FEDERAL WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENT...And, as firefighting resources become increasingly scarce, it is more important than ever to strengthen cooperative relationships. The Federal Wildland

FEDERAL WILDLANDFIRE MANAGEMENTPOLICY & PROGRAM REVIEW

FINAL REPORT

DECEMBER 18, 1995

U .S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORU .S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Additional copies of this report may be obtained from

the Bureau of Land Management's Office of Fire and Aviation

at the

National Interagency Fire Center

Attn : External Affairs Office -

3833 South Development Avenue

Boise, Idaho 83705-5354

(208) 387-5150

or

(208) 387-5457

THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE

WASHINGTON

MEMORANDUM

To :

Acting Director, Bureau of Land ManagementChief, USDA Forest ServiceDirector, National Park ServiceDirector, U .S . Fish and Wildlife ServiceDeputy Commissioner, Bureau of Indian AffairsDirector, National Biological Service

Subject : Federal Wildland Fire Policy

We are pleased to accept and endorse the principles, policies, and recommendations in the attachedFederal Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review Report . These principles andpolicies provide a common approach to wildland fire by our two Departments . We look forward tothe endorsement of these principles and policies by our Federal partner agencies, including theFederal Emergency Management Agency, the Environmental Protection Agency, the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Department of Defense, so that we have a trulyFederal approach to wildland fire . We invite our partners in Tribal, State, and local governmentsto endorse these principles and policies in order to promote an integrated, intergovernmentalapproach to the management of wildland fire .

The principles and policies of the Report reiterate the commitment all of us have made to firefighterand public safety . No resource or property value is worth endangering people ; all of our actionsand our plans must reflect this commitment . Our second priority is to protect resources andproperty, based on the relative values to be protected . We must be realistic about our abilities tofight severe wildfire . As natural resource managers we must make prudent decisions based onsound assessments of all the risks . Good management reduces the likelihood of catastrophic fireby investing in risk- reduction measures ; good management also recognizes when nature must takeits course . The principles and policies of the Report, along with the recommended actions, willimprove our collective ability to be better wildland fire risk managers .

The philosophy, as well as the specific policies and recommendations, of the Report continues tomove our approach to wildland fire management beyond the traditional realms of fire suppressionby further integrating fire into the management of our lands and resources in an ongoing andsystematic manner, consistent with public health and environmental quality considerations . Westrongly support the integration of wildland fire into our land management planning andimplementation activities . Managers must learn to use fire as one of the basic tools foraccomplishing their resource management objectives .

Y OF )y\~ ~ F

USA

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

By this memorandum we are directing that you assume the responsibility for the implementation ofthe principles, policies, and recommendations in the Report . Implementation should be a matter ofhigh priority within your bureaus and should :

•

Be consistent with the nine Guiding Principles contained in the Report .

•

Occur on a joint, interagency basis wherever possible to ensure theconsistent application of policy .

• Involve a broad spectrum of program areas, including resourcemanagers, agency administrators, scientists, and planners, as well as thewildland fire management staffs .

•

Address local, interagency, integrated planning as a critical means ofensuring that on-the-ground implementation is as effective as possible .

• Coordinate with other Federal agencies, including the FederalEmergency Management Agency, the Environmental Protection Agency,the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and theDepartment of Defense .

•

Ensure coordination with Tribal, State, and local partners .

•

Recognize the results of the wildland-urban interface project sponsoredby the Western Governors Association .

We request that you prepare a joint, integrated strategy for implementing the Report by no laterthan March 1, 1996. At a minimum this strategy should describe the priorities, timeframes,responsibilities, leadership, and the participation of other Federal agencies and non-Federalpartners and cooperators . Each of you should designate a senior official, with the authority toensure implementation, to work in concert with the two Departments to guide overallimplementation of the Report .

We recognize that complete implementation of all of the recommendations will take some time .Priority should be placed on educating and informing employees of the philosophy, principles, andpolicies of the Report and on examining how quickly and efficiently we can update resource andland management plans to incorporate wildland fire considerations .

