HEYTHROP COLLEGE

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

Falun Gong as a Religion: Past, Present, and Future

- Undergraduate dissertation submitted to the Heythrop College, University of London in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BD for International Students

Supervisor: Dr. Elizabeth Burns

Heythrop College, University of London LEUNG Man-kit The United Kingdom May 2015

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Abstract

Falun Gong (FLG), an organisation founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992 to cultivate Falun

Dafa, took advantage of the qigong bloom in China in the 1980s, and grew rapidly into

one of the largest non-governmental organisations in the world. However, FLG was soon

treated as a threat by the Chinese government, and was officially banned in China in 1999

on the ground of being an evil cult. This study reviews the beliefs, rituals, ceremonies

and practices of FLG, and argues that FLG is a syncretistic blend of traditional ideas in

China from qigong, Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, as well as the apocalyptic and

salvation belief found in Western religions. This study further argues that FLG has key

characteristics of a religion, although Falun Dafa practitioners do not admit that FLG is

a religion. This study does not, however, concur with the allegation that FLG is an evil

cult. The main reason for suppressing FLG in China was political and follows the norm

in Chinese history, in which religion has been required to serve as both political and social

controls. That is, the Chinese can enjoy freedom of religious belief to the extent that it

does not pose a threat to the governing regime. This study notes that, after the

suppression, FLG has now transformed into a global community by means of cyberspace,

which has enabled the spread of Falun Dafa to non-Chinese spiritual or health seekers.

The study concludes by suggesting the teachers and practitioners of FLG to tone down the

mystical aspect of its teachings so as to enhance its current role as a spiritual and/or health

transnational organisation.

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Acknowledgments

My first and foremost appreciation goes to Almighty God by whose grace this

study has been completed. I then wish to express my sincere thanks to my academic

supervisor Dr. Elizabeth Burns of Heythrop College, University of London for her

constructive contribution and help, and her reading of the drafts and making many helpful

remarks, especially her suggestion on the scope of this study. I would also like to express

my thank to Professor Ma Koon-yiu of The University of Hong Kong, who brought me

critical eyes on the historical roles of religion and attitudes of the Chinese to religion in

China Moreover, I wish to acknowledge Mr. Wong Chi-tong for his kindness in

approving my frequent study leaves and Ms. Iris Leung for her forbearance in taking up

my work during my study leaves. Finally, I wish to express my greatest gratitude to my

father and my wife Joyce for their unstinting help and forbearance at all stages of my

study. Without them, I could not have completed my study!

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Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 5 Background ....................................................................................................................... 5 Purposes and Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 5 Methodology of the Study ................................................................................................ 8 Summary of Chapters ....................................................................................................... 9

Chapter 2 Falun Gong: Origins, Development and the Crackdown ................................. 10

Religious Life in China ................................................................................................... 10 Historical Roles of Religion in China ............................................................................. 13 Post-1949 Regulation of Religions ................................................................................. 15 Falun Gong: Origins and Development.......................................................................... 17 Falun Gong: the Crackdown........................................................................................... 19 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3 Falun Gong: Beliefs, Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices ................................. 23

Beliefs ............................................................................................................................. 23 Ethical Doctrines............................................................................................................. 29 Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices .................................................................................. 30 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 32

Chapter 4 Falun Gong A Religion?................................................................................ 34

What is a Religion? ...................................................................................................... 34 Falun Gong as a Religion? ............................................................................................. 36 Falun Gong as an Evil Cult?........................................................................................... 46 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 48

Chapter 5 Epilogue ............................................................................................................ 49

Concluding Remarks....................................................................................................... 49 Future of Falun Gong ..................................................................................................... 50

Bibliography Appendix A Glossary of Chinese Terms Appendix B Chinese Dynastic History

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Background

The term Falun Gong is often used interchangeably with the term Falun Dafa. In this

study, Falun Gong (FLG) is specifically used to refer to the organisation founded by

Li Hongzhi in China in 1992, and Falun Dafa is reserved for the cultivation of the Law

of the Dharma Wheel.1 Initially, FLG focused on the study and practice of breathing

exercises (qigong), and the initial official response from the Chinese government was

positive. However, the number of Falun Dafa practitioners grew rapidly. FLG was soon

treated as a threat by the Chinese government, and was officially banned in China in 1999

on the ground of being an evil cult. The Chinese government has then launched a

massive campaign to suppress FLG.

Purposes and Significance of the Study

The year 2014 marks the Silver Jubilee anniversary of the suppression of FLG in China,

and its organised activities have virtually disappeared in China (Tong, 2012). Yet, FLG

1The Dharma (which literally means teaching), according to Buddhists, means the truth that governs the world. Legend says that Sakyamuni Buddha taught in his first sermon of his realisation of the Dharma, i.e. the truth of suffering and of the self-discipline free from extremes. See Schumann, 1973.

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has transformed into a global community (Zhao, 2003), and is now one of the largest non-

governmental organisations in the world (Penny, 2005; Noakes, 2010). Most research on

FLG from political scientists has focused on the political reasons for banning FLG in

China, and on the political consequences of the suppression to the Chinese government.

Sociologists (e.g. Leung, 2002; Chan, 2004; Shepherd, 2005) have examined the reasons

for its quick flourishing in China in the 1990s. Others (e.g. Ownby, 2003, 2005, 2008;

DuBois, 2010; Penny, 2005, 2012; Junker, 2014) have investigated FLG as one of the new

religious movements. Yet, only a few publications (e.g. Chang, 2004) have been focused

on its theological aspects, including its religious beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices.

The purposes of the present study are therefore:

a) to trace the religious life and historical roles of religion among the Chinese so as

to understand the origins, development and subsequent suppression of FLG;

b) to summarise its core beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices so as to investigate

whether FLG can be classified as a religion and whether FLG is an evil cult as

alleged by the Chinese government; and

c) to discuss the future of and ways forward for FLG.

This study therefore provides a multi-disciplinary insight of FLG from theological,

historical, sociological and political aspects. Studying FLG in Hong Kong has several

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distinct advantages. Firstly, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan are the only places within

China where FLG has not yet been banned. Falun Dafa practitioners maintain their daily

practice at 30 different locations throughout Hong Kong and a website distributing

information to its practitioners and the public (Chiu, 2001; Chan, 2013). They also

organise rallies and sit-ins to exhibit their grievances about the sufferings of its practitioners

in China (Photo 1). Secondly, most of the publications of FLG (e.g. books, video tapes)

have been written or produced in Chinese, and though they are not permitted to be

published or circulated in China, they are readily available in Hong Kong. Thirdly, FLG

publishes English and Chinese versions of its semi-official newspaper - The Epoch

Times daily in Hong Kong, which publishes its beliefs, practices, updated news, and

activities. With such distinct advantages, there has been a lot of research on FLG and/or

Falun Dafa in Hong Kong.2

2 For example, academics in Hong Kong studying FLG include: Professor David Palmer, Dr. Chan Shun-ching and Professor Anne Cheung of The University of Hong Kong; Dr. John Lagerwey of The Chinese University of Hong Kong; and Dr. Beatrice Leung of Lingnan University.

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Photo 1 Protest of FLG against the Chinese Government in Hong Kong

Methodology of the Study

This study aims at tracing the changes of FLG in China during the last two decades. The

official publications of FLG as well those of the Chinese government are the major

sources of data. The former include its semi-official newspaper (The Epoch Times) and

two of its official websites (Minghui and FalunDafa). The latter include Xinhua News,

Peoples Daily, Beijing Review, etc, which summarise the attitudes or reactions of the

Chinese government towards FLG since its founding in the early 1990s. Moreover, Li

Hongzhi, the founder of FLG, published two books, Falun Gong (first published in 1992)

and Zhuan Falun (first published in 1994), which have become the key writings detailing

the beliefs and practices of FLG. Besides these, Li has always been willing to be

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interviewed by media and his messages are also posted on FLGs website ClearWisdom.

Secondary sources such as the views of scholars published in academic journals are also

included.

Summary of Chapters

This study is organised into five chapters. Chapter 1 includes an overview of the study,

and discusses the objectives for the study and outlines the research questions of the study.

