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FAMOUS FACESIN HISTORY

CULTURE, BUSINESSAND SPORT

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ART'S

u son of a clergyman. He was a precociouschild with remarkable talent for science andmathematics and had already invented sci_entific devices before the age of. t4.(3) From 1641 to 164G, he attended Westmin_ster School in London, where.the poet JohnDryden and the philosopher John Locker werefellow students. When he was admitted toWadham College, University of Oxford.While still a student, he made several origi_nal contributions in mathematies, winningimmediate acclaim. Wren got his BA degreefrom Oxford University in 1651 and receivedhis MA2 degree there in 16b8. In.16bZ, hewas appointed professor of astronomy atGresham College in London. The years later,he returned to Oxford University to acceptthe post of professor of astronomy.(4) Already famous as a scientist and mathema-tician, Wren started his career as an archi_tect at the age of 2g. Until then he had dis_played no practical interest in architecture.In 1661, King Charles II appointed Wren to

2 BA- bachelor of Arts; (a title for somconc wlro has) a firstuniversity degree; MA

-

Maslcr ol'Ar.ts: (rr titlc tbr some_one who has) a univcrsily tlcgr.r.:c irr irr.ls srrbjccl at the firstlevel abovc llA.

CHRISTOPHER WRB,N

the important architectural position of as-sistant surveyor general in charge of therepair and upkeep of public buildings. There-after Wren devoted himself to the study ofarchitecture with increasing enthusiasm.(il) FIis earliest work included designs for sev-eral new structures at Oxford and at Cam-bridge. His first building, the PembrokeCollege Chapel, was completed in 1665 atCambridge. The designs of this period re-flected the classical influence of the Eng-lish architect Inigo Jonesr.

(6) Unlike other English architects of his day,Wren never went to Italy to study classicalarchitecture. However, he visited France in1665. In France he studied French.baroquearchitecture and met such leading Europe-an architects as Gian Lorenzo Bernini2,a chief exponent of Italian baroque, whoexerted an important influence on Wren'ssubsequent work. The architecture Wrensaw in Paris can be seen in his work.

(7) After his return to England, the fire of 1666burned the oldest part of London. Withina few days Wren submitted a brilliant plan

I Jones, Inigo (1573-1652) -

an English architect and theatredesigner who was responsible for many important houses andbuildings, especially in London.

r Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (1598-1680) -

Italian sculptor,architect and painter, a leading figure in the development ofthe baroque style.

T-iARTS

for rebuilding the area. The plan anticipat_ed many of the features of modern city plan_ning, but it was rejected because of proper_ty disputes.

(8) In 1667, he was appointed deputy surveyorgeneral for the reconstruction ef St paul's

. cathedral, numerous parish churches andother buildings destroyed by the fire. Two

'years later he received the coveted post ofsurveyor of all government buildings inBritain. He held this position for the fol_lowing fifty years.

(9) St Paul's ranks as one of the world's mostimposing domed edifices. Among his secu_lar buildings still in existence are the Shel_donian Theatre at Oxford and the facadefor Hampton Court palacer.

(1O) Wren had a mathematician sense of propor_tion, as seen in the dome of St paul's. Healso had a baroque sense of the dramatic anda good craftsman's insistence on quality inthe execution of classical decorative detail.(11) \Vren's architectural achievements have ob-scured his extraordinar-y contributions inscience. Among his inventions were a weatherclock comparable to the modern barometerand new methods of engraving and etching.His biological experiments, in which he in_

I Hampton Court Palace -

formal Royal reside nce 24 kilome_tres west of central London, one of the greatest historicalmonuments in the UK.

CTIRISTOPHER WREN

jected fluids into the veins of animals, wereimportant in developing blood transfusing.

(12) Wren was knighted in t673, he subsequent-ly served for many years as a member ofParliament. One of the founders of the Roy-al Society for.Improving Natural Knowledge,he became its president in 1680. He died inLondon, on February 25, L723, and was bur-ied in St Paul's Cathedral. Near his tomb isa tablet inscribed with his epitaph, whichends with the following famous words: Simonunxentum requiris, circumspice ("If youwant to seek his monument, look about you".)

(LB) Wren's work i.n a simple version of the ba-roque style displayed great inventiveness indesign and engineering. The Wren stylestrongly influenced English architecture inthe Georgian period and its colonial ver-sion in America.

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.1. What was Sir Christopher W'ren's most fa-

mous creation?2. When and where did Wren study?3. When did he start his career as an archi-

tect?4. What did his earliest work include?l'r. What post was he appointed after the Great

Fire of London?

fl Att't's

What wrrs Wren's contribution in science?Whut inscription can one read on Wren tomb?

II. What is missing?1. The grace and variety of

church spires are still adon

..----.

Wren was a son of aHe was a boy with talent for sci-

6,7,

many Wren'sof the Lon-

2.3.

ence and mathematics.4. While still a student he made several orig_' inal in mathematics.

5. His earliest work included for sev_^ gral new

--

at Oxford u"a Cu*Uridge.6. Wren a brilliant plan for rebuiid_

ing the City of London.7

8

I

St Paul?s as one of the world's mostrmposing buildings'Wren's architectural have obscuredhis

--

in science.Wren's work great in designand engineering.

rII. Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

1. Wren was born ...2. While still a student Wren ...3. Wren started his career as architect ...4. Wren's earliest work included ...5. Wren visited France ...6. In 1667, Wren ...

CHRISTOPHER WREN

7. Wren's architectural achievements have ob-scured ...He died in London ...'Wren's style influenced greatly ...

Explain and expand on the following state-ments.

Wren was a precocious child.

8.9.

IV.

1.2.

3.

4.

b.

6.

While still a'student Wren made severaloriginal contributions in mathematics.Wren devoted himself to the study of ar-chitecture with increasing enthusiasm.Wren submitted a brilliant plan for rebuild-ing the oldest part of London.St Paul's ranks as one of the world's mostimposing domed buildings.Wren made some extraordinary contribu-tions in science.

7. Wren's style strongly influenced English ar-chitecture.

V. You have an opportunity to speak to SirChristopher'Wren. What questions wouldyou like to ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph" whichprovides the facts.

* The number of churches Wren redesigned* Wren's birthplace* The names of Wren's famous fellow students

ililt ARTS

The degrees Wren received in Oxford Uni-versity'Wren's earliest workThe date of the Great Fire of LondonWren's secular buildings still in existenceWren's contributions in scienoeThe text of the epitaph on his tomb

Complete the following ouiline for the es-say.

:k

*

*

:k

VII.

TOPIC1. Introduc-

tion2.3.4.D.6.

MAIN IDEACh.Wren mostfamous work

VlI. Make a biographical chart of Sir Christo-pher'Wren.

DATEL697

WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER

" t632-t723

EVENT

SUMMARYW|II be remernbered for his ...

ll1

PARAGRAPH(S)1

Born in East Knoyle,Wiltshire

WILLIAM HOGARTH

WILLIAMHOCARTH

t697-1764

(1) William Hogarth was born in 1632 in theheart of Lonilon, son of a young school teach-er from. the north of England who came toLondon to make his fortune, wrote his text-books, found himself correcting for print-ers and married his landlord's daughter.

(2) Richard Hogarth taught, wrote, and to makeends meet opened a Latin-speaking coffeehouse. When William Hogarth was ten thecoffee house failed and the family founditself living within the Rules of the FleetPrisonl, his father imprisoned for debt and

I Fleet Prison -

prison for ilebtors; demolished in 1842.

FfD /\lt'[s

lris rrrother eking out a livelihood sellingpatent medicines. For five years the Hoga-rths were imprisoned

-

the years of Wil-liam's adolescence that would have seen himeither on his way to.a university or an ap-prenticeship. When the family gmerged hisfather was a broken man, and William wasscarred. He never mentioned this period buthe repeatedly introduced prisons, debtorsand jailers, literally and metaphorically, intohis paintings.

(3) At the age of 17, Hogarth became an ap-prentice of a silver engraver. After the deathof his father he did not complete his ap-prenticeship, but instead set up on his ownas an engraver.

(4) He engraved small shop cards, but he dbvot-ed every spare minute to book illustration,topical prints, and study at the newly foundedVanderbank Academy of Artl. After fouryears from silver to copper engraving, heachieved some notice around London witha small satire "The Taste of the Town". Soonhis first major work, a 'series of t2 largeplates based on Samuel Butler's "Hudibras"z.

I Vanderbank Academy of Art -

the art school run by thepainter John Vanderbank (169,1-1739) who regarded histo-ry painting the highest form of art

r "Hudibras"

-

satiric poem by Sam uel Br.rtler ( I 6 I 2- I 680),the most outstanding literary work of the Restoration antiu-topian tendencies

WILLIAM HOGARTH

| "T.he Beggar's Opera"

-

gomic opera by John Gay (1685_1723)'r Falstaff

-

a character in Shakespeare's "Henry IV" and"Henry V" and "Merry Wives of Windsor"

l3

(5) The earliest surviving paintings by Hoga-rth are "The Beggar's Opera"l and "FalstaffzExamining the Recruits" sketched directlyfrom the stage. Hogarth made at least fivepaintings on the subjects of "The Beggar'sOpera", progressing within little more thana year from a clumsy student of 'oils toa polished painter whose natural expressionis through Paint.

