 282 Vapour

compression 530-2, 536-40 media 114-15 pressure 4, 44-5, 44 resistance 42-3 seals 30

Variable fan speed 481,483 Variable refrigerant volume

402-3 Variable volume systems

air-conditioning 384-8 . control 647-9 design calculations 528 diffusers 422-3 fans 481-3,482

Velocity air measurements 15 chimney flue gases 324 pressure 447-8, 448,4534 water systems 235-9, 236

Vent pipes tanks 305 Vented storage heaters 571-2 Ventilation 341-72

air 89 air change rates 345-6 air-conditioning 521 allowance 21, 46-7, 46 chimneys 338 efficiency 372

720 Index

extract grilles 430-1 industry 35 1-3, 356-7, 370-2 kitchens 360-6,361-5 losses 21, 122 methods 349-60 rates 17, 341-5 recirculation units 370-2 summer time 89

Vertical air distribution 41 5 fan coils 392 fins 80-2 shading 80-1 spindle pumps 207, 210

Vessels 595-6, 595 Viability charts 684-7, 685-6 Vibration transmission 466-7 Viscosity (liquid fuels) 301 Viscous impingement air

filters 487, 491, 492 Volatiles 296 Volume

control 425 definition 6-7 expansion 146 psychrometry 517 steam properties 160 units 2 see also Variable volume. . .

Volumetric heat capacity 144 Volute centrifugal pumps 204,

205

Walker, W. 347 Walls

cavity fill 3&9, 37-9 conduction gain 88 solar heat gain 88 storage heaters 121 U values 25

Warm air units capacity 127 central storage heaters 121 gaseous fuels 104-7, 105-6 liquid fuels 100 storage equipment 135-6

Warm water heaters 144-6 Warren Spring

Laboratory 484 Washable air filters 489, 489 Washers 495-7,496-7 Waste products 315-16, 316 Water

centrifugal pumps 205-8 chillers 542-4, 651-2 circulation 509-1 1

content in copper 147 content in steel 147 dew point 318-19 evaporative coolers 551, 553 flow meters 227 hardness 574, 593-5 mass flow 233 properties I45 storage heaters 567 supply to boilers 266-7 thermal properties 140 treatment additives 230 treatments 554, 593-5 tube boilers 273-4 velocities 235-9, 236 see also Hot water

Water heaters boilers 2767, 584-91 calorifiers 5804,581-3 central systems 572-8 characteristics 144-5 1 combination systems 57&8 cylinders 578-84, 57843 feed cisterns 591-2, 591 indirect heating 144-58 local systems 564-72 materials 595-6, 595 on peak storage 566-72 solar collectors 5 9 6 7 storage capacity 58441 unventilated 592-3 water treatments 593-5

Water pipework commissioning 245 copper 235,612 design 232-51, 598-619 embedded panes 245 flow 233-6,234-6 gravity circulation 248-51 heat emission 240-1 heating systems 151-8 hydraulic design 247 hydraulic gradients 243-4 index circuits 243 loadings 241-2 losses 5 6 3 4 mechanised design 247 outflow 606-7, 606-7 pressure condition 247 pressure loss 236, 237-9 primary 598-600,599 regulating valves 246, 246 return 600-14,601-13 reversed-return 244 secondary outflow 600-14 single resistances 233-5 single-pipe circuits 237-8

size calculations 234-40 system flushing 245 two-pipe circuits 238-40 water flow 233-6,234-6 zone circuits 244-5, 245 see also Hot water pipework

Water-to-water calorifiers 580-1, 581

Water-to-water exchangers 694

Water-way bottom boilers 268 Weather data 376-7, 376-7 Weekly use heating systems

666-7 Weight tests 486 Weighting scales 462, 462 Welded sheet steel 441 Wet back boilers 272 Wet bulb

depression 14 isotherms 94, 94 temperatures 14, 377, 518

Wet core boilers 121, 128, 137-8, 138-9

Wheatstone bridges 625-6 Whole building air

infiltration 58 Whole life costs 681-3 Wilkins, J. 406 Willis, S. 406 Wind

chill indices 12, 12 effects 354-5, 354 flow patterns 48,48 pressures 47

Windows air-conditioning 391 fan coils 391 infiltration 47-50 solar heat gain 76-80 U values 3 5 4 , 3 6

Winter time air-conditioning 374, 524-7 considerations 19-65 draughts 326 enthalpy efficiency 505-6 heating 524-7 humidifiers 524-7

Wiredrawing 163, 163

Zeolites 594 Zone heating controls 641-2 Zone water pipe systems

244-5 Zoned air-conditioning 379-82,

645,646