Chapter 2 outlines the religious life and historical roles of religion among the Chinese. It

then traces the origins of FLG, its development and subsequent crackdown in China.

Chapter 3 summarises the beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices of FLG. Chapter 4

discusses the criteria used in this study to define a religion. It will then answer the

questions: Is FLG a religion? And, if yes, is FLG an evil cult? Chapter 5 summarises

the findings of this study, and also looks forward to the future of FLG. In this study,

terms originally in Chinese appear in English translation followed by their Chinese titles

with Romanised pinyin in italic. A glossary of Chinese characters of these terms is

given in Appendix A.

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Chapter 2

Falun Gong: Origins, Development and the Crackdown

Religious Life in China

There has been a consensus among scholars (e.g. Ownby, 2003, 2003a; Irons, 2003; Zhao,

2003) that the beliefs and doctrines of FLG were borrowed from those of the traditional

religions in China. As early as in the Zhou dynasty (1059-249 BCE) (see the dynasty

history of China in Appendix B), the Zhou kings named themselves as Sons of Heaven,

and asserted that they were given mandates by Heaven to rule the state. Chinese

philosophy was born in the late Zhou, and two philosophical schools Confucianism and

Daoism were subsequently developed into religions. Confucianism was founded by

Confucius (551-479 BCE), and its religious dimension followed the spiritual dimension of

the early Zhou emphasising the dependence of the political authority of rulers upon

Heaven. Only rulers who behaved virtuously would receive Heavens support. Daoism

was founded by Lao Tzu (604-531 BCE), and Daoists are more concerned with other-

worldliness and seek a harmony through a quiet submission with the metaphysical

principle of being the Dao.

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In the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), the Han kings formally adopted Confucianism as

the governing political philosophy and religious policy of the state. Confucianism

became a ritual religion, with its emphasis upon rituals in family and society (Ching,

1993; Nadeau, 2012). Daoism was also developed into an organised religion, with the

establishment of religious institutions, rituals, teachings and practices (Nadeau, 2012).

Daoists also discovered a number of celestial gods, and the founder, Lao Tzu, was also

deified as the Great Lord (Tai-shang Lao-zun). At the same time, Buddhism entered

into China via the Silk Road (Nadeau, 2012). Buddhism was subsequently mixed up with

Confucianism and Daoism, and flourished during the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). Since

then, Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism became the three great traditions (sanjiao)

in the religious life among the Chinese (Figure 1). Western religions (e.g. Zoroastrianism,

Manichaeism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam) also entered China via the Silk Road

(Poceski, 2009). However, they were not compatible with the polytheistic culture of the

Chinese, and were not popular among the Chinese (Zhou, 2014:138).

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Figure 1 Chronology of the three main religious traditions in China

Besides institutional religions, local folk religions have played another dominant role in

the religious life among the Chinese since the Xia dynasty (c. 2000 - c.1600 BCE) (Dean,

2003; Zhou, 2014). Their common distinctive characteristic is their lack of a coherent

cannon and a system of doctrine, as well as clergy and ecclesiastical institution (Poceski,

2009:5). The Chinese worship war heroes, sages, righteous government officials,

legendary figures, ghosts, etc as idols in shrines and temples (Yang, 1961; Potter, 2003).

In addition to these idols, ancestor worship (jizuxian), by having small altars at home or

at their gravesites or in clan ancestral halls, forms an important part in the religious life

among the Chinese (Jochim, 1986). For them, ancestors are not just dead, buried and

forgotten, and their spirits are still present to protect their descendants. The practice of

ancestor worship is strongly linked with Confucian rituals, which emphasise a hierarchy

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of society from Heaven at the top, to the king and then gods, and down to ancestors

(Lagerwey, 2010). Yet, most Chinese do not find it offensive to worship local deities

together with the institutional religions (Jochim, 1986; Lu. 2011). For them, spirits of all

kinds are compassionate helpers. Ownby (2002:224) notes that many Chinese worship

from god to god and temple to temple according to their perception of a particular gods

efficacy (Photo 2).

Photo 2 Worship of Sakyamuni Buddha in a Daoist Temple in Zhaoqing, Southwest

China

Historical Roles of Religion in China

Historically, successive governments in China intentionally promote Confucianism

among the elites in order to maintain the political stability of the governing regimes by

means of the Confucian patriarchal teaching of loyalty and filial piety. They have also

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allowed Daoism and Buddhism to flourish in society, so that people may dream of the

other-worldly affairs in the case of discontent concerning this-worldly affairs. They also

allow the superstitious local folk religions so that peasants, who form the majority in the

population, can satisfy their spiritual need. The folk tradition of ancestor worship also has

an important function of educating the people to obey the hierarchy in society. The

relative peace in the religious life among the Chinese over the past 2,500 years

demonstrates the success of such religious tolerance tactic of successive governments

(Zhou, 2014).

However, as early as in the 2nd Century BCE, a religious sect consisting of poor peasants

with the Daoist faith, who wore yellow cloth bound about their heads as a badge, started a

rebellion - the Yellow Turban Rebellion- against the Han dynasty. The rebellion (184-

204 CE) led to severe damage to the economy and eventually resulted in the downfall of

the Han dynasty in 220 CE. The Yellow Turban Rebellion, which served as a model for

subsequent peasant uprisings, was well documented and has been studied by the Chinese

throughout centuries. 3 Notable examples of similar religious revolts in the past two

3 The chaos during and after the Yellow Turban Rebellion was published in a novel entitled The Romance of the Three Kingdoms in the 14th Century CE. This novel, which is regarded as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, has been told in numerous forms including operas, films, television series, and video games.

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centuries include: the White Lotus uprising (1796-1804 CE), the Taiping rebellion (1850-

64 CE) and the Boxers revolution (1900 CE) (Dillon, 2010). These revolts resulted in

large number of casualties and damage to the economy (Hsu, 2000; Preston, 2002), and

accelerated the overthrow of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE) in 1911. The lesson thus

learnt is the need to suppress any religious movements, especially those combining a

charismatic leader with a high degree of organisation and mass appeal, at the very initial

stage by labelling such organisations with negative terms, such as heretical cults,

superstitious sects, evil religious organizations, etc (Thomas, 2001:472).

Post-1949 Regulation of Religions

The Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949 in China, and the Peoples

Republic of China so founded was based on orthodox atheistic Marxism. Religion should

therefore have withered away. Yet, this has not happened. Since 1954, Article 36 of

Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China grants freedom of religious beliefs to all

her citizens, but prohibits anyone who makes use of religion to disrupt public order,

impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. The

Communist government created national religious organisations to control the five

recognised institutional religions (the Five Great Religions): Buddhism, Daoism, Islam,

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Protestantism, and Catholicism.4 During the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), all religious

activities were suppressed with all churches, mosques, and temples closed, believers

persecuted, etc (Lu, 2011:130). Yet, China has experienced a resurgence of different

religious faiths and activities since the economic reform of the late 1970s.5 However, only

the Five Great Religions are continually recognised, and they are still tightly regulated.

Confucianism is still not a recognised religion, but has now received state support, in

particular, since 2005 to tally with the official policy of building a harmonious society.6

Table 1 lists the official data of believers of the Five Great Religions.

Table 1 Number of Believers of the Five Great Religions in China

(Source: Wong, 1999:11; Lai, 2003)7

4Confucianism was said to be the relic of feudalism and was suppressed (Lu, 2011:129), and so were the local folk religions and the folk tradition to worship ancestors (Dean, 2003). 5 There have been various reasons to account for the resurgence. For example, Adams et al (2000:20) said, more than four decades of Chinese communismleft the worlds most populated country starved for a spiritual dimension to life. Potter (2003) argues that the Chinese government accepted a trade-off of broader social and economic autonomy in exchange for her political legitimacy. 6 The Chinese government has sponsored academic conferences on Confucianism, established Confucius institutes throughout the world, and promoted Confucianism as the best of Chinese civilisation. 7 The data in the table are compiled from those published by the Chinese government. Lai (2003) expressed doubt on these official data, and quoted an unofficial figure of 200 million for the total followers of the Five Great Religions.