(6) Dozens of "conversational pieces" -

rela-tively small and cheap group portraits

-

demonstrated the fertility of Hogarth'sbrush in the early 1730s. Yet he still feltconstricted: they were only portraits, theyrepresented too much work for too littlemoney, and work that was not suited to thegenius of the engraver of "Hudibrasi"

(7) The momentous step, however, was thelaunching of a subsbription for engravingsof the "Harlot's Progress" paintings' Follow-ing the practice of other paintings who hadallowed their maior work to be engraved andsold by subscription, he added one novelty:he dispensed with a printseller managed thesubscription himself, and kept all the prof-its; he also found soon enough that only hecould adequately engrave his own paintings'

rn

15t4 ARTS

The success of the venture was beyond hisexpectbtions. Nearly 2,OOO sets were sub_scribed for a guinear each, ald their famereached from the highest.to the lowest.(8)

his inheritance to set himself as a rake andsquander his money, morals, freedom, sani_ty, and ltfe. Other paintings followed by en_graving, or "modern moral subjects" as hecalled them ("comic history paintings" as hisfriend Henry Fielding2 was to call them) fol_lowed "The Rake's progress" in rapid suc_cession: "A Midnight Modern Conversation","The Distressed Poet", ..The Four Times ofthe Day", and "strolling Actresses in a Ba_rn".(9) In the midst of all this aciivity Hogarth wasdiverted by another challenge. When he ar_rived on the scene foreign artists had domi_nated English portraiture since Van Dycka.Hogarth had inherited the English painters'

WILLIAM HOGARTH

hostility to foreign artists who took all thegood commissions from native artists. NowinLTS Jacopo Amiconi a history painter fromVenice was about to secure a commission todecorate the new wing of St BartholomewHospitall. Hognrth went to the treasury andoffered to paint gratis an Englishman's ver-sion of sublime history. He painted the twohuge panels. He also pursued other experi-ments at sublime history during the 1730s.

(lO) The second challenge from abroad in the late1730s was J. B. Van Loo2 who arrived fromParis and quickly monopolized the portraitmarket, driving some artists into bankrupt-cy. As responded by beginning to paint por-traits himself. One of the most famous worksof this period was the portrait of his friendThomas Corams. He donated his finished por-trait, and in 1740s he organized his artistfriends to donate more paintings establish-ing in the Foundling Hospital the first pub-lic museum of English art.

(11) In the early L74Os while still painting por-traits, he began to plan a new "comic histo-

I St Bartholomew Hospital -

the oldest benevolent institutionin Loridon founded in the l2'h century.

2 Van Loo, Jean Baptiste ( I 684- I 7 45\ -

portrait painter whomoved to London in 1737 and had an immediate success.

3 Coram, Thomas (l66tt-1751) -- English philanthropist whoestablished the Foundlirrg Flospital tbr orpharred and aban-doned children in Holborn, London, 1741.

I guinea -

English gold coin, notionally worth 2l shillings(l pound 5 pence). [t has not been minred since lg l7, whenltwas superseded by the gold sovereign, but was used until l97lin billing professional fees. Expensive .items in shops wereoften priced in guineas.

2 FieHirg Henry (1707-1754) -

English novelist. His most fa_mous book was "The History ofTom Jones, a Foundling* (1749).

3 Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (1599-1641) -

a Flemish painter,known especially for his portraits.

FIt1l6 ARTS

ry" cycle, this time of high life ,,Marriage 6la Mode", also saw his self-portrait with hisdog Trump, which he engraved as frontis-piece to the bound volumes of his engrav_ings he was now selling; and an auction ofhis paintings-for-eng"urrirrg, wi{hout the in-

' terference of picture dealers. After that hesuddenly abandoned painting for historiesand turned to drawing, and a cruder, sim_pler style of engraving, addressing himselfto a lower and larger audience. ,,Industryand ldleness", "Beer Street" and..Gin Lane",and "The Four Stages of Cruelty" werearmed at the men who had authority forthe poor, but the plates undoubtedly reachedthe poor themse.lves, who saw them in shopwindows, in coffee housgs, etc.(12) Up to this point Hogarth was a designerand print-maker of unsurpassed intellectu-al subtlety, whose work can be appreciatedonly in the company of Swift, popel andFielding. He had carried this ..readable"structure of meaning as far as .,Marriage6 la Mode". He now radically reduced thecomplexity and replaced the readable with

WILLIAM HOGARTH

the expressiveness. One of his best worksof this period was the portrait of Garrickras Richard III.

(13) In t753, Hogarth published his famous book"The Analysis of Beauty". The book, whichwas basically antiacademic, was greeted withattacks in verse and caricature. Hogarth wasdeeply shocked and offended.

(14) In early L754, Hogarth began to advertisehis last ambitious series, four paintings ofan election. The engravings were not allpublished until 1758.

(15) In the 1750s, Hogarth returned in a limit-ed way to portrait painting ("Hogarth'sServants", 1750-1755, "David Garrick andhis Wife", 1757).

(16) The last four years of Hogarth's life werethe years of illness. He died in 1764. Hewas buried in Chiswick churchyard. A greatpainter who revolutionized the art of paint-ing, Hogarth is chiefly remembered as cre-ator of satirical narrative pictures, who in-fluenced not only painters but such writersas Dickens and Thackeray2 as well.

I Garrick, David (1717-1779) -

English actor, producer anddramatist, who introduced a revolutionary new style of natu-ral, interpretative acting and initiated other reforms in staging.

I Dickens, Charles (l B I 2-1870) -

an English novelist, consid-ered by many to be the greatest one of all. Thackeray, Wil-liam Makepeace (l8ll-1863)

-

an English writer born in-India whose books include Vanitl, f61iv.

I Swift, Jonathan (1667_1745) -

an Irish satirical writer andTravels as well as mally shorterin religion and education;pope,British satirical poet who wrotedescribes the foolishness of the

fashionable people.

ARTS

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.1. Where was Hogarth born?2. What did Hogarth's father do?3. How did Hogarth's childhood influence his

creative activities?4. Which was Hogarth's first job after his fa_

. ther's death?

5. How were Hogarth's works of the early1730s called?What are "modern moral subjects"?What had Hogarth inherited?What were Hogarth's greatest works of the174Os?

9. Where was Hogarth buried?II. What is missing?t ** n""i"*":'*"*":i:rrxJ".'j;,lnd to

remembered aspictures.

Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

When William Hogarth was ten ...At the age of 17, Hogarth ...He devoted every spare minute ...He managed the subscription himself ...In the midst of all his activity he was ...One of the most famous works of the 1730swas...In the early 1740s, he began to plan ...In 1753, Hogarth published ...The last four years of Hogarth's life were ...Hogarth was a great painter who ...

Explain and expand oR the following state-ments.

Richard Hogarth came to London to makehis fortune.After his father's death Hogarth set up onhis own as an engraver.The momentous step was the launching ofa subscription for engravings of the'"Har-lot's Progress".In the midst of all this,activity Hogarthwas diverted by another challenge.In the early l740s, Hogarth'began to plana new "comic history" cycle.

WITLIAM HOGARTH t9

8. Hogarth is chieflyof satiri.cal

6.7.8.

and

III.

1.2..)o.4.5.6.

7.8.9.

10.

IV.

1.

2.

3.

2. Hogarth introducedinto his paintings.

3.4.b.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Hogarth his own paintings.The success of the

_ was beyond his

Hogarth had inherited the Englishers'

_

to foreign artists.The second

_

from abroad in thelate 1730s was J. B. Van Loo.Hogarth was a designer and printmaker of

paint-

intellectual

20 ARTS

6. In 1753, Hogarth published hie fnnrorrs lxrok.7 . Hogarth revolutionized the art of prrirr l,irrg.V. You have an opportunity to npoak to Wil-

liam Hogarth. What questione worrltl youlike to ask him?

VI. Find the following inltlrrrratlorr lrr l,hr. ttxt.Give the number of tho pnrilgrflph, wlrichprovides the facts.

'k Hogarth's age when hls ful,lrnr wlr lrrrgrlis-oned

* Hogarth's occupation nfter hls fntlrt'r"u rL'rl,tr* The name of Hogorth's enrllort nrrrviving

paintings'k The name of the F'renclr pnlnt.rtr wlrr rrro-

nopolized the Englislr llortrrrll, trrrrr'l

2322 ARTS

JOSHUAREYNOLDS

1723-t792

(1) Joshua Reynolds is, historically, the mostimportant figure in British painting. IIe wasborn on July 7, L723, at Plymton St Mau-rice in Devon, where his father was head-master of the Grammar School and a formerFellow of Ballioll. Reynolds was born andbrought up in an educated family at a timewhen most English painters were hardly morethan ill-educated tradesrnen, Il,cynolds him-self became the close friend of Dr Johnson,

I l,'tlkrw of llnlliol --- nrclnbcr of the board of governors ofl|:rI Iiol ('ol lcg,c ol' Oxlirrd University.

JOSHUA REYNOLDS

Goldsmith, Burkel, and Garric, and it is prob-ably true he did more to raise the status ofthe artist in England through his learningand personal example than by his actual qual-ity as an artist. He was an apprentice ofHudson2 in 1740 in London, but in 1743 heleft his master and returned to Devon; from1743-1749 he was in practice on his own inLondon and Devon; before leaving for Italyin 1749. ln L746, he painted the "Eliot Fam-ily Group", based on a famous piece of VanDyck, and this already shows the fundamen-tal basis of his art

-

the deliberate use ofallusion to the Old Masters or Antique sculp-ture as a classical allusion might have beenused by a 18th century speaker or writer.

(2) In L749, he had the chance to go to Italywith Commodores, (later Admiral Viscount)Keppela, who was also to become one of hisbest friends. Up to this time the main influ-ences on his style had been Hogarth, Ram-

I Johnson, Samuel ( 1709-1784) -

English essayist, poet, crit-ic, lexicographer, the author of "A Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage" (1755): Goldsmith, Oliver (1728.1774) Eng-lish poet, playwright, novelist and man of letters;Burke, Ed-mund (1729-1797)- English statesman and political writer.

: Hudson, Thomas (1701-1779) -

English fashionable por-trait painter in 1735-175,5.

