Bell Work

• What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?

Think/Pair/Share Bell Work

• What type of memory has information about how to do things such as ride a bike, tie shoelaces, or hit a golf ball? – Explicit– Semantic– Procedural– Episodic– Flash-bulb

Amnesia

• Retrograde• Anterograde

Bell Work

• While taking notes, you realize you need to sharpen your pencil. You get up and walk downstairs. When you get there, however, you cannot remember why you went downstairs. After trying to recall your purpose, you give up and return to your desk. As soon as you sit down again, it hits you: “I wanted to sharpen this pencil!”

• What caused this to occur?

Bell Work

• Discuss with a partner…– How would you define ‘memory’?

Context effects

Bell Work

• Yesterday’s Closure: Create an analogy for the three-box/information processing model for sensory, working, and long-term memory OR encoding, storage, and retrieval.

• Explain your analogy

Integrated Model Concepts• Encoding – process of

translating info into neural codes (language) that will be retained in memory

• Storage – the process of retaining neural coded info over time

• Retrieval – the process of recovering info from memory storage

Closure

• Create an analogy for the three-box/information processing model for sensory, working, and long-term memory OR encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Closure

• Give your own example of anterograde amnesia.

Name the Seven Dwarves

Take out a piece of paper

Difficulty of Task

• Was the exercise easy or difficult.

It depends on what factors?

•whether you like Disney movies

•how long ago you watched the movie

•how loud the people are around you when you are trying to remember

Now pick out the seven dwarves.

Turn your paper over.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Memoryinternal record of some prior event or experience; the

persistence of learning over time through the set of mental structures and processes that receives, encodes, stores,

organizes, alters, and retrieves information over time

Three Box Model of Memory

Sensory Memory

• A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information.

Sensory Memory• The immediate, initial recording of sensory

information in the memory system.• Stored just for an instant, and most gets

unprocessed.Examples:•You lose concentration in class during a lecture. Suddenly you hear a significant word and return your focus to the lecture. You should be able to remember what was said just before the key word since it is in your sensory register. •Your ability to see motion can be attributed to sensory memory. An image previously seen must be stored long enough to compare to the new image. Visual processing in the brain works like watching a cartoon -- you see one frame at a time. •If someone is reading to you, you must be able to remember the words at the beginning of a sentence in order to understand the sentence as a whole. These words are held in a relatively

unprocessed sensory memory.

Short Term Memory• The stuff we encode from

the sensory goes to STM.• Events are encoded visually,

acoustically or semantically.• Holds about 7 (plus or minus

2) items for about 20 seconds.

• We recall digits better than letters.

Short-Term Memory Also referred to as “Working” Memory—the information you are currently “working with”

• The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten.

How do you store things from short-term to long-term?

RehearsalYou must repeat things over and over to put them into your long-term memory.

Long Term Memory

• Unlimited storehouse of information.

• Explicit (declarative) memories

• Implicit (non-declarative) memories

Long-Term Memory

• Implicit (procedural) memory—learn/know how to do something (like knowing how to ride a bike)

• Explicit (declarative) memory-can state and “declare” that they know. Deliberate recall of information– Episodic: autobiographical (times, places,

emotions)– Semantic: memory of meanings,

understandings—general knowledge

Overview of LTM

Overview of Memory Model

A Simplified Memory Model

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

The Memory ProcessThree step process….

1. Encoding: The inputting and processing of information into the memory system.

2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.

3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Encoding

The inputting and processing of information into the memory system.

Typing info into a computer Getting a girl’s name at a party

Storage

• The retention of encoded material over time.

Pressing Ctrl+S and saving the info.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval• The process of getting the information out

of memory storage.

Finding your document and opening it up.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

Recall v. Recognition• With recall- you must retrieve the

information from your memory (fill-in-the blank tests).

• With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests).

• Which is easier?

Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory exercise?