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Falun Gong: Origins and Development

Falun Dafa was originated from qigong (Shepherd, 2005; Lu, 2005), which in turn is

associated with the Dao in Daoism. Qigong is ancient Chinese deep-breathing exercises,

which first appeared in writings during the Jin Dynasty (265-317CE) and aims at the

integration of body, breath and mind (Palmer, 2007:32; Leung, 2002). Qi (which

literally means air) is located in ones lower abdomen (dantien), and is said to be the

the vital energy of the body (Li, 2014:181). Gong means cultivation (Lai, 2010).

Thus, qigong is the cultivation of vital energy of ones body. Practitioners of qigong

claim that it can improve health by enhancing the flow of vital energy through ones body

in harmony with the Dao (Palmer, 2003; Palmer 2007, 2009). They usually follow a

master, and each master has his unique way of practising qigong. Despite the repressive

control on institutional religions, the Communist regime has allowed practice of qigong

for medical purposes (Xu, 1999; Li, 2014). There was a qigong bloom in the 1980s in

China,8 and in 1986, the state-sponsored China Qigong Scientific Research Association

was established to regulate the qigong organisations formed. In 1989, the association

8 Scholars advanced various reasons to account for the qigong bloom in China in the 1980s. For example, Ownby (2005:202) argues that the Chinese have regarded the rise of science and technology as the cause of Western dominance, and they believe qigong as a form of Chinese science that can lead to a brighter tomorrow. Others claim that the government allowed or even encouraged qigong in order to cut medical costs (Lowe, 2003).

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announced that one in twenty Chinese - both old and young, strong and weak - now

practise qigong.9

According to the Chinese official source, Li Hongzhi, the founder of FLG, in 1988 learnt

qigong first from Master Li Weidong and then Master Yu Guangsheng. 10 He later

developed his own unique way - Falun Dafa - of practising qigong. In 1992, Li Hongzhi

formed the Falun Dafa Research Society, which marked the birth of FLG. In 1993, the

Falun Dafa Research Society was approved by the China Qigong Scientific Research

Association as an affiliate branch. The initial official response to FLG was quite positive

(Palmer, 2003; Chan, 2004; Lu, 2005; Li, 2014).11 However, the first setback occurred in

1994, when the China Qigong Scientific Research Association terminated FLGs

membership, and since then, FLG was unable to be registered in various state associations

(Tong, 2002). In 1996, the government banned publications of FLG among others by

labelling them as pseudo-science (Shepherd, 2005). Guangming Daily (a newspaper run

by the Communist Party) published an article criticising Falun Dafa as feudal

9 Fitness and Health Through Qigong, Beijing Review (20-24 April 1989). 10 The biography of Li Hongzhi remains unsettled. The autobiography of Li in the 1993 version of Zhuan Falun says that he was born on 13 May 1951, coinciding with the lunar birthday of Sakyamuni Buddha. He claimed that he started his spiritual training from the age of four, and learnt qigong since 1979 and had more than 20 Buddhist and Daoist teachers. However, according to the Chinese official source, he was born on 7 July 1952, and started to learn qigong only in 1988. See Life and times of Li Hongzhi, Xinhua News (22 July 1999). 11 For example, the official China Radio and Broadcasting Press in 1994 published his book Zhuan Falun.

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superstition and Li Hongzhi as a swindler.12 These setbacks might have been one of

the reasons that Li left for and later settled in the US (Lu, 2005). Despite such setbacks,

there has been an incredibly rapid growth in the number of its practitioners (Lowe,

2003). In 1999, FLG sources claimed that there were around 100 million practitioners, of

whom over 70 million were in China (Lum, 2006; Tong, 2012).13

Falun Gong: the Crackdown

Official hostile attitude towards FLG started in 1997, when the Public Security Bureau

investigated whether FLG should be classified as an evil cult. 14 A series of actions then

followed: police disrupted the daily Falun Dafa practice in parks and searched the homes

of its practitioners, and the official media criticised the practices of FLG.15 In April 1999,

He Zuoxiu, a renowned atheist and a physics professor, criticised Falun Dafa in an article

published in Tianjin (Thornton, 2010). Falun Dafa practitioners protested, and the protest

was dispersed by riot police with 45 practitioners arrested (Palmer, 2007). On 25 April

1999, more than 10,000 Falun Dafa practitioners gathered in Zhongnanhai - the

12 Raise the Alarm and Cry Out to Oppose False Science, Guangming Daily (17 June 1996). 13 Estimates of FLG's peak membership in China varied by source and by definition, because anyone can become a member by attending its daily practice, buying and reading its books, etc (Penny, 2012a:67). In 1999, the Chinese officials only documented 2.3 million FLG believers (Falun Gong Really is a Heretical Teaching, Peoples Daily (28 October 1999)). Palmer (2007) argues that the most probable number of its practitioners is between 3 and 20 million. 14 Behind the April 25 Incident, Minghui (21 April 2001) (in Chinese). 15 US House Calls for End to Falun Gong Persecution, The Epoch Times (16 March 2010).

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headquarters of the Chinese government in Beijing - to request the release of the detainees

(Li, 2014). The Chinese leaders were shocked, as it showed that FLG could mobilise a

large number of people to challenge the regime.16 FLG was then officially banned in

China on 22 July 1999 on the ground of being an evil cult.17 A campaign was then

launched to suppress FLG, and a number of its practitioners were arrested.

Why was FLG suppressed in 1999, despite the initial positive response from the

Communist government? Notable religious uprisings in the past (e.g. the Taiping

revolution) used god as a tool to mobilise the masses, and they all had clear political

aims to overthrow the government and/or to launch social reforms. FLG, however, deals

only with purifying its practitioners through exercises, and does not touch on social or

political issues. There is evidence that the reason for the suppression of FLG was a

political one. 18 It was reported that Jiang Zemin, the Chairman of the Chinese

Communist Party as well as the President of China at the time of suppression, compared

FLG with Polands Solidarity movement, and expressed his concern on its organisational

capacity that could rival the Communist regime (Hu, 2003; Greenlee, 2006). By

16 It was reported that the Chinese Government held an emergency meeting on 30 April 1999 and concluded that the demonstration of 25 April 1999 was a political threat to the regime. See Cracks in Chinas Crackdown, The Washington Post (12 November 1999). 17 The Notice from Chinese Communist Party to All Communist Members that It is Forbidden to Practise Falun Dafa, Peoples Daily (23 July 1999). 18China Says Falun Gong Aims to Replace Government, Peoples Daily (28 July 1999).

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coincidence, the protests launched by FLG after 1996 tallied with the increased demands

against the government around various social issues (Fairbank and Goldman, 1998). FLG

thus was regarded as a potential source of destabilising social order and the regime. By

labelling FLG as an evil cult, the Chinese government wants to link FLG with other

religious sects causing disturbances throughout Chinese history (Irons, 2003). The

suppression of FLG therefore supports the summary in the earlier paragraphs that

successive Chinese governments can allow freedom of religious beliefs only to the extent

that such freedom does not affect the political stability of the regime.

Chapter Summary

In this chapter, this study argues that successive governments in China have intentionally

allowed a pluralistic mix of religions among the Chinese so that there has been relative

religious peace among the Chinese. However, there have been a number of religious

uprisings in the past, which eventually led to the downfall of the governing regimes. As

such, the current Communist regime has maintained a tight control over religious

activities and insists that religions should serve as both political and social controls. FLG

could flourish in less than a decade because it took advantage of the qigong bloom in the

1980s. Yet, it is also because of such rapid growth that the Chinese government treated

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FLG as a political threat and therefore reverted back to the traditional method of

suppression of such religious sect.