I Commodore -

military rank.aKeppel, Augustus (1725-1786),

- British navalofficer,

21 Al{'r ssayr, and to a moderate extent only, IIud_son. He spent lTb}-l7b2 in Rome, where hemade a really prolonged study of the An_tique, of Raphael and above all, of Michel_"9.1.;r. [{c learned the intellectuar basis ofItulinn lr.t, nncl this way something thatscnreely rrrrv otlrcr Ilritish pninter, with thepossiblc ext:cptiorr of li,lrrrsnv, hacl done upto then, even in Rome itself. In fact, Rey_nolds's own practice as a portrait painter wasmore profoundly influenced by the few weekshe spent in Venice in LTSZ. He never ceased ,to exhort his students to master the princi_ples of Grand Style, and in fact he regardedVenetian art, and portrait painting, as ofless importance. l(3) In 'I.,753, he set up in London met Dr Johnson,and began rapidly to make a name. In L76g,when the Royal Academy was founded it wasobvious that Reynolds was the only possiblechoice for the president. He was t

lo AR'I'Streated in a higtorlcal nrannor.. history pic_tures proper, and some curlous cornbinationsof the two, such as .,Dr Beattie (The Tri_umph of Truth),', ,.Three Ladies Adorningthe Term of Hymen". This idea had beeiexploited by him as early as 1760_1261 inhis "Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy,,,which he exhibited in |ZOZ ui th" Society oiArtists, the society's precursor.(8) In 1781, he made a journey to Flanders andHolland and was profoundly influenced bythe force and freedom of Rubens,sr han-dling, and from then until his sight failedin 1789 his works are less consciously clas_sical and painted with greater warmth andfeeling.

(9) The majority of his heritage consists of por-traits, which include almost every man andwoman of note in the second half of the18th century. Reynolds died in London onFebruary Zg, LT\Z,(10) Reynolds came to be the first English painterto achieve soeial recognition for his artisticachievements. His portraits wer:e distin_guished by calm dignlty, classical allusions,rich colour, and realistic portrayal of char_acter. His portraits form an epitome of Lon-don society of his day.

I Rubens, Peter paul (1577-1640) _ a Flemish painter re_garded as one of the greatest artists, responsible for over2000 paintings.

JOSHUA REYNOLDS

EXERCISES

Answer the questions.Why is Joshua Reynolds the most impor-tant figure in British painting?What education did Reynolds receive?What chance did Reynolds get in L749?Who were the most influential painters ofthose times?When did Reynolds begin to make a name?What did Reynolds's Discourses on Art rep-resent?What did Reynolds insist?

27

I.1.

2..).4.

b.6.

7.

I3.

il. What is missing?I-. Reynolds did much to

the artist in England.Reynolds was anHe made a reallytique and Old Masters

4. Reynolds neverto master the

5. Reynolds did

raise the ofof Hudson., study of the An-

and6. Reynolds recommended that a paint-

in Italy.to his students

principles of Grand Style.not want the British art to be

Masterser should put hisfrom which he should be ready to

7. The majority of Reynolds's consistsof portraits.Reynolds was the first English painter to

social for his artisticachievements.

8.

2tt liA M(lt,tt Plrl()pt,trlIII. Finish the senteneea and rlovelop the state-

ments.1. Joshua Reynolds is historically

...2. Reynolds was an apprentice ...3. In 1749, he had a chance ...4. In 1753, he began to make ...5. Reynolds composed and delivered

...6. Reynolds did not want British art to7. He recommended that ...8. In 178L, Reynolds ...9. Reynolds came to be ...

V. You have an opportunity to speak to Josh-ua Reynolds. 'What questions would youlike to ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph, whichprovides the facts.

'k Reynolds's birthplace't The names of Reynolds's famous close friends* The name of Reynolds's teacher* The name of the city Reynolds spent L75O-1"752* The institution Reynolds became the first

president* The style the painters should develop accord-

ing to Reynolds* The name of the painter Reynolds was

greatly influenced while travelling throughFlanders and Holland

* Reynolds's burial place* The main characteristic of Reynolds's Work

VII. 'Complete the following outline for the es-say.

TOPIC MAIN IDEA PARAGRAPH(S)1.2.3.

t6.

29

/

be ...

IV. Explain and expand on the following state_ments.

1. Joshua Reynolds is the most important flg_ure in British painting.

-2. Reynolds did much to raise the status of theartist in England.

3. In 1753, he set up in London and began rap_idly to make a name.4. Reynold's works of the years following 1Z6g

showed him-at the most classical urra th"most learned.

5. Reynolds did not want British art to be pro_vincial and isolated.

6. Reynolds recommended that a would_bepainter should put his faith in old masters.7. The majority of his paintings consists ofportraits.8. Reynolds came to be the first English painter

to achieve social recognition.

30 AR't'S

VIII. Make a biographieal chart of Joshua Rey_nolds.

REYNOLDS, JOSHUAt723_t792

DATE EVENT J

SUMMARY

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH

THOMASGAINSBOROUCH

17 27 -t7 88

Instinctive, unpompous, drawn to music andthe theatre more than to literature or his-tory, and to nature more than to anything,Gainsborough continues to enchant the view-ers, as the serious Reynolds seldom can.Although he said he wished nothing morethan "to take my Viol de Gamba and walkoff some sweet Village where-I can paintLandskips", his feeling for nature encom-passed much more than landscape. Childrenand animals, women and men, everythingthat dances, shimmers, breathes, whispersor sings, look natural in Gainsborough'senchanting world, so that "nature" comes

3l

itz TIIOMAS GAINSBOROUGH 33ARTS

to encompass silks and gauzes, ostrich feath-ers and powdered hair as much as woodsand ponds and butterflies.

(2) Thomas Gainsborough was born in thesmall market town of Sudbury in SUffolkon May t4, L727. His father was a prosper-ous cloth merchant. There were nirie chil-dren, five sons and four daughters of whomGainsborough was the youngest. Gainsbor-ough went to Sudbury Grammar School, ofwhich his uncle was then the master. Whena boy he was very good at drawing, and ac-cording to a story about him, he made sucha good portrait from memory of a thiefwhom he had seen robbing a garden thatthe thief \tras caught. At the age of 13, hepersuaded his parents to let him go up toLondon to study. This would have been in1740 or L74t. He remained an art studentfor four or five years.

(3) Gainsborough's very early work must toa large extent have been associated with dec-orative arts. However, when he establishedhis own studio in about L745, his first ef-forts were small landscapes. He studied hardin the best school of the day, the LondonSalesroom, where landscapes by the Dutchl?th-century artists were just beginning toappear. From them he learned the elementsof pictorial composition. He supplied draw-ing ?or the young engraver and print-pub-

lisher John Bogdelll, and seemed to have beenobliged to do back work for the art trade to,r',ppl"*"rit his income' But he was in nodarrger of starving. On July 1746 he mar-ried Margaret Burr, a beautiful girl' whowas, as their daughter said later, "a naturaldaughter of Henry, Duke of Beaufort' whgsettled 200 pounds a year upon her"' a notinsubstantiJ annual income for the period'

(4) Doubtless, Gainsborough made visits to hisnative Suffolk in the summer months' In-numerable landscape sketches bear witness'that "Nature was his teacher and the woodsof Suffolk his academy"' On Octobet 1748'his father died, and he decided to return toSudbury.

(5) One of iri" first pictures he painted in Suf'folk is among his masterpieces the dou-ble portrait of Mr and Mrs Andrews (1748-fi[g\. Here was an opportunity to Gains-borough to display his powers as a land-scape painter, and it is no accident that'

- for the first time in.this type of picture'the sitters have been withdrayn to one sideof the canvas and the landscape Sfiven equalprominence.

(6) boon after the birth of his younger daughterMargaret Gainsborough moved to lpswich' a

I Bogdell, John (1719-1804) -

English engraver' print pub-lisher and Lord MaYor of London

Z. Ilauotttli' I(YerYPa

34 ARTS

largel jqy" which was not only a good dealmore thriving commercially bui " ;;;;;;cultural centre of some

"orrl"qrr"rr"";; E;;;Anglia. Here he lived ;;;, worked, andbrought up his vo""s "hiidrqn, for sevenyears. For the most part he depended ;;'l*cal portraiture for his living.(7) Sociable, conviviat anJ ;;;;;""rted, Gains_borough was clearly muclr liked-; ;il_son. Many houses lere atway" open to him,and their owners thought ii an honour toentertain him. He *u, , member .f tt; ip;:wich Musical Club. But, in spite of hi";;;_ularity and locar prominen."l *o"t was notalways easy to come by

-

demand was lim_ited in most provincial centres _ and hewas often in financial difficulties. H"rr."Gainsborough's decision to try his fortunein Bath, a smart West Couni"y spa ratherthan to risk in London.(8) The move took place in autumn of lTEg.Business came in so f""t ;h;; he was soonable to.raise his prices. ffi" pai"jir,;;;;;as radically as his meanr, tn the surnmermonths, after he had finished his picturesfor the annual_exhibition

"i A;;;il;;Artists in London Gainsboro,rgh *u, accus_lomed to spend much of fris-time out ofdoors, sketching and workil; ;;;."i;;:scapes. The painter was verylond of visit_ing the country, from which t

",rr"a to bring

TIIOMAS GAINSBOROUGH 35

home roots, stones, and mosses, from whichhe formed, and then studied foregrounds

'in miniature, He now had an opportunityof seeing outstanding collections of oldmasters. Rubens and Van Dyck were theprincipal influences on his Bath style as itmatured in the mid-1760s.

(9) Gainsborough's lahdscape paintings gaineda new amplitude in these years

-

a irewbreadth of chiaroscuro and a new richnessof handling

-

and his l"ition among hiscontemporarieS was fully recognized, as ithad not been earlier, he even refused to ac-cept topographical communities, which werethe kind of landscape most in request, in-deed the almost indispensable staple ofan l8th-century landscape painter. Portrai-ture was his staple, and it remained a nec-essary one, for most bf the landscapes Gains-borough sold were acquired by patrons who

. had become good friends, while a high pro-portion of his output remained in his hands.