REPORT RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE SECRETARIES :

Dr. Charles Philpot . Co-ChairDirector, Pacific Northwest Research StationUSDA Forest Service

Dr Ann BartuskaDirector, Forest Pest ManagementUSDA Forest Service

Dale BosworthRegional Forester In

ountain RegionUSDA Forest S

DouglasDirector, Office of Hazard & Fire Programs Coord .DOI / Office of the Secretary

Rick GaleDeputy Chief RangerDOI / National Park Service

Lester . RosenkranceDirector, National Office of Fire & AviationDOI / Bureau of Land Management

1W gt donk 'I

Station Leader, Yosemite F f d StationDOI / National Biological Service

G i a/Rich Przywarty j Sally ShaverChief, Operations Division, Office of Meteorology Director, Air Quality Strategies & Standards DivisionDepartment of Commerce / National Weather Service

U. S . Environmental Protection Agency

udia Schechter, Co-Chairerector, Operations - Policy, Management & Budget

DOI / Office of the Secretary

Keith BeartuskAssistant Area Director, Billings Area OfficeDOI / Bureau of Indian Affairs

Stan ColoffPhysical Scientist .,DOI / National Biological Service

Mike EdringtonDirector, Aviation & Fire ManagementPacific Northwest RegionUSDA Forest Service

Dr. Mary Jo LavinDirector, Fire & Aviation ManagementUSDA Forest Service

Dr. Robert StreeAssistant Director, Refuges & WildlifeDOI / U . S . Fish & Wildlife Service

CONCURRENCE WITH RECOMMENDATION FOR ACCEPTANCE :

C,arn~e H Bro~n

V

c 1AdministratorU. S . Fire Administration

Richard KrimmAssistant Director, Response & RecoveryFederal Emergency Management Agency

FEDERAL WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENTPOLICY & PROGRAM REVIEW

FINAL REPORT

TABLE O F CONTENTS

Executive Summary _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .III

Introduction 1

Guiding Principles and Policies 4

Topic Area Discussions

Role of Wildland Fire in Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . /

Use of Wildland Fire _

.13

Preparedness and Suppression 17

Wildland/Urban Interface Protection 21

Coordinated Program Management 29

Appendix I References 35

Appendix IL Work Groups 39

FEDERAL WILDLANDFIRE MANAGEMENT .

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

T he challenge of managing wildland fire in theUnited States is increasing in complexity and mag-

nitude . Catastrophic wildfire now threatens millions ofwildland acres, particularly where vegetation patternshave been altered by past land-use practices and a centuryof fire suppression . Serious and potentially permanentecological deterioration is possible where fuel loads exceedhistorical conditions . Enormous public and private valuesare at high risk, and our nation's capability to respond tothis threat is becoming overextended. The goals andactions presented in this report encourage a moreproactive approach to wildland fire to reduce this threat .

The Departments of the Interior and Agriculture,together with Tribal governments, States, and otherjurisdictions, are responsible for the protection andmanagement of natural resources on lands they admin-ister. Because wildland fire respects no boundaries,uniform Federal policies and programs are essential .And, as firefighting resources become increasinglyscarce, it is more important than ever to strengthencooperative relationships .

The Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy andProgram Review was chartered by the Secretaries of theInterior and Agriculture to ensure that Federal policiesare uniform and programs are cooperative and cohesive .This report addresses five major topic areas, presents nineguiding principles that are fundamental to wildland firemanagement, and recommends a set of thirteen Federalwildland fire policies . While unique agency missionsmay result in minor operational differences, having, for thefirst time, one set of "umbrella" Federal fire policies willenhance effective and efficient operations across adminis-trative boundaries and improve our capability to meet thechallenges posed by current wildland fire conditions .

Public input and employee review have providedthe foundation upon which many of the policy andprogram goals and actions contained in this report arebased . Initially, broad policy and program issues werepresented for comment . These initial comments sharp-ened the focus and were used in preparing a draftreport The draft was then made available for bothinternal and external comment . More than 300comments were received and used in preparing thesefinal policy and program conclusions .

Following are some of the key points made inthis report :

• Protection of human life is reaffirmed as the firstpriority in wildland fire management . Property andnatural/cultural resources jointly become the secondpriority, with protection decisions based on values tobe protected and other considerations .

•

Wildland fire, as a critical natural process, must bereintroduced into the ecosystem . This will be accom-plished across agency boundaries and will be basedupon the best available science .

•

Agencies will create an organizational climate thatsupports employees who implement a properly plannedprogram to reintroduce wildland fire .

•

Where wildland fire cannot be safely reintroducedbecause of hazardous fuel build-ups, some form ofpretreatment must be considered, particularly inwildland/urban interface areas .

•

Every area with burnable vegetation will have anapproved Fire Management Plan .

• Wildland fire management decisions and resourcemanagement decisions go hand in hand and are basedon approved Fire Management and land and resourcemanagement plans- At the same time, agency adminis-trators must have the ability to choose from the fullspectrum of fire management actions - from promptsuppression to allowing fire to function in its naturalecological role .

•

All aspects of wildland fire management will beconducted with the involvement of all partners ;programs, activities, and processes will be compatible .