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Chapter 3

Falun Gong: Beliefs, Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices

Beliefs

The beliefs of FLG are summarised in Li Hongzhis book Zhuan Falun (first published in

1994), which is an edited compilation of Lis lectures.19 This book, besides describing the

beliefs, also explains its relationship with science, qigong, Buddhism and Daoism; the

origins of the cosmos, virtue, and evil; spirits, gods and demons; and ethical behaviour in

everyday life. In Zhuan Falun, Li claims that Falun Dafa is a form of modern science

based on Buddhism, Daoism, and qigong. This is reflected by the emblem of FLG

(Figure 2), which is a large Buddhist swastika with four small spinning swastikas and

four revolving Daoist yin-yang symbols.20

19 There is another introductory guide on Falun Dafa written by Li Hongzhi Falun Gong (first published in 1992). 20 In China and Japan, swastika symbolises good fortune and well being. See Swastika, in Damien Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford UP, 2003) p 287. The circle in the yin-yang symbol represents the Dao in Daoist thought, and the two halves represent respectively yin and yang. The curves within the yin-yang symbol imply movement in which yin and yang are mutually-arising, interdependent, and continuously transforming into the other. The smaller circles within yin and yang show that the interdependent nature of yin and yang.

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Figure 2 Emblem of FLG

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.com; accessed: 21 October 2014])

Falun Dafa and Science: an Advanced Science

In the Preface to his Zhuan Falun, Li Hongzhi criticises scientists who call Falun Dafa

superstitious, by asserting that Falun Dafa is an advanced science. Li (2000:i) explains

that [ordinary] science is confined only to this physical world, and Falun Dafa, being an

advanced science, enable one to understand phenomena that are intangible and invisible

in physical dimension. Li (2000:37) supports his assertion that by claiming that practising

Falun Dafa can help one to emit energy in the form of invisible electromagnetic waves.

He then states that his gong was measured by modern apparatus (which, he says, can

detect all types of electromagnetic waves) and was found to generate abundant radiation

(Li, 2000:37). Yet, the details of the measurement (e.g. the experimental set-up, the

measuring apparatus, the data) were not given in Zhuan Falun and/or appeared elsewhere

in FLGs publications or scientific journals.

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Falun Dafa and Qigong: Not Just Improving Health

Chapter 2 described the claim of qigong to improve ones health by enhancing the flow

of qi through ones body, and that Falun Dafa was derived from qigong. Then, how can

Falun Dafa improve ones health? Li Hongzhi claims that he can insert an invisible and

intangible Dharma Wheel (falun) into ones abdomen.21 By practising Falun Dafa, he

argues that one is able to turn this falun. When the falun is rotating at the same rate as the

universe, the practitioner begins to become one with the cosmos. Li further teaches that

once the falun spins, it spins constantly and never has to be renewed or restarted. The

spinning of this falun is more powerful than qi, because it is also able to absorb positive

energy from the universe and neutralises negative energy trapped in ones body. Besides

improving health, Li teaches that practising Falun Dafa can also cure illness. He teaches

that the cause of illness is karma - a term borrowed from Buddhist teaching.22 However,

unlike Buddhism, Li teaches that his karma is a visible black substance, which is

accumulated when one (or ones ancestors) does immoral acts. Practising Falun Dafa,

according to Li, can eliminate part of ones karma. The elimination of the remaining

karma depends on cultivating ones innate morality (xinxing), e.g. by abolishing

21 In an interview with Time magazine, Li explains that he uses [his] mind to direct and order such insertion. See Interview with Li Hongzhi, Time (10 May 1999). 22 In Buddhist terms, karma is the principle that all intentional actions, good or bad, will lead to future results. See Harvey, 2013.

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jealousy and stubbornness, accumulating merit (de). Here, the term de bears the same

meaning as that in Buddhism, i.e. by doing good work. Li therefore urges practitioners to

lead moral lives.

Falun Dafa and Buddhism: Beyond Spiritual Enlightenment

Falun Dafa is concerned not only with physical but also with spiritual progress. His falun

is related to the Dharma Wheel in Buddhist teaching. The Dharma Wheel in Buddhist

teaching is the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara), which can only be escaped by

following Buddhas Dharma (Schumann, 1973). For Li, his falun goes beyond the

Buddhist Dharma Wheel, and encompasses the three Principles of the Universe -

Truthfulness, Benevolence, and Forbearance (Zhen-Shan-Ren). Daoists acts honestly to

cultivate Zhen, and can then return to the Dao. Buddhists has a charitable heart and

performs good work, and can cultivate Shan. Li Hongzhi argues that Falun Dafa goes

beyond Zhen and Shan, and its practitioners also cultivate Ren, which enables them to

endure when suffered and not resent, and to accept the suffering.

Li Hongzhi teaches that the ultimate goal of cultivation is to achieve a transcendent state

of consummation. Consummation, in Buddhist term, means nirvana, i.e. spiritual

26

enlightenment. In FLG, consummation goes beyond spiritual enlightenment, as practising

Falun Dafa can enable one to replace all ones body cells with high energy matter (Li,

2000:44). At this cultivation level, one stops the ageing process (Li, 2000:105), and thus

can achieve immortality. Li says:

In the West, one can reach paradise through cultivation practice after death. In the East, one can achieve a divine status through cultivation practice while one is still alive.23

As such, Li Hongzhi has transformed Falun Dafa from qigong to a method of gaining

enlightenment and self-salvation (Lu, 2005), and immortality for its practitioners.

The Cosmic Law and Human World History: Salvation of the Whole Humanity

Li Hongzhi claims that he alone knows the truth of the cosmos and the future of

humankind, because he himself stands at the highest point in the universe and can see at

his level the forms of existence for different lives and matter in different time-spaces, and

the truth of our universe (Li, 2000:183). Li says:

Once upon a time, we were all living in other spaces, but we committed sins, so we came to earth to repent and save ourselves. But weve forgotten we committed sins, and instead of repenting we invented cars and rockets and get prosperous and live well and forget about repenting . Gods come once or twice to try to save us, but in the end they give up because man is so set on his own way [emphasis added] 24

23 Interview with Li Hongzhi, Time (10 May 1999). 24 Chinas Cult Flourishes in Chinas Spiritual Vacuum, The Scotsman (18 November 1998).

27

This saying was likely borrowed from the teaching in Christianity, which holds that the

present human predicament was due to the fall of the first man.25 He claims that human

civilisations have already experienced destruction 81 times, and the few survivors after

each destruction were required to live in primitive ways. According to Li, archaeologists

have evidence of past civilizations in Peru, France and South Africa, and a two-billion-

year-old nuclear reactor was also uncovered by French scientists in Gabon in 1972 (Li,

2000:9).26 Li further claims that prehistoric beings created pyramids, which sank to the

bottom of the ocean before being discovered by the Egyptians (Porter, 2003:31).

However, he did not provide any evidence in supporting this latter claim. Like that in

Christianity and Islam, he also holds an apocalyptic view by claiming that the present

human civilization is now heading for final destruction. He then claims that he is sent to

save humanity from the coming destruction. He teaches that only those who purify

themselves with Falun Dafa to a higher stage can escape the coming final destruction.

25 Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned (Rom 5:12) 26 Scientists and geologists usually treat this nuclear reactor as a natural one due to the specific geological conditions of this region. See, for example, The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor, Scientific American (26 January 2009).

28

Mystical Supernormal Abilities

According to Li Hongzhi, the universe has multiple dimensions, in which humans live in

the lowest descent level (Li, 2000:2). There are other beings around us, including Buddha,

ghosts, demons, etc, and our five senses cannot detect them. Practising Falun Dafa

enables one to cultivate supernormal abilities. One of the supernatural abilities is to open

the Third Eye (tianmu), which is located slightly above and between the eyebrows and

is connected to the pineal body (Li, 2000:25). He teaches that the Third Eye can ascend

up to five levels, and when practitioner at or above the third level can see other

dimensions (e.g. objects thousands of miles away, events in the future). Li (2000:181)

quoted the following example to show the existence of the Third Eye:

I taught the [Third] Eye opening on the second day of a class. Right away, one person with good inborn quality had his [Third] Eye opened at a very high level. He saw numerous scenes that many other people could not see. He told others: Wow, I saw Falun falling like snow flakes on the audiences bodies throughout the whole auditorium. I saw what Teacher Lis real body looks like, Teacher Lis halo, what Falun looks like and how many fashen there are.