(10) In 1768, Gainsborouglr was appointed one ofthe Directors of the Society of Artists, but.begged leave to resign. The offer had come

' too late; he had already received a letter fromReynolds asking him to become a member ofa new body, which was soon to eclipse thesociety of Artists, the Royal Academy.

(11) For the first Academy exhibition, in sum-

2* mer 1769, Gainsborough_painted one of his

--:=:!q.-

3736 ARTS THOMAS GAINSBOROUGII

able to buy works of art and owned threeportraits by Van Dyck and a Rubens, whichhe copied

(1S)BV L777, Gainsborough possessed his owncoach.- his family went off to Suffolk init, accompanied qn horseback by their serv-ant, David. Ir ,{v, r1 to avoid embarrass-ments caused by his wife's surveillance ofthe purse-strings, he kept the:prices of hislandscapes, which n-e increased towards theend of the 17?0s, a close secret from MrsGainsborough.

(14) In t778, Gainsborough sent 11 portraits tothe Academy. In fact he portrayed almost aswide a range of English society as Reynolds;it is the literary figures that are missing.His marriage portrait of the young Hallettswas painted in what was recognized at thetime as "une nouvelle stile", the figures in-separable from the landscape in which theymove, ribbons and bows and sketchiness ofhandling echoing the feathery foliage.

(15) Gainsborough succeeded as a portrait paint-er. Among his famous portraits are the por-trait of Mrc Siddonsl and the picture knownas "Blue Boy"

-

a boy in a blue costume. Inhis portrait of Mrs Sheridan (the wife ofRichard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)- the

'Siddons, Sarah(1755-1831) -

English actress. Her majesticpresence made her suited to tragic and heroic roles.

masterpieces, the full_length of the iciungand newly married Lady Moiineaux. Wittits aristscratic Van Dyck pose, its exquisitesoftness of modelling and the quite excep_

' tional bravura handling of then satin dress.it must have created a sensation. But Gains_'borough was never happy with what heealled the ..impudent style" necessitated bythe competitiveness of public exhibitions.The natural concern that his pictures shouldbe seen as they were meant to be seen wasthe cause of a row with the Academy inL773: "I don't send to the Exhibition thisyear; they hang my likeness too high to beseen". He kept away four years.(12) In L774, Gainsborough left Bath for Lon-don. He was already well known to ,,the greatworld" and by Christmas tTTb he was writ_ing to his sister that ,.my present situationwith regard to encouragement is all that

' heart can wish,,. In 1777, he received thefirst of many commissions from the RoyalFamily

-

and returried triumphantly to ihe' Academy: his portrait of Mrs Graham inVan Dyck dress is the most glamorous of

his creationsn while ..The WatJringp;i;";;was acclainoed as ..by far the finest land_scape ever painted in England and equal tothe great Masters',. From this time onwardshis position as one of the leading Britishpainters of the day was assured. He was

38 ARTS

great Irish dramatist) we see a woman inlight blue. A definite artificiality in Gains-borough's painting constitutes his own style.(16) His portraits are painted in clear tones. Hiscolour is always tender and soft. He alwaystended to cool scheme and blues pfedomi-nated in his paintings.

(17) From L777, the year of ,,The Watering pal-ace", contemporary writers on Gainsboroughwere unanimous that .oas a landscape paint_er, he is one of the first living". But Gains-borough has become increasingly aware thathe lacked the range profundity characteris-

- tic of Reynolds: "Damn him, how varioushe is." In the last decade of his life he soughtto deepen his expressive powers and to ex-tend the subject matter and appeal.(18) It was cottage scenes, with groups.of chil-dren, that became his most characteristicsubjects, but from L78L onwards, Gainsbor-ough developed a type of painting in whichthe rustic figures from the landscapes tookon the scale of life. These ,tfancy" picturesof figures in sentimental attitude were whol_ly in tune with the times. The pictures werepainted from living models, like ,.The Cot_tage Girl with Dog and pitcher,'.

(19).Contemporaries witnessed ..if". He founda character that he liked, .i he ordered him

. to his house; and from the fields fre broughtinto his painting-room, stumps of trees,

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH

weeds and animals of various kinds; anddesigned them not from memory, but im-medi taly from the object".

(20) Alt.rough best known as a portrait painter,Gainsbororrgh preferred to paint landscape.He regarded- the former as his professionand the latter as his pleasure. He continuedto paint landscapes long after leaving thecountry for the city. He frequently madelandscape compositions from memory an.rlimagination, using studio arrangements ofgrasses, leaves and flowers. His arch-rivalReynolds referred to the style Gainsboroughevolved for the painting of folliage as "friedparsley". There was little love lost betweenthe two, and rivalry between them endedonly with Gainsborough's death.

(21) About six years before his death Gainsbor-ough made a tour through West England.Music remained his principal form of re-laxation.

(22) [n April 1788, Gainsborough made his firstmention of a disease.of which he had beenconscious for some time past, and that was

. soon to prove fatal. On 2 August iZgg Gains-borough died at the age of 61. On his ownrequest he was buried in Kew Churchyardnext to the grave of his old Suffolk friend,Joshua Kirby.

(23) Reynolds said about Gainsborr, oh, "... if everthis nation should produce gen:'

" sufficient

39

40 ARTS

Why did Gainsborough succeed as a portraitpainter?Why was Gainsborough considered one ofthe best landscape painters of his time?What does Reynolds say about Gainsbo_rough?

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH

II. \Mhat is missing?1. Gainsborough continues to

er' I2. Innumerable bear witness of

Gainsborough's visits to his native Suffolk.3. In Gainsborough's works the sitters have

been to one side of the and thelandscape given equal

, __ and warm-heartedGainsborough was clearly much liked as aperson.

5. For the first Academy Exhibition in sum-mer 1769, Gainsborough painted one of his

6. In L777, Gainsborough received the first ofmany from the Royal Family.

7. By t777, Gainsborough _

his own coach.8. Gainsborough's colour is always and

He always tended to coolThe between Gainsborough andReynolds ended only with Gainsborough'sdeath.

ilI. Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

1. Gainsborough's feeling for nature encom-passed...

2. When a boy Gainsborough ...3. On July 1746, Gainsborough married ...

4tto acquire to us the honourable distinctionof an English School, the name of Gainsbor_ough will be transmitted to posterity, in thehistory of the Art, among the very first ofthat rising name,'. Gainsborough was an un_complicated artist/craftsman, being'no the_orist or intellectual, but his remarkable in_dividuality and sheer delight in paintingshine through everything he produced.

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.L. What did Gainsborough say he wished?2. When and where was Gainsborough born?3. What did Gainsborough do in the beginning

of his career?4. Why can the portrait of Mr and Mrs An_

drews be considered as a masterpiece?5. Where did Gainsborough live after the birth

of his younger daughter?6. What work did Gainsborough paint for thefirst Academy Exhibition?

the view-

4.

o

10.

7.

8.

9.

42

5.

6.t.8.9.

10.11.

4.5.

6.7.

8.

ARTS

4. One of the first pictures Gainsboroughpainted in Suffolk ...Sociable, convivial and wdrm-hearted Gains-borough ...When Gainsborough moved to Bath in 1759 ...Gainsborough's landscapes gained ..1In t774, Gainsborough left Bath forGainsborough succeeded as a ...Gainsborough preferred to.paint ...Reynolds said about Gainsborough ...

IV. Explain and expand on the following state-ments.

1. When a boy, Gainsborough was very goodat drawing.

2. Nature was Gainsborough's teacher.3. Gainsborough was clearly much liked as

a person.Business in Bath came in so fast.Gainsborough portrayed alrnost as widea range of English society as Reynolds.Gainsborough sueceeded as a portrait painter.Although best known as a portrait painterGainsborough preferred to paint landscapes.The name of Gainsborough will be transmit-ted in the history of Art, among the veryfirst names.

V. You have an opportunity to speak to Tho-mas Gainsborough. W'hat questions wouldyou like to ask him?

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH 43

VI. Find the following information in the text'aive the number of the paragraph, whichprovides the facts.

* Gainsborough's birthPlace* Gainsborough's father's occupation* The name of Gainsborough's wife* one of Gainsborough's first masterpieces* The city Gainsborough decided to try his for-

tune* The characteristics of Gainsborough's land-

scapes* Th; post Gainsborough appointed in 1768* The year Gainsborough moved to London* The number of portraits Gainsborough sold

to the AcademY in 17?8* Gainsborough's most famous portraits* Gainsborough's burial Place* Reynolds's idea of Gainsborough

Vn. Complete the following outline for the es-say.

TOPIC MAIN IDEA PARAGRAPH(S)1.2.3.4.b.6.7-

44 ARTS

VlI, Make a'biographical chart of ThomasGainsborough.

GAINSBOROUGH, THOMASt727_1788

DATE EVENT

SUMMARY

JOHN CONSTABLE

JOHNCONSTABLE

177 6-1857

(1) John Constable was born at East Bergholt,Suffolk, on June 1,L, 1776. He was the sonof the rich miller. The countryside aroundhis birthplace is pastoral and gently undu-lating, marked chiefly by the low hills flank-ing Dedham Vale, along which the RiverStour ran. The artist's fAther, Golding Con-stable, owned mills on the banks of the riv-er, made navigable by locks in the 18th cen-tury. The landscape setting of his early yearsinfluenced Constable greatly. His choicecame to be limited to a smali group of plac-es in which his affections were deeply en-gaged, all sharing the pastoral quality of

45

6 ARTSthe scenes of his chitdhood. He showedan early aptitude for drawing landscape andcapturing climatic effects in his locality.He was later to say: "These (Suffolk) scenesmade me an artist".(2) A youthful friendship With an artisran whowas an amateur p4inter aroused Constable'sown ambitions; but up to his 20th year hiswork was painfully lacking in ability, and it

'was intended that he should follow his fa-ther's calling. He went to London in l7gg tobegin his formal artistic training in the schoolsof the Royal Academy. At this time the mod-'el for landscape painting in England was stillthe classical ideal landscape of the 1?th centu-ry. Works by Claude Lorrain and Nicolas

'Poussinr were in every large collection, and aeontemporary artist was expected to conformto the principles of formal composition, light-ing, and detailed finish which marked theirpictures and even to imitate their tonality,distorted though this might bd by a centuryor more of discoloured varnish. Constable re_alized that within such limitations he could

' not paint the English countryside as he sawit, and in his search for more suitable meth-ods he created his own art.