• The role of Federal agencies in the wildland/urbaninterface includes wildland firefighting, hazard fuelsreduction, cooperative prevention and education, andtechnical assistance . No one entity can resolve andmanage all interface issues ; it must be a cooperativeeffort . Ultimately, however, the primary responsibilityrests at the State and local levels .

•

Structural fire protection in the wildland/urbaninterface is the responsibility of Tribal, State, andlocal governments .

FEDERAL WILOLANDFIRE MANAGEMENT

FEDERAL WILDLANDFIRE MANAGEMENT

iv

•

The Western Governors' Association will serveas a catalyst to involve State and local agencies andprivate stakeholders in achieving a cooperativeapproach to fire prevention and protection in thewildland/urban interface .

•

Federal agencies must place more emphasis oneducating internal and external audiences about howand why we use and manage wildland fire .

•

Trained and certified employees will participatein the wildland fire program, others will support theprogram as needed . Administrators are responsible andwill be accountable for making employees available .

•

Good data and statistics are needed to support firemanagement decisions . Agencies must jointly establishan accurate, compatible, and accessible database offire- and ecosystem-related data .

The success of the actions recommended in thisreport depends upon four things : Every agency adminis-trator must ensure that these policies are incorporated intoall actions . Fire professionals must work with agencyadministrators to make the policies work on the ground .Managers and staffs must actively implement the recom-mendations and work with their constituents to ensuresuccess . And every employee of every agency must becommitted to follow through on the ground .

Finally, agencies and the public must change theirexpectation that all wildfires can be controlled orsuppressed . No organization, technology, or equip-ment can provide absolute protection when unusualfuel build-ups, extreme weather conditions, multipleignitions, and extreme fire behavior come together toform a catastrophic event .

To effect the recommended changes and to achievethe consistent Federal policies reflected in this report,the Steering Group recommends that all agencies bedirected to develop implementation plans that includeactions, assignments, and time frames .

I N T R O D U C T 1 O N

T he Federal wildiand fire management communityhas, for many years, been a leader in interagency

communication and cooperation to achieve mutualobjectives. While many policies and procedures aresimilar among the agencies, some significant differencesmay hinder efficient interagency cooperation . Becauseit is prudent to manage consistently across agencyboundaries, uniform cooperative programs and policiesare critical to efficient and effective fire management .Policies and programs must incorporate the wisdomand experience of the past, reflect today's values, and beable to adapt to the challenges of the future . They mustbe based on science and sound ecological and economicprinciples and, above all, must form the basis forsuppressing and using fire safely

While continual improvements are inherent inthe fire program, the events of the 1994 wildfire seasoncreated a renewed awareness and concern among theFederal land management agencies and our constituentsabout the impacts of wildfire . As a result of thoseconcerns and in response to specific recommendationsin the report of the South Canyon Fire InteragencyManagement Review Team (IMRT), the Federal Wild-land Fire Management Policy and Program Review waschartered to ensure that uniform Federal policies andcohesive interagency and intergovernmental fire manage-ment programs exist . The review process was directed byan interagency Steering Group whose members represent-ed the Departments of Agriculture and the Interior, theI',S . Fire Administration, the National Weather Service,the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and theEnvironmental Protection Agency The Steering Groupreceived staff support from a core team representing theDepartments of Agriculture and the Interior . Duringthe review process, the core team gathered input fromteams of internal and external subject-matter expertstsce Appendix II) .

The Federal agencies referenced throughout thisreport arc the five principal fire/land managementagencies, including the Forest Service (FS) under theDepartment of Agriculture and the Bureau of LandManagement (BLM), National Park Service (NPS),Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and Bureau of IndianAffairs (BIA) under the Department of the Interior .The term "Federal wildland" as used in this report

recognizes that Indian trust lands are private lands heldin trust by the government and that Tribes possess aNationhood status and retain inherent powers of selfgovernment . It is also recognized that, in addition tothe five principal Federal land management agenciesthat have participated in this review, the Departmentof Defense and other Federal entities also manage asignificant amount of wildland and may choose toadopt the fire management strategies and policiescontained in this report .

Early in this review process, internal and externalideas were sought and broad program managementissues were identified. The review was announced andinput was requested in the Federal Register on January 3,1995 . At the same time, letters were sent to approximately300 individuals and organizations across the nation andemployee input was sought through internal communica-tions within the Departments of the Interior and Agricul-ture. Subsequently, Steering Group members met withnational stakeholders, the Western Governors' Association,and employees to get additional, more focused input ; theyincorporated input resulting from the EnvironmentalRegulation and Prescribed Fire conference held in Tampa,Florida, in March 1995 ; and they individually continuedto network with their constituents .