Ethical Doctrines

Closely linked with its beliefs are the ethical doctrines of FLG. Its ethical doctrines are

based on the assumption that humans are benevolent in nature and such nature was

29

contaminated by modern society, and this assumption tallies with that in Confucianism.27

Falun Dafa practitioners are therefore required to lead moral lives, to work hard and be

good citizens, and to take responsibility for their own decisions and actions. By

cultivating ones xinxing, one can not only improve ones physical health, but also

achieve consummation. Indeed, the morality demonstrated by Falun Dafa practitioners

probably helped FLG to recruit people to cultivate Falun Dafa in the 1990s (Xiao, 2001).

Besides cultivating xinxing, practitioners are required to follow the Principles of the

Universe (Zhen-Shan-Ren), and among these principles, Ren is regarded as the highest

moral virtue in this degraded world, and this virtue has probably enabled practitioners to

continue to practise Falun Dafa in China even after the suppression in 1999.

Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices

FLG does not have any religious formality, rituals or forms of worship. Falun Dafa

practitioners are ascetic, and yet continue to live with their families and occupations.

Practitioners are only required to carry out daily exercises. There were originally five

particular exercises (Figure 3), which are said to be able to enhance the flow of the falun

in ones body. The sixth one - Sending Forth Righteous Thoughts (Figure 4) - was

27 Meng Tzu (371-288 BCE), who has been regarded as the most famous Confucian after Confucius, holds that the innate human nature is good.

30

introduced in 2001, and this exercise involves a sitting meditation, in which practitioners

are required to follow mudrs and recite formulae when they perform the exercise.28 The

last exercise is claimed to be able to eliminate evil in other dimensions (Palmer,

2003:348).

Figure 3 Five Exercises in Falun Dafa

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.org ; accessed: 10 November 2014])

28 The formulae are: The Fa rectifies the Cosmos. Evil is completely eliminated. The Fa rectifies Heaven and Earth, immediate retribution in this lifetime.

31

Figure 4 Mudrs (hand positions) in Sending Forth Righteous Thoughts

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.org ; accessed: 10 November 2014])

Chapter Summary

This chapter investigates the relationship between Falun Dafa with science, qigong,

Buddhism and Daoism. However, this study notes that there are mystic aspects of Falun

Dafa, which are beyond reason and are not verified by empirical data. This chapter also

presents the core belief of FLG of truthfulness-benevolence-forbearance (Zhen-Shan-

Ren). Truthfulness is the ultimate objective of Daoism, and benevolence is the highest

purpose of Buddhism. FLG also has ethical doctrines, which share the basic assumption

about human nature with Confucianism. Falun Dafa is, thus, usually said to be a

synthesis of the traditional Chinese religions of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism.

However, FLG goes beyond these traditional religious beliefs by claiming that practising

Falun Dafa enables one to accept suffering, to achieve consummation, and to acquire

supernormal abilities. FLG also holds an apocalyptic view similar to that in Christianity,

32

Islam, etc, and claims that practising Falun Dafa can lead to the salvation of practitioners

in the coming final destruction.

33

Chapter 4

Falun Gong A Religion?

What is a Religion?

In this chapter, the question of whether FLG is a religion will be answered. It is first

required to define the term religion. However, there is no single, universally agreed

definition of this term, and there are also several Latin words which might have served as

the origin of the English word religion. The word religion might have come from the

Latin word religio (meaning respect, devotion or superstition). An early definition of

this type came from Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), the founder of British

anthropology, who defines religion as the belief in spiritual beings (Segal, 2006:4).

Such substantive definition is based on the substance of religious beliefs (i.e. what a

religion is). Others refer the word religion to have come from the Latin words religo

(meaning to tie or fasten) or religare (meaning binding, tying or attaching). They are

more interested in the role of religion in (re-)establishing the bond between humans and

the divine.29 Such functional definition focuses on the function(s) of religion (i.e. what

a religion does). Functional definitions are also adopted by sociologists, though they are

29 In the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity or Islam, religion is not just devotion to a supernatural being, but also serves the purpose of re-uniting humans with God, since the fall of the first human Adam.

34

more interested in the role of religion as a social activity (Giddens, 2009:677; Asad,

1993).

What can therefore be deduced concerning the meaning of religion? Ninian Smart

(1927-2001), a pioneer of secular religious studies, answers this question by identifying

the common features among different religions. Smart (1969) originally proposed a six-

dimensional (ritual, mythic, doctrinal, ethical, social/institutional, and experiential)

definition for religion, and later Smart (1989) added the seventh dimension - the

material dimension - to the definition. This study therefore combines substantive and

functional definitions with Smarts seven-dimensional definition, and adopts four key

criteria in distinguishing a religion from other social activities or political movements.

These four criteria are: the existence of a spiritual leader, or a belief in supernatural

being(s); a shared belief system with sacred text(s); sacred rituals, ceremonies and

practices; and a religious organisational structure. The first criterion, which includes the

existence of a spiritual leader, is framed such that Buddhism can be included as a

religion.30 With these four criteria, the traditional institutional religions (e.g. Christianity,

30 Whether Buddhism is a religion or just a way of living is highly controversial, as Sakyamuni Buddha did not regard himself as a god or a supernatural being, though Buddhists in China usually treat Sakyamuni Buddha and other bodhisattvas (e.g. Kuan Yin) as supernatural beings who can offer help in the case of crises or changes.

35

Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism) as well as Confucianism have no difficulties in

classifying themselves as religions,31 and Marxism, nationalism, etc cannot be classified

as religions.32

Falun Gong as a Religion?

Both Li Hongzhi and Falun Dafa practitioners do not admit that FLG is a religion, and

they regard Falun Dafa as an advanced science. They further argue that Falun Dafa does

not contradict any other religious faiths; but encompasses them into its beliefs (Porter,

2003). However, Penny (2012a) argues that they may have intended to downplay their

metaphysical teachings, and instead, present Zhen-Shan-Ren as the Principles of the

Universe such that non-believers can easily accept its doctrines. The Chinese official

position is that FLG is a religious cult, and indeed, an evil cult. The following will

therefore address this question by using the four criteria identified in the earlier

paragraphs.

31 In this study, Christianity includes both Protestant Christianity and Catholic Christianity. For Confucianism, although Confucius did not argue for the existence of gods, Confucius has been worshipped by the Chinese in Confucian temples. Moreover, Confucianism does have formal organisations, and The Analects, which is regarded as a sacred text, contains the sayings and teachings of Confucius. 32 In the words of Smart (1969), Marxism cannot be classified as a religion, as [n]either relationship to a personal God nor the hope of an experience of salvation or nirvana can be significant for the Marxist.

36

Li Hongzhi: both a Spiritual Leader and a Supernatural Being

The first criterion in this study to qualify one as a religion is the existence of a spiritual

leader, or a belief in supernatural being(s). Falun Dafa practitioners claim that there is

neither a spiritual leader nor a supernatural being in FLG. However, in FLG, there is a

very distinct role for the founder - Li Hongzhi. While Falun Dafa practitioners rank

equally as seekers of consummation, and Li is given the title of Master (Sifu meaning

teacher), and this sounds quite symbolically like Jesus among his followers.33 Li says in

a talk in Toronto in 1999:

You are cultivators, but Im not. Every one of you has to comply with the standards of a cultivator without exception. You must all reach the realm and standards of Consummation. Yet, I am not the same as you. Im here to teach you this Fa (Li, 1999).34

It can therefore easily be deduced that Li has assumed the role of spiritual leader in FLG,

whose function is to lead his followers to enlightenment. This study, however, further

argues that Li has deified himself from a spiritual leader to a living god. In the 1994

33In the Bible, Jesus is portrayed as rabbi (again meaning teacher), who preaches the good news from the Father. For example, Jn 3:1-2: Now there was a man of the Pharisees, named Nicodemus, a ruler of the Jews. This man came to Jesus by night and said to Him, Rabbi, we know that You have come from God as a teacher; for no one can do these signs that You do unless God is with him. 34 In this talk, Li (1999) further claims, though without explanation, that he knew why Jesus had to be crucified, and why Yahweh did not release him.

37

version of Zhuan Falun, Li compared himself with Chairman Mao, and Penny (2012a:85)

quoted the comparison as follows: 35

Falun Dafa founded by Mr Li Hongzhi is like a red sun rising from the east, whose radiance with unlimited vitality will illuminate every corner of the earth, nourish all the living things, warm the whole world and play an unparalleled role in the realization of an ideal and perfect human society on this planet.