JOHN CONSTABLE

(3) In L802, he began the practice of sketchingin oils in the open air, the form of study,which he continued throughout his life. Hisnattrre sketches are fresh and brilliant andgive direct contact with the mind of theartist, but to him they were the exercisesand the raw material out of which he couldireate more ambitious and logically con-structed landscape. Constable's originalitywas soon recognized and he received helpfrom Benjamen Westl, the president of theRoyal Academy.

(4) During the formative period, from 1800 to1810, Constable attempted to follow theusual practice of making sketching expedi-tions to a countryside of recognized roman-tic beauty. In 1801, he went to the PeakDistrictz and in L806 to the Lake District.Unlike his contemporaries, he found thatmountains did not exhilarate but depressedhim, and he made no further sketchingtours. A casual visit to a new scene couldnot replace for him the long process of get-ting to know a landscape intimately, andaccordingly he went year after year fromhis London home to visit his close friends

I West, Benjamen (1738-1820) -

American-born artist, whoset up in London in 1763.

I Peak District -

a picturesque countrysid..e in North Derby-shire

47

I Qelee Claude known as Claude Lorrain ( I 600- I 682) -

Frenchpainter, achieved renown as painter of idyllic landscapes ahdseascapes; Poussin, Nicolas ( I 59+l 665)

-

.most signifi cantlTth-century French painter, a master of the Classical school.

ARTS

in the southern counties. During this timehe painted two altarpieces for local church-es. He made efforts to succeed as a portraitpainter, the chief means of earning a livingthen available to an English artist. By 18L0,he was producing oil sketches of the coun-tryside in which he achieved natural col-ouro and rich atmospheric quality, free fromthe shackles of past formalism.

(5) The years L810 to 1815 were years of in-tense concentration on his painting. In 1813and L814 Constable filled two small note-books with hundreds of studies of the fieldsnear his birthplace. These sketchbooks,which have all the fascination of an inti-mate diary, were often drawn on for thepaintings he made in later years; in themhe is seen to return to the same scene dayafter day; drawing it under varying lightsand seeking for a viewpoint in which hissubject formed a naturally balanced com-position.

(6) Constable began to gain some recognition.He sold his fiist painting to a stranger inI8L4 and was elected as Associate of theRoyal Academy in 18L9. He felt confidentenough to embark upon a series of largecanvases, the subjects of which were takenfrom the banks of the River Stour and whichhe exhibited in successive years at the Roy-al Academy. Among them were "The Hay

JOHN CONSTABLE

Wain" (L827), "View on the Stour near Ded-ham" (1822), "The Leaping Horse" (1825).

(7) In 1811, Constable formed a close friend-ship with John Fisher, a clergyman livingin Dorsetshire and later in the cathedraltown of Salisbury. The friendship was notonly a great encouragement to the artist,because of Fisher's understanding of hiswork, but widened his choice of themes. Onhis many visits to Fisher's house Constablemade a number of sketches, and these heused when he was commissioned to paint"Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop'sGrounds" (1823) a subject he used severaltimes. His range of subjects was furtherextended in 1819, when he moved his fam-ily to the summer months to Hampstead,a village on a hill on the northern outskirtsof London, then surrounded by open coun-try. This more became an annual custom,eventually, he took a house in Hampstead.Here he began a long series of sky studies,based on the conviction that only one as-pect of the sky was'consistent with a par-ticular kind of illumination of. the objectson the ground. On the backs of his studieshe usually recorded the date, the time ofthe day, and the weather conditions pre-vailing at the time they were painted.

(8) At Hampstead Constable found a new typeof subject unused by any landscape painter,

ARTS

I the combination of suburban buildingswith rural surroundings, as exemplified in"A Romantic House" (1832).

(9) The paintings exhibited yearly at the RoyalAcademy were based on such sky studiesand on many oil and pencil studies of ttfemain scene and of subordinate details.

(1O) With the exhibition of "The Hay Wain" atthe Royal Academy in 1821 Constable's workbecame known to French artists. His workswere shown in Paris in L824 and werea great success. "The Hay Wain" was award-ed a gold medal, and Constable's influenceover the younger French artists, in partic-ular Delacroixl, dated from this event.

(11) In 1824, Constable's wife's increasinglypoor health caused Constable to take herto Brighton, a fashionable seaside resorton the South coast. He found the landscapeof the surrounding country unsympathet-ic, but he set to work on oil studies anddrawings of the beach and shipping, manyof which were really remarkable. Consta-ble became more and more concerned withwhat he called "the chiaroscuro of the Na-ture", a term covering the broken lightsand accents caused by the reflection of sun-light on wet leaves and the alternation of

I Delacroix, Eugene (1798*1824) -

French painter, represent-ative of the Romantic movement in France.

JOHN CONSTABLE

lights and darks in the sky and the'shad-owed landscape. To Constable's contempo-raries his painting looked unfinished, andthe glazed highlights with which he en-hanced them became known as "Constable'sSnow".

(12) That Constable was now established asa landscape painter is shown in the numberof repetitions he was called upon to makefrom his more popular compositions. Amongthe subjects he repeated most often, thoughalways with some variation in the lightingand mood, were "Dedham Mill" (1820) and"Hampstead Heath" (first version 1823).

(13) In l-829, his wife died, and election in thatyear to full membership in the Royal Acad-emy he regarded without significance. In1830, he began to issue a series of mezzo-tint engravings under the title "English Lan-guage Scenery". It was designed to illus-trate Constable's range in landscapes, cho-sen especially with a view to recording the"chiaroscuro of Nature".

(14) From this time onward Constable was sub-ject to fits of depression. He had been leftwith a family of seven young children andforced himself to extra exertions on theirbehalf. He was working on the picture theday he died in 1837, but it waspufficientlyfinished to be exhibited posthumously at theRoyal Exhibition of that year.

ARTS

(15) Constable's large finished pictures, pro-' duced for the exhibitions at the Royal Acad-

ilIy, were necessary to his acceptance asan artist. His own real interest, though,lay in his sketches and it is these workswhich have excited the interest of all paift-ers since his death. It is necessary-to clar-ify the use of the word "sketeh" in t.hiscontext. These were not rough unfinishedworks or merely notes. In their free, broadand spontaneous way they were carefullyconsidered and were complete-in their pic-torial statement. In them, Constable catchesthe effects of rapiclly changing light, show-ihg for example how patterns of lightchange on'a landscape and clouds scudacross the sky. They.embody his most im-portant contribution to European art andexplain his wprk made such an impact uponthe Impressionistsr

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.1.'What was Constable greatly influenced by

in his childhood?2, When and why did Constable go to London?

I Impressionism- a style of painting (used especially in Francebetween 1870 and 1900) which produces effects (especiallyof light) by use of colour rather than by details of form. TheFrench impressionists painted directly from nature.

JOHN CONSTABLE

What did Constable realize?What practice did Constable start in 1802?Where did Constable go for sketching expe-ditions?When did Constable begin to gain recogni-tion?What did Constable find in Hampstead?What are Constable's most famous works?Why is Constable considered to be the great-est English landscape painter?

il. What is missing?1. The landscape

influenced Constable greatly.2. He showed an early

landscape.3. Constable's ambitions were aroused by

a youthful friendship with an _

whowas an painter.

4. Constable's nature are fresh andwith theand give direct

mind of the.artist.5. The years 1810 to 1815 were the ones of

intense on his painting. ,

6. At Hampstead Constable found -a new type

of _

: the combination ofbuildings and surroundings.

7. Constable became more and morewhat he called "the chiaroscuro of Nature".

8. Constable's sketches his most im-to European art.

3.4.5,

7.8.9.

6.

portant

3554 ARTS

III. Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

1. The landscape setting of his early years, in-fluenced Constable ...

2. Works by Lorrain and Poussin were ... .3. In 1802, Constable began ...4. A casual visit to a new scene could not ...5. Constable began to gain ...6. In Harnpstead, Constable began a long se-

ries ...7. Constable began more and more concerned ...8. From the time of his wife's death, Consta-

ble was subject .,.9. Constable's real interest lay in ...IV. Explain and expand on the following state-

ments.1. Constable said: "These (Suffolk) scenes made

me an artist".2. Constable created his own art.3. Constable's nature sketches are fresh and

brilliant.4. Constable began to gain some recognition.5. At Hampstead Constable found a new type

of subject.6. Constable's works in Par:is were a great suc-

cess.

7. Constable was very concerned with what hecalled "the chiaroscuro of Nature".

8. Constable's works produced a great impactupon the Impressionists.

JOHN CONSTABLE

V. You have an opportunity to speak to JohnConstable. What questions would you liketo ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph, whichprovides the facts.

'k Constable's birthplace* Constable's father's occupation* The year Constable went to London'k The peculiarity of Constable's sketches* The places Constable visited in L801 and

1806* The position Constable was elected in 1814't A subject Constable used several times* A new type of subject found by Constable* Constable's picture which was awarded a goid

medal* The subject Constable repeated most often'

VU. Complete the following outline for the es-say.

TOPIC MAIN IDEA PARAGRAPH(S)1.2.3.4.5.6.7.

56 ARTS

VIII. Make a biographical chart of John Con-stable.

CONSTABLE, JOHNt776-1837

DATE

SUMMARY

EVENT

JOSEPH MALLORD WII,LIAM TURNER 57

JOSEPHMALLORD

WILLIAMTURNER

177 5-l 85 I

(1) Joseph Turner is now recognized as a land-scape painter of poetic genius: his treatmentof atmosphere, light and colour has a mys-tical quality that is quite unique.