• People typically recall fewer correct words than they recognize.

• Recognition tasks reveal that we remember more than we recall.

The Context Matters!!!

• Flashbulb Memories

• Mood Congruent Memory

• State Dependent Memory

• Context Effects

Anatomy of

MemoryAmygdala: emotional memory and memory consolidationBasal ganglia & cerebellum: memory for skills, habits and CC responsesHippocampus: memory recognition, spatial, episodic memory, laying down new declarative long-term memoriesThalamus, formation of new memories and working memoriesCortical Areas: encoding of factual memories, storage of episodic and semantic memories, skill learning, priming.

Encoding

Getting the info into our heads

EncodingGetting Information In1. Unconscious encoding of incidental

information2. Well-learned information

Effortful Processingrequires attention and conscious effortRehearsalconscious repetition of information to

maintain it in consciousness; encodes it for storage

3. Learned automatic processing

Encoding: Getting Information In

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

Automatic Processing

• Unconscious encoding of incidental information.• You encode space, time, and word meaning without

effort.• Things can become automatic with practice.

For example, if I tell you that you are a jerk, you will encode the meaning of what I am saying to you without any effort.

Effortful Processing

• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique.

• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.

• Example: Learning how to play the piano using sheet music memorizing it

Research on EncodingHermann Ebbinghaus’s Research

• used nonsense syllables to test encoding (i.e. TUV ZOF GEK)

• the more times the list of syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were needed to relearn the syllables on Day 2

12345 10 15

20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentageof

List Retained

when Relearning

Curve of information

forgotten over a period of 30 days…initially information is lost rapidly,

then levels off with time

Spacing Effect

• We encode better when we study or practice over time.

• DO NOT CRAM!!!!!

Study Strategies

• Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session

• Distributed practice leads to better retention

Organizational MethodsChunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units

–776-14-9218; 1-661-944-9859Rote Learningrepetitive rehearsal (least effective encoding tool)

Method of Lociuse of locations to remember information (second best encoding tool)

Narrative Methodconnecting information to the details of a story (best encoding tool)

Schemacognitive framework for organizing concepts based on previous experience and current expectations

Prototypetypical example of the conceptHierarchiescomplex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding Summarized

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Things to remember about Encoding

1. The Next-In-Line Effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next.

2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered.

3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it.

List the U.S. Presidents

Take out a piece of paper and….

The Presidents

Washington Taylor Harrison Eisenhower

J.Adams Fillmore Cleveland Kennedy

Jefferson Pierce McKinley L.Johnson

Madison Buchanan T.Roosevelt Nixon

Monroe Lincoln Taft Ford

JQ Adams A.Johnson Wilson Carter

Jackson Grant Harding Reagan

Van Buren Hayes Coolidge HW Bush

Harrison Garfield Hoover Clinton

Tyler Arthur FD.Roosevelt W. Bush

Polk Cleveland Truman Obama

Serial Positioning Effect

• Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it would probably look something like this.

PresidentsRecalled

Serial Position Effect

• Primacy Effect-Most likely to remember the first item(s) in a list (or presenter(s) in class presentations)…

• Recency Effect-…and the last item(s) or presenter(s)

Types of Encoding• Semantic Encoding: the encoding

of meaning, like the meaning of words

•Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.

•Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.

Encoding exercise

Memory Encoding• 1. Visual (picture)• 2. Acoustic (sound)• 3. Semantic (meaning)

• For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using acoustic coding (by sound).

Think/Pair/Share

• Which do you think is the principle coding system for short-term memory (STM): visual, acoustic, semantic?

Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in short term memory (STM) is acoustic coding. When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally). Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of

items is presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of paper).

Think/Pair/Share

• Which do you think is the principle coding system for long-term memory (LTM): visual, acoustic, semantic?

The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). However, information in LTM

can also be coded both visually and acoustically.

Which type works best?

Self-Reference Effect

• An example of how we encode meaning very well.