In the writings of FLG, Li has always been associated himself with Sakyamuni Buddha.

His birth, according to his autobiography, was on 13 May 1951, which in that year was

the lunar birthday of Sakyamuni Buddha. Li always dresses in a Buddhist saffron robe

and sits in the lotus position. Li further asserts that he has already reached the highest

level of cultivation and been equipped with various law bodies (fashen).36 He claims

that his fashen can exist independent of, but are controlled by, his main body, and allows

him to do whatever he wants to do. Li (2000:92) suggests that he himself is an

omnipresent supernatural being, by promising practitioners that when they cultivate Falun

Dafa, one of his fashen will protect them from disasters and illnesses.

35 Mao Zedong (1893 1976) is the founding father of the Peoples Republic of China. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), Mao was deified as the rising sun bringing hope to the people and was worshipped as the omnipotent living god by Chinese at their home altars. See Landsberger, 2002. 36 The term fashen was probably borrowed from Buddhist term dharmakya. Dharmakya is one of the three bodies (trikya) of the Buddha, representing the real nature the Buddha, out of which buddhas arise and to which they return after their dissolution.

38

In his biography, Li was also said to possess supernormal abilities at the age of eight, e.g.

rendering himself invisible, putting nails out of wood with his bare hands, passing through

a glass window (Penny, 2003). Among the miracles, curing illness is an essential

characteristic of religious founders.37 The earlier paragraphs mentioned that Li claims to

have magical power to insert an invisible falun into the practitioners lower abdomen,

rendering one immune to disease. Li further claims to have cured many illnesses through

Falun Dafa (Li, 2000:145). Falun Dafa practitioners also narrated that Li had cured non-

curable diseases of his followers (Chen, 2005). Like Jesus, Li also claims that he can

exorcise demons and impurities from the bodies of his follower, and to stop raining

(Penny, 2003). Also, he claims himself, similar to Jesus, as the messiah sent by god(s) to

save humankind from the coming destruction. The study of Li (2014:187) found that

many Falun Dafa practitioners regarded Li as a god who is above all other gods. Penny

(2012a:108-11) found that many Falun Dafa practitioners see Li as the future Maitreya

Buddha, and reported that Li has neither confirmed or denied this. 38 Lu (2005:178)

reported that [a] large number of practitioners regarded Li Hongzhi as an omnipotent

God who is protecting and guiding practitioners at all times, satisfies all qualified

37 The major figures in Judaism (Moses), Christianity (Jesus), and Islam (Muhammad) have all worked miracles. For example, the four Gospels in the New Testament record 37 miracles of Jesus, including cleansing a man with leprosy (Mt 8:1-4; Mk 1:40-45; Lk 5:12-14), healing a centurions servant (Mt 8:5-13; Lk 7:1-10), raising Lazarus from the dead (Jn 11:1-45), etc. 38 According to Buddhist teaching, Maitreya Buddha is now residing in the Tushita heaven, and will descend in some 5,670,000,000 years to earth to preach anew the true Dharma.

39

practitioners needs, and even determines the future of the world. This study therefore

argues that FLG satisfies the first criterion of a religion in this study with Li as a

supernatural leader with spiritual powers.

A Shared Belief System with Sacred Texts

Chapter 3 shows that FLG has a defined set of beliefs. The beliefs of Zhen and Shan

came from Daoism and Buddhism respectively, and its belief of Ren goes beyond Daoism

and Buddhism. In Zhuan Falun, Li Hongzhi further says (Li, 2000:93):

This universe consists of two major schools, the Buddha School and the Dao School . Confucianism belongs to the Dao School; when many Western religious cultivation practices reach high levels, they are classified as belonging to the same system as ours, the Buddha School. There are only two such schools.

Confucianism is thus placed within Daoism, and Western religions are placed within

Buddhism. Thus, FLG encompasses all the major religious thoughts. There are also a

number of features in Lis teachings, which are common to those of other religions.

Firstly, Lis theory of illness is based on karma, and is very similar (if not identical) to

that in Buddhism. That is, one can get illness just because one (or ones ancestors) does

an immoral act, and by doing good work ones merit can cure illness. Secondly, like those

in Western religions, FLG also promotes salvation and apocalyptic teachings. In this

40

aspect, FLG distinguishes itself from qigong in that it offers both individual spiritual

enlightenment and salvation to humankind (Li, 2000:18). Like those in other religions,

Li claims that his teachings are the only true path to salvation. However, unlike those in

the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity or Islam, Li holds that the promise of

salvation is explicitly offered unconditionally to humankind out of compassion, and

there can be salvation for all (Li, 2000:81).

All major institutional religions have their core beliefs contained in sacred texts, e.g. the

Bible in Christianity, the Quran in Islam. FLG has its core beliefs contained in the sacred

text of Zhuan Falun, and Falun Dafa practitioners are advised to read Zhuan Falun,

which is held to be the source of all truth (Ownby, 2005; Lu, 2005). Zhuan Falun

therefore serves as the Bible of FLG (Yu, 2009:154). Li (2014) further reported that

practitioners are forbidden to make any marks on this sacred text, and that during the 1999

demonstrations nearly all protestors held a copy of Zhuan Falun at hand. Many

practitioners claimed to have experienced revelation by reading this sacred text (Ownby,

2005).

41

Sacred Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices

The next criterion in this study is whether there are any sacred rituals, ceremonies and

practices for FLG. Falun Dafa practitioners are free to join and leave, are not bound by

any obligations and duties, are not required to pay any fees, and are not listed on any

registers. They are only required to carry out the six exercises daily. Li Hongzhi insists

that the exercises, which aim at enabling practitioners to reach consummation, are not

religious rituals. Yet, the reality is that the exercises, which are to be followed daily,

resemble a set of religious rituals. Indeed, the exercise of Sending Forth Righteous

Thoughts (Figure 4) resembles a religious ritual, as it is claimed to be able to eliminate

evil by the mudrs and reciting the formulae. Moreover, Falun Dafa practitioners are

advised to read Zhuan Falun in order to advance their cultivation level, which is similar to

reading the Bible for Christians and/or reading the Quran for Muslims. The cultivation

practice of FLG therefore shows that it is a religion that has no observable religious

forms (Li, 2000:48).

A Religious Organisational Structure

The existence of a religious organisational structure is vital for sociologists to classify

whether an organisation is a religion (Giddens, 2009:678). Whether FLG has a religious

organisational structure is highly controversial. In his biography Li Hongzhi Ping Zhuan

42

(Zhang, 1999), Li Hongzhi told his readers that FLG was unable to register as a civil

society group with the Civil Affairs Bureau in China, because FLG did not have formal

organisational structure. There are also no priests or clergy, and no induction ceremony in

FLG. Practitioners are free to come and go as they please, and they usually assemble

daily in parks to practise Falun Dafa. FLG also does not accept contributions of goods or

money. However, the Chinese government alleged that FLG is organised in a clear

hierarchical structure.39 Leung (2002) and Tong (2002) found that FLG is operated under

a loose pyramid structure (Figure 5), with Li Hongzhi acting as the Chairman, followed

by city and provincial main stations, branch stations in cities, guidance stations at county,

urban, and district levels, followed by many practice points. Within each level, there is a

clear functional division of labour. The organisational structure was patented after the

administrative apparatus of China, and efficiently linked hierarchically through emails,

mobile phones and websites (Tong, 2002). Li also laid down rules for practitioners

(Kupfer, 2009). He prohibits practitioners to follow the exercises of other qigong masters

(Lu, 2005). Local leaders are prohibited from preaching and are only given administrative

duties (Ownby, 2005). The organisational structure and the disciplinary rules enable Li to

have effective control over every Falun Dafa practitioner. Kang (2002:7) comments that

39 See, for example, Appointment Letter from Falun Gong Head Found, Xinhua News (3 August 1999); Falun Gong is Well Organised: Insiders, Xinhua News (10 August 1999); and Handwritten Instructions Show Evidence of Falun Gong Organisation, Xinhua News (31 July 1999).