(2) Queen Victoria is said not to have bestoweda knighthood on Turner, as she did on oth-er, lesser painters, because she thought hewas mad. This is not entirely unlikely. Turn-er had a breadth and depth of mind, whichmade his later paintings difficult of access,even for his closest admirers, and his be-haviour often had the eccentricity of thosewhose attention is-focused on his prosaicthings than good manners. His early work

ARTS

was easily acceptable and within the con-ventions of the Royal Academy, so that hemade rapid progress under the eye of SirJoshua Reynolds, whose theories on poeticpainting and Platonic ideal forms appealedto young Turner. With maturity, Turriercarried the notion of ideal forms furtherinto the realm of the universal truths be-hind reality, beiieving that appearances areonly arbitrary images concealing deeperabsolutes.

(3) These ideas motivated much of his earlypainting, which though kept within the con-ventions of current technique, concealedsymbols which revealed Turner's realthoughts about the universe. His men strug-gling against the elements are anti-heroes,cluite different from the Renaissance con-cept embodied in Leonardo'sl man encom-passing the universe. Turner's message

-.that man is unaware and little concernedwith his destiny

-

led his work into thedeep waters of metaphysics2, with pai.ntbecoming a medium, not for depicting scen-ery but for describing the unseen forces thatgovern man's destiny.

I da Vinci Leonardo (1452--1519) -

a great Italian painter ofthe Renaissance

2 metaphysics -

a branch of philosophy concerned with try-ing to understand and describe the nature ofreality.

JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 59

(4) Turner was born in Maiden Lane, Londonon April 23, t775. H:is father was a wig-maker who becarne a hairdresser when wigswent out of fashion and later helped his sonto prepare and frame canvases. His motherwas mentally unstable and his sister diedyoung. The domestic problems of the Turn-er family led to young Turner's being sentto stay with his uncle at Brentford. Therehe had some schooling, but throughout hislife he remained almost illiterate. Howev-et, at L4, trom here, he managed to get intothe Royal Academy School, where he wassoon being noticed for the quality of hiswork and for his dedication. His early workwas mostly adaptations of engravings. Healso worked for architects, coloured printsfor engravers, gave lessons and made sketch-

' es for sale in his father's shop. He spentthree years making copies of the work ofCozensr, which was a good discipline, andlistening to the ideas of Joshua Reynolds,which opened his mind. He had little gener-al education when he sent off on his firsttrips in England and Wales, arrned with thesketch books that would become an essen-tial part of his travels all through his life.(5) At 18, he began wandering about Englandand Wales in search of material and.made

I Cozens, Alexander (1717-1786) -

English painter.

60 ARTS

architectural drawings in the cathedral cit-ies. It was from an early trip to Wales thatwe have the first description of Turner asa "plain uninteresting youth in manners andappearance ... careless and slovenly in dress"not particular as to the colour of his coai(..Later Constable was to describe him as "un-couth but with a wonderful rang,e of mind".

(6) Soon after his first trips, Turner met Gir-tinr and began filling in his drawings withcolour and also copying architect's plans.

. This discipline served him well and by 1790he had already exhibited a watercolour atthe Royal Acaderny. In 1793, he won theSociety of Arts' Greater Silver Pallet forlandscape drawing. In 1799, he was electedan associate Royal Academician and a fullmember in 1802.

(7) In 1805, Turner held an exhibition of hispaintings in his own gallery in Londori. Soonafter he became Professor of Perspective atthe Royal Academy.

(8) Trirner's artistic hero had always been' French painter; Claude, and in 1820 he

visited Paris to see his work, rilso discov-ering Titian and Poussin. There now be-gan a series of tours in search of suitablematerial for watercolours and oil paint-

' Girtin" Thomas (17711802)

-

English painter. Regarded asfounder of ar.t of modern watercolour painting.

JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 61

ings which engravers could reproduce andsell in large quantities. Among the series,which grew out of these were'{PicturesqueViews of England and Wales", "The SouthCoast of England" and "The Rivers ofFrance". By now, Turner had becomean established painter, travelling abroadalmost every year making thousands ofsketches, some of which he turned intowatercolours or oil paintings on his re-turn home; He first visited Venice in L817,and made two subsequent visits to the city.The atrirosphere of Venice liberated histechnique, which became more and morefluid and less attached to the actudl scenesbefore him. This brought him a good.dealof criticism but also the support of men'like John Ruskinl who published an ?p-praisal of Turner's wor[ in his five-vJl-urme Modern Painters.

(9) At the end of life Turner was a disappointedman, despite his great achievements. Theapproval of old age gnd the end of his crea-

'tive powers saddened him. Perhaps the lackof comprehension of the signific-hnce of whathe was doing and the lack of officiat recog-nition depressed him too. He was certainlyeccentric but not so eccentric that he forgot

I Ruskin, John ( l8l9-1900) -

English art critic, social theoristand writer.

62 ARTS

his fellow artists in distress, for whom heleft a fortune to build a charitable founda-tion, or the nation, to whom he left all hiswork on condition that it was kept in & spe:cial Turner gallery. The foundation was neverbuilt because the will was contested and dis-missed on a technical point of law. The gal-lery, in a special wing of the Tate Gallery intondon, camd into being in 1987 thanks tothe generosity of Sir Charles Clore and theefforts of the Turner Society. 300 of hispaintings and 20,000 watercolours and draw-ings were bequeathed to the nation. It isa fitting tribute to an artist considered to-day to be one of the finest landscape andseascape painters the world has known.

(1O) He died December 19, 1851, in a temporary, lodging at Chelsea. Turner was perhaps the

greatest landscape painting in the historyof English art. In many oil paintings andwatercolours, Turner departed from tradi-tional ways of dealing with atmosphere,light and colour. Earlier artists had treatedsuch elements realistically. In Turner'sworks, forms and outlines seem to dissolveqlto shimmering mist, steam, or smoke, orinto the intense light of bright sky or wa-ter. By changing the way artists represent-ed reality. Turner began a process contin-ued by the impressionists and many otherartists of the late 1800s and the 1900s.

JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 63

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.1.. What did Queen Victoria think of Turner?2. What motivated much of Turner's early

painting?3. How did Turner spend his early years?4. Why did Turner begin wandering about Eng_

land and Wales at 18?5. How did Constable describe Turner?6. How did the visit to Venice influence Turn_

er's work?7. What depressed Turner at the end of his life?8. How did Turner influence the development

of painting?II. What is missing?

1. Turner is a great landscape painter of po-etic

2. Queen Victoria is said not to havea

_ on Turner.

3. Turner's .- led his work into the deep

waters of metaphysics.4. Turner's mother was unstable.5. Making

--_---

of Cor"r *rk was u jooafor Turner.

6. The atmosphere of Venice Turner's tech-nique which became more and more

7. In his work Turner from traditionalways of with atmosphere.

64 ARTS

ilI. Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

1. Turner is now recogniZed ...2. Turner had a breadth and depth of mind "'3. Turner's message led his work ... 14. Turner was born ...5. At 18, Turner ...6. Turner's artistic hero had always been ."?. Turner had become an established painter "'8. At the end of life, Turner ...9. In Turner's works forms and outlets ...IV. Explain and expand on the following state-

ments.

JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 65

V. You have an opportunity to speak to Wil-liam . Joseph Turner. What questionswould you like to ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph, whichprovides the facts.

* The ideas of Turner's early work* Turner's birthplace* Turner's age when he managed to enter the

&

*

Royal AcademyThe places Turner wandered at 18The year Turner won the Silver PalletTurner's title at the Royal AcademyThe name of J. Ruskin's workTurner's problems at the end of his lifeThe year Turner Gallery was inaugurated inLondon

* The number of Turner's works bequeathedto the nation

* Turner's significance as a painterVII. Complete the followingoutline for the es-

say.

TOPIC MAIN IDEA1.2.3.4.5.

3. IfalrorlKrfi, IdyrlTypd ,'

PARAGRAPH(S)

1. Turner is now recognized as apainter of poetic genius.

2. Turner's ear:ly work was easilYand within the conventions of

landscape

acceptablethe Royal

Academy.3. Thb domestic problems made young Turner

stay with his uncle.4. At 18, Turner began wandering about Eng-

land and Wales.5. Turner's artistic hero had always been the

French painter Claude.6. At the end of life Turner was a disappointed

man.?. Turner Gallery came into being in 1987'8. Turner began a process continued by impres-

sionists.

66 ARTS

VUI. Make a biographical ehart of Joseph Wil-liam Turner.

TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM1775-1851

DATEI

EVNNT

SUMMARY

FRANKLLOYD WRIGHT 67

FKAruK$,LffiVM

WKHftffiT{ 86E-195S

(L) One of the great creative geniuses of the 20thcentury, Frank Lloyd Wright was first andforernost a working architect, dreamingcountless architectural dreams and turningthem into reality. He was a nonconformistrwho found the background for his architec-ture in nature and in man's Romanticism asexpressed in poetry, music and dance.

(2) Frank Lloyd Wright was born on June 8,L869, in the midwestern town of RichlandCenter, Wisconsin. From the very begin-

I nonconformist -

a person who does not follow generally ac-

,...*,"0 way(9 of living, thinking, etc.

ARTS

ning, his mother wanted him to becomean architect; and from his earliest memo-ries he wanted to be one. He intended "tobe the greatest architect of all time".

(3) When he was 15 years old, Wright enrolledin a civil engineering course at the Univer-sity of Wisconsin, for at that time the uni-versity did not offer courses in architec-ture. While studying at the UniversitV, heworked as a part-time apprentice for a Mad-ison Wisconsin, building iontractor. Be-cause of his great interest and talent inbuilding design, Wisconsin soon becamea supervisor of construction jobs: but thiswas not what young Wright wanted to do.He wanted to design buildings, not super-vise their construction.