• The idea that we remember things (like adjectives) when they are used to describe ourselves.

Memory Strategies• Mnemonic devices are

strategies to improve memory by organizing information– Method of Loci: ideas are

associated with a place or part of a building

– Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”)

– Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned

Tricks to Encode

• Use imagery: mental pictures

Mnemonic Devices use imagery. “peg word” system

Links to examples of mnemonic devices.

"Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."

Mars, Venus, Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.

Give me some more examples….

Chunking

• Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

• Often it will occur automatically.

1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

Do these numbers mean anything to you?

1492, 1776, 1812, 1941 how about now?

Retrieval

How do we recall the information we thought we remembered?

Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!

Storage and Retrieval

• STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants are given a list of words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the information.

• LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.

Organization• Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You

can organize information in sequences (such as alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing and doing exercises. If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried out throughout the day (i.e. in sequence of time), this will help the patient remember them.

Parallel processing is the ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli of differing quality. This becomes most

important in vision, as the brain divides what it sees into four components: color, motion, shape, and depth.

Recall versus RecognitionI probably cannot recall the Smurfs,

but can I recognize them?

Clumsy Smurf or Inept Smurf

Papa Smurf or Daddy Smurf

Lazy Smurf or Lethargic Smurf

Handy Smurf or Practical Smurf

Brainy Smurf or Intellectual Smurf

Retrieval Cues• Things that help us

remember.

•We often use a process called priming (the activation of associations in our memory) to help us retrieve information.

PRIMING EFFECT • Priming effect occurs when people respond faster

or better to an item if a similar item preceded it.

•For the most part, the priming effect is considered involuntary and is most likely an unconscious phenomenon. The priming effect basically consists of repetition priming and semantic priming.

Repetition Priming

1. Repetition priming refers to the fact that it is easier (quicker) to recognize a face or word if you have recently seen that same face or word.

Semantic Priming2. Semantic priming refers to the fact that it is

easier (quicker) to recognize someone or word if you have just seen someone or a word closely associated.

Priming

Exercise 2

Context Effects

• It helps to put yourself back in the same context you experienced (encoded) something.

• If you study on your favorite chair at home, you will probably score higher if you also took the test on the chair.

Mood-Congruent Memory

• The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

• If you are depressed, you will more likely recall sad memories from you past.

• Moods also effect that way you interpret other peoples behavior

Retrieval Cues

A Real-Life Example:After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Experiment by: Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989)

Retrieval CuesReminders associated with information in memory we are trying to retrieveState-Dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (i.e. high, drunk, depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Forgetting

3 STOREHOUSES OF MEMORYWHAT IS THE DURATION & CAPACITY OF EACH?

DURATION = TIME HELDCAPACITY = AMOUNT HELD

3 CONTROL PROCESSES OF MEMORY(MEDIATING THE FLOW OF INFORMATION)

False Memory

This activity demonstrates people’s capacity to form a false memory. We do not recall exact copies of past

events. Rather, we construct our memories.

Acknowledgements: This demonstration was written by Martin Bolt, Calvin College

Encoding Failure

Encoding Failure

• We fail to encode the information.• It never has a chance to enter our LTM.

Test Your MemoryWhich is the real penny?

• Cents

Memory isn’t all it seems

Videos

Memory Issues

• Mind Decay• Disease• Interference• Chemicals• Context dependent• Physical Trauma• Severe Mental Trauma

Theories of Forgetting• Proactive interference: old

information interferes with recall of new information

• Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information

• Decay theory: memory trace fades with time

• Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss)

• Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

Storage Decay

• Even if we encode something well, we can forget it.

• Without rehearsal, we forget things over time.

• Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Retrieval Failure

• The memory was encoded and stored, but sometimes you just cannot access the memory.

Types of Retrieval Failure

Proactive Interference

• The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

Types of Retrieval Failure

Retroactive Interference• The disruptive effect of

new learning on the recall of old information.