43

[Li Hongzhi] exerts top-to-bottom control over the entire organisation and that a portion

of its members are able to take concerted action in line with the will of [Li]. Thus, FLG

is an unusual organisation, in which practitioners are joined together with a loose pyramid

hierarchy without face-to-face meetings. However, this loose hierarchy can effectively

communicate from the top down to every Falun Dafa practitioner. The efficiency of its

organisational structure can also be evident from its mass-mobilising ability, especially

just before and after the crackdown in 1999.40

In summary, FLG meets the four criteria of this study for a religion. It has a charismatic

leader who asserts himself to possess spiritual and supernatural powers; a set of beliefs

contained in Li Hongzhis important work of Zhuan Falun; established rituals, ceremonies

and practices for cultivation; and a loose hierarchy or network of practitioners. Indeed,

although Li Hongzhi has openly and repeatedly denied that FLG is a religion, he never

denied that FLG is more than a religion.

40 Between 25 April and 27 July 1999, it was reported that FLG mounted 307 demonstrations against negative media representation in China (Perry, 2001).

44

Figure 5 Organisational Structure of FLG

(Source: Kupfer, 2009:265)

45

Falun Gong as an Evil Cult?

The above discussion concludes that although FLG does not admit itself to be a religion,

in reality it possesses the key characteristics to classify itself as a religion. FLG can

therefore be said to be a religious sect.41 Yet, FLG has been alleged by the Chinese

government to be an evil cult. The term cult represents a deviant religious group that is

in a state of relatively high tension with their surrounding socio-cultural environment

(Frisk, 2013:378) or that rejects what they see as the values of the outside society

(Giddens, 2009:689). The term cult is, however, translated in Chinese into false

teaching (xiejiao), which adopts extreme, evil, destructive means to reach their anti-

science, anti-human, anti-social and anti-governmental goals (Aalderink, 2001). The

Chinese official Xinhua News Agency linked FLG with the Peoples Temple in Guyana,

the Branch Davidians in the US, and Aum Shinrikyo in Japan.42 Thus, in labelling FLG as

an evil cult, the Chinese government condemns the nature of FLG, which has led its

practitioners on a wrong path, blinding them to impartial and sound judgment. The

Chinese government has advanced plenty of evidence to support this charge against

FLG.43 The following represents the key allegations against FLG:

41 A sect is a smaller, less highly organised grouping of committed believers, usually setting itself up in protest against what a church has become (Giddens, 2009:688-9). 42 Falun Gong, Xinhua News (9 August 1999). 43 See, for example, Falun Gong, Xinhua News (9 August 1999) and Falun Gong Killed My Wife, Peoples Daily (23 July 1999).

46

Firstly, [FLG and its activities] have used such heresies as the end of the world and global explosion to confuse practitioners, thus causing some practitioners to lose the ability to think, judge, and discriminate things normally; they become distraught; behave in an eccentric and unreasonable manner, and even cripple themselves, commit suicide, or cruelly injure or kill other people. Secondly, they have asked believers not to visit the doctors when they are sick.44

There are no ways to investigate the allegations, as the Chinese government prohibited

any non-governmental research on FLG within China. This study, however, notes that

although FLG holds an apocalyptic worldview, it teaches its practitioners to live as good

citizens and not to view themselves as special. Instead, FLG is keen on re-establishing

moral ethics and normative guidance for its practitioners. Its core beliefs were derived

from Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, etc, and practitioners need simply to practise

Falun Dafa, study its beliefs in Zhuan Falun, and strive to do good. The end goal of

cultivation is to reach consummation. Even under persecution, Falun Dafa practitioners

have always remained peaceful and stick to the belief of forbearance.45 As such, it is

quite difficult to conclude that FLG is an evil cult!

44 CASS Official Xia Yong on Falun Gong: Rule of Law, Xinhua News (3 August 1999). 45 In the protest on 25 April 1999 outside Zhongnanhai, Falun Dafa practitioners stayed motionless, calm and seated on the sidewalk while organisers communicated by mobile telephones (Cults Followers Rally in Beijing, New York Times (26 April 1999)).

47

Chapter Summary

This chapter first reviews the various definitions of religion, and identifies four key

criteria in distinguishing a religion from other social or political activities. Then, this

chapter addresses the question: Is FLG a religion? This study concludes that FLG has

key characteristics of a religion. This chapter further discusses whether FLG is an evil

cult as alleged by the Chinese government. However, this study cannot find sufficient

evidence to prove such serious allegation, and notes that FLG is just a religious sect which

synthesises traditional Chinese religious beliefs together with qigong and the apocalyptic

and salvation belief of Western religions.

48

Chapter 5

Epilogue

Concluding Remarks

This study reviews the distinct roles of religion in China, which in addition to meeting the

spiritual needs of the ordinary people, have served as means of political and social control.

Since the economic reform of the later 1970s, there has been a resurgence of religious

activities in China. FLG then took advantage of the qigong bloom in the 1980s, and grew

rapidly into one of the largest non-governmental organisations in the history of the world.

However, it is also due to its rapid growth that the Chinese government regarded it as a

threat to the regime, and FLG was banned in China in 1999 on the ground of being an

evil cult. This study summarises the beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices of FLG,

and argues that FLG is a syncretistic blend of traditional ideas in China from qigong,

Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, as well as the apocalyptic and salvation belief in

Western religions. Judging from its beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices, this study

cannot conclude that FLG is an evil cult, though it is a sect with key characteristics of a

religion.

49

Future of Falun Gong

Since 1999, the Chinese government has launched a massive campaign against FLG

(Chen, 2003; Young, 2013; Porter, 2003; Tong, 2012). Active practitioners were put into

jail, and other practitioners were threatened with disciplinary actions in schools or in

offices.46 Falun Dafa practitioners launched a number of protests (e.g. shouting slogans,

unfurling banners, setting themselves on fire at Tiananmen Square) against the

suppression (Chen, 2003). Li Hongzhi, initially, wanted to defend FLG against the

allegation of evil cult. Soon, Li began to directly criticise the Communist regime. He

designated the Communist regime as evil wretches (Li, 2000a) and the General

Secretary of the Communist Party, Jiang Zemin, as the Great King of Terror (Li, 2000b).

Later, he called on the practitioners to overthrow the Communist regime (Li, 2003).

However, the heavy-handed full-scale suppression by the Chinese government has

deterred organised resistance from Falun Dafa practitioners within China. By 2011, the

organised activities of FLG in China have virtually disappeared (Tong, 2012).

On the other hand, overseas practitioners have continued to disseminate Falun Dafa

teachings. Besides among the Chinese, Falun Dafa cultivation is now increasingly

46Paper Calls for Educating Falun Gong Followers, Xinhua News (9 January 2001).

50

popular among non-Chinese spiritual and/or health seekers in the US and Canada. FLG

has now effectively transformed itself into a global community in 40 countries, and Lis

writings have been translated into more than 20 languages (Shepherd, 2005). Its semi-

official newspaper - The Epoch Times - is published in more than ten languages, and FLG

is also associated with a satellite-based television network - the New Tang Dynasty TV -

that broadcasts worldwide in several languages. 47 Ownby (2008) accounts for its

successful transformation by its skilful use of the cyberspace of internet and social media

(e.g. Facebook) to spread their messages. Their official or semi-official websites (e.g.

FalunDafa, Mingui) report the persecution of practitioners and post Li Hongzhis

messages. The translation of FLG teachings into other languages and their availability in

cyberspace has enabled the spread of Falun Dafa. However, all such attempts within

China have been effectively been blocked by the Chinese government (Bell and Boas,

2003).

What should therefore lie ahead for FLG? Palmer (2007:281) says, Falun Gong appears

as one of the best organised and persistent oppositional movements.far surpassing

democratic dissidents in its organisational and mobilisational capacity, both in China and

47 For the relationship between FLG and the New Tang Dynasty TV, see Chinese Dissidents Take on Beijing via Media Empire, The Wall Street Journal (15 November 2001).

51

abroad. Yet, this study considers that the tight control of religions and cyberspace in

China means that it is unlikely even in the medium-term that FLG will become a legal

religious or non-religious organisation in China. This study therefore concludes by

suggesting FLG to tone down the mystical aspect of its teachings, and at the same time, to

enhance its current role as a spiritual and/or health transnational organisation with the

help of cyberspace, which should be a viable option for the future of FLG.