(4) With very little money and no formal train-ing in architecture, Wright left the Univer-sity and went to Chicago, Illinois, in 1887, tolook for the kind of work he wanted. Therehe found a job at $8 a week as a draftsman inthe office of Adler and Suliivanl. Followingthe leadership of its brilliant designer, Louis

I Adler, Dankmar ( 1844-1900) -

American architect. Drafts-man and architect in Detroit and Chicago (from 1857). Sul-livan, Louis Henry (1856-1924) --- American architect. De-signed with Adler over 100 buildings (1881-1895). Sullivanis reg4rded as the father of modern functionalism in archi-tecture, especially as adapting architecture to modern needsby his design of the skyscraper.

FRANK LLOYD WRIGIIT

Sullivan, this firm was attempting to breakwith European tradition and establishan American form of architecture. Under SuI-livan's influence, Wright specialized in resi-dential design, and a productive teacher-stu-dent relationship developed. Though Wrightleft the firm in 1893 to work independentlyhe acknowledged the influence which Sulli-van had had upon him and continued to referto him as beloved master.

(5) With the rapid industrial development tak-ing place on the prairies outsids Chicago,the time was ripe for challenges. Many newhouses were being built, and in keeping with,the honoured traditions of the day, the typ-ical home was a box like affair or brick orwood 6ften elaborately decorated, it usual-ly stood out in ugly contrast to the simplebeauty of the prairie landscape.

(6) Young Wright wondered why men builttheir homes this way. Logic offered no an-swers, so he began to devise answers of hisown, designing buildings that would be bothfunctional and beautiful.His answers have long since become famil-iar terms: "space within as reality", the "or-ganic growth of a house from the insideout", and the "blepding of a house with itsnatural surroundings".fle soon became internationally famous forhis designs; and by the time he was 32, he

(7)

(8)

70 ARTS

was exerting a powerful influence on newforms of architecture.

(9) A favourite term, which Wright employed todescribe his work was'lorganic architecture".By this, he was referring to the human re-quirements of a building

-

with its loca'tionand material determining its final form.

(10) Wright's "prairie houses" were his first dra-matic example of "organic architecture". Inissues of the popular magazine, Ladies HomeJournal,1901, Wright published plans for"A llome in a Prairie Town" and "SmallHouse with Lots of Room in It," in whichhe attempted to link the indoors to the out-side and to create an impression of livingareas in harmony with their surroundings.His smooth flowing homes of abstract de-sign created a sensation.

(11) The Robie lfouse, in Chicago, Illinois, is thebest known of Wright's prairie houses. Ithas flat roofs with a broad overhang, hori-zontal bands of brick, and rows of long win-dows. The inside is not divided into tinyrooms but instead has open living space. Ithas no attic or basement, and the exteriorhas the appearance of different geometricshapes grouped together in a unified design.

(12) In 1904 Wright designed his first commer-cial building the ,Larkin Company officebuilding in Buffalo, New York. Since thisbuilding was to be located in an industrial

FRANK LLOYD WR.IGHT

area surrounded by factory and railroadbuildings, Wright focused upon:the inte-'rior, creating a court five stories high,Iighted naturally by a skyiight, with offic-es located on balconies overlooking the cen-tral court. Wright directed that a pipe or-gan be installed on the ground floor fo_rhalf-hour concerts by an employee eachmorning and afternoon, a precursor to thelunch-hour concerts given in building cor-ridors or courtyards, for office workerstoday. The top floor has a restaurant and aroof-top garden.for employee use. V/rightalso designed the metal office furniture andthe first metal,vertical letter files to be

, usd anywhere. The Larkin Building wasthe world's first air-conditioned officebuilding and a pace setter for industrialand office design.

(13) In 1915, Wright began one of his most fa-mous projects, the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo,Japan. What to face serious engineeringproblems in the construction of the hotelbecause of the poor subsoil and high watertable of the building site and the frequencyof earthquakes in the region. He solved theseproblems through the use of floating foun-dations, which wou-ld support sections of thehotel while being able to respond to the wave-like motions of an earthquake. Wright's suc-cess in using engineering to master the prob-

17

72 ARTS

lems of nature was dramatically emphasizedwhen, one year after its opening in 1922,the Imperial Hotel survived a devastatingearthquake which left thousands dead andmuch of Tokyo leveled.

(L4) Personal and financial problems, arrivingafter Wright's long period of residency inJapan to supervise the construction of theImperial Hotel, forced him into inactivity.When finally he was able to undertake newprojects, the American stock market crashed(1929), and years of economic depressionsremoved to financial backing, which Wrightrequired to see his projects built.

(15) During these years, he remained at Talies-in,.his Wisconsin farm, and earned somemoney through writing and lecturing. InL932, Wright established the Taliesin Fel-lowship, an unusual experiment in archi-tectural education; and he invited appren-tice architects to his studio to work andstudy alongside of him. Eventually, hun-dreds of promising young architects wereto work with Wright in Wisconsin and atTaliesin West, his winter studio in Arizo-na, which he built in 1938.

(16) BV 1936, Wright was able to renew his pro-duction. That year one of his most famousstructures was built

-

Falling \Mater, inBear Run, Pennsylvania. Projecting out overa waterfall, the house rests on a rocking

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT 13

ledge. A massive boulder that is allowed topenetrate the floor of the living area formsthe fireplace in the centre of the house; thewaterfall is below. Great sweeping support-ing beams extend from the core of fire, rock,and water to carry the eye to the landscapebeyond. The box-like rooms, which Wrightso disliked cannot be seen anywhere. Atlinterior corners dissolve in glass. All inte-rior spaces extend across broad balconiesinto the landscape. In this masterpiece' we'see the respeet, which Wright had for thelandscape, his love for materials and theirappropriate expression and his desire forharmony of expression.

(17) Falling Water and countless other buildings,which Wright designed bear witness to hisinnovative genius. His design for the John-son W'as Company in Racine, Wisconsin, hasserved as an inspiration for industrial andoffice design in the second half of the20th century as the Larkin Building had donein the first. His plan for the GuggenheimMuseum in New York City, designed dur-ing World War II when Wright was alreadyin his seventies, so confounded the Citybuilding department and challenged its codesthat it was not completed until 1959, theyear of Wright's death. With consistency,he was able to challenge the architecturalworld and all society by his vision.

ARTS

(18) His interpretation of the architect's role insociety is well summarized in his advice to,young men entering the field: "To the youngman in architecture, the world "radical"should be a beautiful word. "Radical" means"of the root" or "to the root" * begine atthe beginning. Any architect should be rad-ical by nature because it is not enough forhim to begin

.where others have left off."This was proved by Wright himself through-out the 89 years of his life.

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.When did Wright enroll in civil engineer-ing course?\Mhy did Wright leave for Chicago?\Mhat did young Wright wonder?Why did Wright become internationally fa-mous?What does "organic architecture" mean?What famous building did\Mright design inL904?What was one of Wright's most famousprojects?What did Falling Water and other buildingsdesigned by Wright bear witness?What advice did Wright give the youngmen?

1.

,P.

3.4.

D.6.

7.

8.

9.

t

3.

5.6.

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

il. What is missing?1. From his early , Wright wanted to be

an architect.While studying at the University, Wrightworked as a part-time

-.

Wright wanted to design buildings, nottheir construction.

4. He designed buildings that were bothand beautiful.His buildings created aThe Larkin Building was the firstoffice building.

7. Wright's success inmaster the problems

in 1922.8. Any architect should be

-

by nature.

III. Finish the sentences and develop the state-ments.

1. Lloyd Wright was first and foremost ...2. When he was 15, Wright ...3. Under Sullivan, Wright ...4. Young Wright wondered why ...5. Wright's "prairie houses" were his first ...6. In I9O4, Wright designed his first commer-

cial building ...7. In 1915, Wright began one of his first fa-

mous projects ...8. The buildings, which Wright designed bear

witness ...9. His role as an hrchitect is well summarized ...

using engineering toof nature was

76 ARTS

IV. Explain and expand on the following state-menLs.

Lloyd Wright was one of the great creativegeniuses of the 20th century.Being a teenager, Wright showed an ipter-est in building design.By the time he was 32, Wright was exertingan influence on new forms of architecture.Wright introduced a new term ,,organic ar-chitecture".Wright's "prairie houses" were the first dra-matic example of "organic architecture".In 1915, Wright began one of his most fa-mous projects.Wright established the Taliesin Fellowship.

V. You have an opportunity to speak to LloydWright. What questions would you liketo ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph, whichprovides the facts.

* Wright's age when he enrolled in the civilengineering course

* Wright's course at theconsin

* The first dramatic example of .,organic ar-chitecture"

* An example of Wright's "prairie house"* Unusual features found in the Larkin Building

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

FRANKLLOYD WRIGHT* The significance of the Imperial Hotel* The purpose of Taliesin Fellowship* Famous structures which Wright designed

late in his careerVII. Complete the following outline for the es.

say.

TOPIC1.,

3.4.b.6.

VI[. Make aWright.

MAIN IDEA PARAGRAPH(S)

Biographical chart of Lloyd

LLOYD WRIGHT, FRANKI 869-l 959

DATE EVENT

SUMMARYUniversity of Wis-

78 LITERATURE

(1) Few people outside Scotland appreciate theintensity of affection, which the Scots havefor Robert Burns. To his fellow countrymenhe is more than a poet. His homely phrases,such as "a man's a man for a 'that" enteredthe language and exalted both the Scottishcharacter and the Scottish tongue. Burns wasa poet and writer of traditional Scottish folksongs whose works are known and lovedwherever the English language is read.