When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last years.

Retroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall is

betterAfter sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Primary Types of ForgettingRetrograde Amnesia – (i.e. Alzheimer’s)

Information in short-term never gets transferred to long-term Anterograde Amnesia – (i.e. memory loss shown n “50 First Dates)Can learn semantic information but can’t form new long-term memoriesPsychogenic Amnesia –Subconscious way of protecting self by forgetting traumatic life eventsTransient Global Amnesia (TGA) – Non-permanent amnesia, most likely caused by lack of blood flowDissociative Amnesia (Fugue) – Sometimes permanent amnesia caused by extreme emotional stressSource Amnesia – The false recollection of information due to inaccurate associationsKorsakoff’s Syndrome – Memory loss resulting in retrograde or anterograde amnesia as a result of vitamin deficiency (i.e. Alcoholism)Damage to the Hippocampus – Memory loss due to medial temporal lobe or hippocampus damage

Organization of LTM

• Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

Motivated Forgetting

• We sometimes revise our own histories.

Motivated Forgetting

One explanation is REPRESSION:

• in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness.

Why does it exist?

Forgetting

Memory Construction

• We sometimes alter our memories as we encode or retrieve them.

• Your expectations, schemas, environment may alter your memories.

My Trip To Cheesecake Factory

You go to the Cheesecake Factory for dinner. You are seated at a table with a white tablecloth. You study the menu. You tell the female server you want Avocado Egg Rolls, extra sauce, Roadslide Sliders, Thai Lettuce Wraps, and a Porterhouse Steak (medium). You also order a Cherry Coke from the beverage list. A few minutes later the server returns with your Avocado Egg Rolls. Later the rest of the meal arrives. You enjoy it all, except the Porterhouse Steak is a bit overdone.

Cheesecake Factory (Framing)

How did you order the steak?

Was the red tablecloth checkered?

What did you order to drink?

Did a male server give you a menu?

Misinformation Effect

• Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Misinformation Effect

Depiction of Accident

Misinformation EffectLeading Question: About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Elizabeth Loftus

Research on ForgettingElizabeth Loftus’s Research

• Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

• Eyewitness Testimony – misinformation effect most often happens when witnesses try to recall specific details of an event

Constructive Memory• Memories are not always what they

seem.• Elizabeth Loftus• A constructed memory is a created

memory.• Misinformation effect

Research on ForgettingDaniel Schacter’s Research

•Three Sins of Forgetting – 1.Absent-Mindedness – inattention to details causes encoding failure2.Transience – storage decays and dwindles over time3.Blocking – when stored information is inaccessible

•Three Sins of Distortion – 1.Misattribution – confusing the details of how an event occurred2.Suggestibility – misinformation skews accurate recall

False Memory Syndrome - condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

3.Bias – skewed recollection of memories based on what the person does/does not want to remember

•One Sin of Intrusion –1.Persistence – when unwanted memories seem to haunt you

Amnesia• Amnesia is forgetting produced by

brain injury or by trauma– Retrograde amnesia refers to problems

with recall of information prior to a trauma

– Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma

Point of Trauma

Retrograde amnesiaAnterograde amnesia

Issues in Memory

• Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:– Source amnesia: attribution of a

memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event)

– Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten

– Misinformation effect: we incorporate outside information into our own memories

Dementia vs. Alzheimer’s

• Dementia affects communication and the performance of activities. Umbrella term– Alzheimer’s (60-70%)– Huntington’s– Parkinson’s

Alzheimer’s

• Affects parts of the brain where thought and memory happen

• Sundowning

Amnesia

• Retrograde-loss of memories before accident• Anterograde-unable to create new memories

• Examples

Anatomy of Memory

Bilateral damage tothe hippocampus results in anterogradeamnesia (Patient H.M.)

Normal Brain

Alzheimer Brain—There is no one place where memories are stored