52

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Journal Articles Bell, M. and Boas, T.C., 2003, Falun Gong and the Internet: Evangelism, Community, and Struggle for Survival, Nova Religio, 6:2, pp 277-293. Chan, S.C.C., 2013, Doing Ideology Amid a Crisis: Collective Actions and Discourses of the Chinese Falun Gong Movement, Social Psychology Quarterly, 76:1, pp 1-24. Chan, S.C.C., 2004, The Falun Gong in China: A Sociological Perspective, The China Quarterly, 179 (September), pp 665-83. Chen, C.H., 2005, Framing Falun Gong: Xinhua News Agencys Coverage of the New Religious Movement in China, Asian Journal of Communication, 15:1, pp 16-36. Chen, Nancy N., 2003, Healing Sects and Anti-Cult Campaigns, The China Quarterly, 174 (June), pp 505-20. Dean, K., 2003, Local Communal Religion in Contemporary South-East China, The China Quarterly, 174 (June), pp 338-58. DuBois, T.D., 2010, Religion and the Chinese State: Three Crises and a Solution, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 64:3, pp 344-58. Greenlee, Michael J., 2006, A King Who Devours His People: Jiang Zemin and the Falun Gong Crackdown: A Bibliography, International Journal of Legal Information, 34:3, pp 556-84. Irons, E., 2003, Falun Gong and the Sectarian Religion Paradigm, Nova Religio, 6:2, pp 244-62. Junker, A., 2014, Follower Agency and Charismatic Mobilization in Falun Gong, Sociology of Religion, 75:3, pp 418-41. Kang, X.G., 2002, The Political Effects of the Falun Gong Issue, Chinese Education and Society, 35:1 (January/February) pp 5-14.

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Lai, A., 2010, Hegel, the Tiananmen Incident and Falun Gong, European Journal of East Asian Studies, 9:1, pp 119-33. Lai, H.Y.H, 2003, The Religious Revival in China, Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies, 18, pp 40-64. Leung, B., 2002, China and Falun Gong: Party and Society Relations in the Modern Era, Journal of Contemporary China, 11:3, pp 76184. Li, J.P., 2014, The Religion of the Nonreligious and the Politics of the Apolitical: The Transformation of Falun Gong from Healing Practice to Political Movement, Politics and Religion, 7, pp 177-208. Lowe, S., 2003, Chinese and International Contexts for the Rise of Falun Gong, Nova Religio, 6:2, pp 263-76. Lu, Y.F., 2005, Entrepreneurial Logics and the Evolution of Falun Gong, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44:2, pp 173-85. Noakes, Stephen., 2010, Falun Gong, Ten Years On, Pacific Affairs, 83:2 (June), pp 349-57. Ownby, D., 2002, A History of Falun Gong: Popular Religion and the Chinese State since the Ming Dynasty, Nova Religio, 5:2, pp 223-43. Ownby, D., 2003, The Falun Gong in the New World, European Journal of East Asian Studies, 2:2 (September), pp 303-20. Ownby, D., 2003a, A History for Falun Gong: Popular Religion and the Chinese State Since the Ming Dynasty, Nova Religio, 6:2, pp 223-43. Palmer, D.A., 2009, Chinas Religious Danwei: Institutionalizing Religion in the Peoples Republic, China Perspective, 4, pp 17-31. Palmer, S.J., 2003, From Healing to Protest: Conversion Patterns Among the Practitioners of Falun Gong, Nova Religio, 6:2, pp 348-64.

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Penny, B., 2003, The Life and Times of Li Hongzhi: Falun Gong and Religious Biography, The China Quarterly, 175, pp 643-61. Penny, B., 2005, The Falun Gong, Buddhism and Buddhist Qigong, Asian Studies Review, 29:1, pp 35-46. Perry, E.J., 2001, Challenging the Mandate of Heaven: Popular Protest in Modern China, Critical Asian Studies, 33:2, pp 16380. Potter, P.B., 2003, Belief in Control: Regulation of Religion in China, The China Quarterly, 174, pp 317-37. Shepherd, R.J., 2005, Age of the Laws End: Falun Gong and the Cultivation of Modernity in Post-Maoist China, International Journal of Cultural Studies, 8:4, pp 387-404. Thomas, K.A., 2001, Falun Gong: An Analysis of Chinas National Security Concerns, Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal, 10:2 (March), pp. 471-96. Tong, J., 2002, An Organizational Analysis of the Falun Gong: Structure, Communications, Financing, The China Quarterly, 171 (September), pp 636-60. Tong, J., 2012, Banding After the Ban: The Underground Falungong in China, 1999 2011, Journal of Contemporary China, 21:78 (November), pp 1045-62. Xiao, H.Y., 2001, Falun Gong and the Ideological Crisis of the Chinese Communist Party: Marxist Atheism vs Vulgar Theism, East Asia, 19:1-2 (Spring-Summer), pp 123-43. Xu, J., 1999, Body, Discourse and the Cultural Politics of Contemporary Chinese Qigong, The Journal of Asian Studies, 58:4 (November), pp 961-91.

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Unpublished Dissertations Aalderink, Karin, 2001, Totally Expunge Evil, Pursue It to the End: Explain the Crackdown on the Falun Gong (Leiden University, The Netherlands) (Unpublished MA Thesis). Chiu, L.F., 2001, The Hong Kong Media War and the Crackdown on Falun Gong (The University of Hong Kong) (Unpublished MJ Dissertation) [available: http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/29122; accessed: 16 November 2014]. Kupfer, K., 2009, A Review of Emergence and Development of Spiritual-Religious Groups in the People's Republic of China after 1978 (Ruhr-Universitt Bochum) (Unpublished PhD Dissertation) [available: www-brs.ub.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/netahtml/HSS/Diss/KupferKristin/diss.pdf; accessed: 16 November 2014]. Porter, N., 2003, Falun Gong in the United States: An Ethnographic Study (University of South Florida) (Unpublished MA Dissertation) [available: http://etd.fcla.edu/SF/SFE0000113/FalunGongInTheUS-NoahPorter-Thesis.pdf; accessed: 16 November 2014]. Internet Resources Hu, Ping, 2003, The Falungong Phenomenon, China Rights Forum, 11 [available: www.fofg.org/downloads/a1_Falungong4.2003.pdf; accessed: 18 November 2014]. Li, H.Z., 1999, Teaching the Fa at the Conference in Canada (23 May 1999) [available: www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/19990523L.html; accessed: 23 November 2014]. Li, H.Z., 2000a, Eliminate Your Last Attachment(s) (12 August 2000) [available: www.falundafa.org/book/eng/jjyz2_16.htm; accessed: 19 November 2014]. Li, H.Z., 2000b, In Reference to a Prophecy (12 August 2000) [available: www.falundafa.org/book/eng/jjyz2_11.htm; accessed: 19 November 2014].

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Li, H.Z., 2003, Teaching the Fa at the 2003 Midwest-US Fa Conference (22 June 2003) [available: www.falundafa.org/book/eng/lectures/20030622L.html; accessed: 19 November 2014].

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Appendix A Glossary of Chinese Terms

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Appendix B Chinese Dynastic History

(Source: modified from Nadeau, 2012)

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Chapter 1IntroductionBackgroundPurposes and Significance of the StudyMethodology of the StudySummary of Chapters

Chapter 2Falun Gong: Origins, Development and the CrackdownReligious Life in ChinaHistorical Roles of Religion in ChinaPost-1949 Regulation of ReligionsFalun Gong: Origins and DevelopmentFalun Gong: the CrackdownChapter Summary

Chapter 3Falun Gong: Beliefs, Rituals, Ceremonies and PracticesBeliefsEthical DoctrinesRituals, Ceremonies and PracticesChapter Summary

Chapter 4Falun Gong A Religion?What is a Religion?Falun Gong as a Religion?Falun Gong as an Evil Cult?Chapter Summary

Chapter 5EpilogueConcluding RemarksFuture of Falun Gong

BibliographyAppendix A Glossary of Chinese TermsAppendix B Chinese Dynastic History