(2) The Scottish bard was born in a clay cot-tage at the picturesque village of Allowaynear Ayr in Scotland on 25th January 1759,the eldest of a family of seven born to Wil-

ROBERT BURNS

liam and Agnes Burnes. William Burnes wasa struggling tenant farmer. Burns's moth-er had a beautiful voice and taught her sonold Scottish songs and ballads, which helater turned into his best poems. The Burnesfamily hailed from Kincardineshire, butWilliam had moved south in the aftermathof the Jacobitel rebellion, first to Edinburghand then to Ayrshire where he was employedas a landscape gardener. ln L757, he mar-ried Agnes Brown.The future poet's earliest years were spentin the cottage which William Burnes haderected on a portion of the land, which hehad feud as a market garden, and it washere that he and his brother Gilbert receivedtheir brief formal education at the hands oftheir teacher John Murdoch. Although pov-erty limited his formal education, Burnsread widely in English literature and theBible and learned to read French. He wasencouraged in his self-education by his fa-ther, and his mother acquainted him withScottish folk songs, legends, and proverbs.Ardous farm work and undernburishmentin his youth permanently undermined hishealth, leading to the rheumatic heart dis-ease from which he eventually died. In 1765,

I Jacobite -

in Britain, a supporter of the royal house of Stu-art after the deposition of James II in 1688.

79

ROBNRTtsURNS

I 759- 1796

(3)

acf

80 LITERATURE

the family moved to Mount Olifant, a 7O-acre farm two miles away. It was here, inthe autumn of. L774, that Burns wrote.hisfirst song Handsame Nell as a tribute tothe girl with whom he was partnered atharvest-time. With the exception of rtheTragic Fragmenf (in blank verse), all ofBurns's early compositions were lyrics towell-known melodies of the period, and songwriting was to be his principal metier tillthe end of his life.

(4) At Whitsunr L777 the Burnes family movedto,Lochile, a hill farm of 130 acres in Tar-bolton parish. Three years later Burns tooka leading part in founding the TarboltonBachelors: Club, adebating society.widelyregarded as the prototype for the'manyBurns clubs now flourishing worldwide.(5) Burns went in 1781,to Irvine to learn flaxdrOssing, but when the shop burned down,he returned horne penniless. He had, mean-while, composed his first poems. The poet'sfather died in L784,leaving him as head ofthe family. He and his brother Gilbert rent-ed:Mossgiel farm, ndar Mauchline, but theventure proved a failure. But the death ofhis father had a liberating influence onRobert. ln t784, theiigreat deal of the poet-

I Whitsun -

the seventh Sunday after Easter which celebratesthe coming down from heaven of the holy ghost.

R.OBERT BURNS

ry, which would appear in his first editionwas composed in this brief Period.

(6) In L784, Burns read the works of the Edin-burgl poet Robert Fergussonl. Under his'influence and that of Scottish folk traditionand older Scottish poetry, he became awareof the literary possibilities of the Scottishregional dialects. During the next two yearshe produced most of his best-known poemsincluding The, Cotter's Saturday's Night,Hallowe'en, To a Daisy and ?o a Mouse.Inaddition, he wrote The Jolly Beggars, a can-tata chiefly in standard English, ,which isconsidered one of his masterpieces.

(7) Burns further angered church authorities byhaving several irrdiscreet love affairs. Int785, he fell in love with Jean Armolr, thedaughter of a Mauchline building contrac-tor. Jean soon became pregnant and althoughBurns offered to inake her his wife, her fa-ther forbade their marriage. Thereupon(1786) he prepared to immigrate to the WestIndies. Before departing he arranged to is-sue'by subscription a collection of his poet-ry. Published on July 31 in Kihnarnock inan edition of 600 copies. Poems. ChieflA inthe Scottish Dialeef' was an immediate suc-cess. In September Burns abandoned theWest

I Fergusson, Robert (1750-1774) -

Scottish poet. His realistand humorous poems greatly influenced Robert Burns.

8r

82 LITERATURE

Indies plan; the same month Jean beeamethe mother of the twins. He moved in theautumn of 1786 to Edinburgh, where he waslionized by fashionable society. Charmed byBurns, the literati mistakenly believed himto be an untutored bard. He resented theircondescension and his independence, bluntmanner of speech, and occasional social awk-wardness alienated admirers.

(8) While Burns was in Edinburgh, he success-fully published a second, 300-copy editionof Poems (1787), that earned him a consid-erable sum. From the proceeds he was ableto tour (L787) the English border region andthe Highlands and finance another winterin Edinburgh. In the meantime he had re-sumed his relationship with Jean Arrnour.They were married.

(9) In June 1788, Burns leased a poorlyequipped farm in Ellisland, but the landproved unproductive. Within a year he wasappointed to a position in the Excise Serv-ice, and in November 1791 he relinquishedthe farm. In 1790, his masterpiece Tamo'Shanter was written.

(10) Burns's later literary output consisted al-most entirely of songs, both original com-positions of traditional Scottish ballads andfolk songs. He contributed some 200 songsto Scots Musical Museum (6 volumes,1783-1803), a project initiated by the en-

ROBERT BURNS

graver and music publisher James John-.son. Beginning in t792 Burns wrote about100 songs and some humorous verse forSelect Collection of Original Scottish Airs'Among his songs in this collection are suchfavourite s as Auld Lang Sgne, Comin' Thlo'the Rye, A Red, Red Rose and John Ander-som, My Jo.

(11) After the outbreak of the French Revolu-tion, Burns became an outspoken champi'onof the Republican cause. His enthusiasm fortiberty ancl srtcial justice dismayed ntany of,his adrnirers: some shunned or reviled him'After Franco-British relations began to r:[e-teriorate, he curbed his radicai sympathles,and in !79'4, for patriotic reasons, he joilredthe Dumfriesshire Volunteers. Burns diedin Dumfries on JlulY 21, 1796.

(12) A memorial edition of Burns's poems waspublished for the benefit of his wife andchildren.

(13) Burns touched with his own genius the tra-ditional folk songs of Scotland. He immor-talized its countryside and humble farm li'fe'He is one of the most popular song writersof English literature. Some of his songs wereoriginal, others were inspired by a line orphrase from one of the many ballads in theScottish dialect. From the oral folk tradi-tions he learned a great deal about songrhythms and the fitting words to music'

83

u1.

t3.4.

5.6.

7.

2. Robert Burns was born in a

LITERATURE

(14) Baltads,.brief stanzas, epitaphs, epigrams andpersonal lyrical verse were the most favour-ite forms of Burns's work. The stylistic de-vices, which the poet frequently used to ex-press his ideas were refrain, repetition, alle-gory, personification, parallelism and epitlts.

(15) Burns's popularity with his fellow-country-men is reflected in celebrations held all overthe world on "Burns Night", 25 January,his birthday.

EXERCISES

I. Answer the questions.Why do the Scots love R. Burns's poemswith such affection? 'Where did Burns spend his early years?When were Burns's first poems composed?When did Burns appear to become the headof the family?When were Burns's best poems produced?What did Burns's laler literary output con-sist of?Why was Burns considered a man of genius?

il. What is missing?1. Burns was a poet and writer of traditional

Scottish

ROBERT BURNS

4. Burns washis father.

5. Burns angered church authorities by hav-ing several love affairs.

6. Charmed by Burns literati rlristakingly be-lieved him to be a bard.

7. Burns's later literary consisted almostentirely of songs.

8. After theBurns became an

of the French Revolutionof the Repub-

lican cause.9. Burns his own countrYside and

farm life.ilI. Finish the sentences and develop the state-

ments.

1. Burns is appreciated ...2. T]he Scottish bard was born ...3. Burns's'father died in t784 ...4. Among Burns's best known poems ...5. While Burns was in Edinburgh ...6. Burn's latest literary output consisted ...?. After the outbreak of the french Revolu-

tion,-Burns ...8. The.stylistic devices which Burns fre-

quently ...IV. Explain and expand on the following state-

ments.

1. Burns was a poet and a writer of traditionalScottish folk songs.

ss

in his self education by

the _

village of Alloway.3. William Burnes was a farmer.

at

85 LITERATURE

His early years were hard.Burns took a leading part in founding theTarbolton Bachelor's Club.ln L784, Burns read the works of RobertFergusson.While Burns was in Edinburgh, he success-fully published his second edition of poems.Burns touched with his own genius the tra-ditional folk songs of Scotland.Burns is still a very popular poet today.

V. You have an opportunity to speak to Rob-ert Burns. What questions would you liketo ask him?

VI. Find the following information in the text.Give the number of the paragraph, which

*

&

*

provides the facts.Burns's birthplaceBurns's parents' nameEducation Burns receivedA tribute to the girl with whom Burns waspartnered in Mount OlifantThe year Burns's father diedA collection of poetry published in Kilmar-noekBurns's later literary outputBurns's burial placeThe favourite forms of Burns's workThe stylisic devices frequently used by Burns

2.3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

*

*

*

&

ROBERT BURNS

VII. Complete the following outline for the es'say.

TOPIC MAIN IDEA PARAGRAPH(S)1.2.3.4.D.6.

VIII. Make a biographical chart of RobertBurns.

BURNS, ROBERT17 59-1796

DATE EVENT

SUMMANY

87

88 LITERATURE

WILLIAMWORDSWORTH

1770-l 850

(1) William Wordsworth was born in 1770 andgrew up in the Lake District, the beautifularea of mountains, lakes and streams nearthe Scottish border in northwest England.The natural beauty and grandeaur of thisarea was a major source of inspiration forWordsworth throughout his life. His fatherwas an attorney. His mother died when hewas eight, and William was sent to schoolat Hawkshead, a town further south in theLake District. A lively though sometimesmoody boy, he loved to spend his free timeroaming about the countryside and gettingto know the country people who lived there.

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 89

(2) William was 13 when his father died. Theconsiderable sum of money left to the chil-dren was withheld for some years for legalreasons, but Wordsworth was neverthelessable to attend Cambridge University in 1'787.He found little in the formal university cur-riculum to interest him, however, and helonged restlessly for his summer vac