The draft report was published in its entirety in theFederal Register on June 22, 1995, and a 30-day publiccomment period was announced . Copies of the reportwere mailed to a greatly expanded audience, includingthose who commented early in the review process .The full report was also available on Internet . At theend of the 30-day comment period, the Steering Grouphad received a significant number of requests to allowadditional time for comments . In response to thoserequests, the comment period was reopened, closingfor a second time on September 25, 1995 . In total,308 comments were received on the draft report . Anindependent contractor completed a content analysisof the comments; the resulting report and individualresponses were used in the preparation of this report .

A number of related reviews and studies form abroad foundation of technical, professional, andscientific assessment upon which the recommendedpolicies, goals, and actions contained in this report arefounded, including :


1


•

Final Report on Fire Management Policy ; USDA/USDI-May 1989 .

•

Rural Fire Protection in America : A Challenge for theFuture, National Association of State Foresters- 1991 .

•

Oversight Hearing: Fire Suppression, Fire Preven-tion, and Forest Health Issues and Programs ; Commit-tee on Agriculture and the Committee on NaturalResources, House of Representatives - October 4, 1994 .

•

Report of the National Commission on WildfireDisasters; Sampson, Chair - 1994 .

•

Western Forest Health Initiative Report, USDAForest Service -1994 .

•

Fire Management Strategic Assessment Report ;USDA Forest Service - 1994 .

•

Fire Management and Ecosystem Health in theNational Park System ; USDI National Park Service-September 1994

•

Report of the Interagency Management ReviewTeam, South Canyon Fire; USDI/USDA - October 1994 .

•

Bureau of Land Management Fire and AviationProgramwide Management Review Report, USDI BLM -April 1995 .

Communication and collaboration are highlightedthroughout this report . The planning, implementation,and monitoring of wildland fire management actionswill be done on an interagency basis with the involve-ment of all partners . The term "partners," as used inthis report, is all encompassing, including the Federalland management and regulatory agencies ; Tribal gov-ernments ; Department of Defense ; State, county, andlocal governments ; the private sector, and the public .We believe there is no option to this renewed emphasison public participation. Although initially timeconsuming, this approach will lead to a long-termpayoff, including an increase in public safety, reducedcosts and losses, and a wider acceptance of the impor-tant role that wildland fire plays in the management ofour public lands .

Wildland fire at Warm Lake, Idaho . (Photo courtesy of National Interagency Fire Center.)


3


4

G U I D I N G P R I N C I P L E S & P O L I C I E S

T he following guiding principles are fundamental to the success of the Federal wildland fire managementprogram and the implementation of review recommendations . The proposed Federal policies shown on the

following pages were developed as a part of this review . These "umbrella" Federal policies do not replace existingagency-specific policies but will compel each agency to review its policies to ensure compatibility Individual agencypolicies will be reflected through the land and fire management planning processes .

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

A. Firefighter and public safety is the first priority in every fire management activity .

B . The role of wildland fire as an essential ecological process and natural change agent will be incorporated into theplanning process . Federal agency land and resource management plans set the objectives for the use and desiredfuture condition of the various public lands .

C . Fire management plans, programs, and activities support land and resource management plans and their implementation .

D . Sound r sk management is a foundation for all fire management activities. Risks and uncertainties relating to fire manage-ment activities must be understood, analyzed, communicated, and managed as they relate to the cost of either doingor not doing an activity Net gains to the public benefit will be an important component of decisions .

L . Fire management program and activities are economically viable, based upon values to be protected, costs, and landand resource management objectives . Federal agency administrators are adjusting and reorganizing programs toreduce costs and increase efficiencies . As part of this process, investments in fire management activities must beevaluated against other agency programs in order to effectively accomplish the overall mission, set short- andlong-term priorities, and clarify management accountability

F Fire management plans and activities-are based upon the best available science. Knowledge and experience aredeveloped among all wildland fire management agencies . An active fire research program combined withinteragency collaboration provides the means to make this available to all fire managers .

G- Fire management plans and activities incorporate public health and environmental quality considerations .

H . Federal, State, Tribal, and local interagency coordination and cooperation are essential . Increasing costs and smallerwork forces require that public agencies pool their human resources to successfully deal with the ever-increasingand more complex fire management tasks . Full collaboration among Federal agencies and between the Federalagencies and State, local, and private entities results in a mobile fire management work force available to the fullrange of public needs .

I

Standardization of policies and procedures among Federal agencies is an ongoing objective . Consistency of plans andoperations provides the fundamental platform upon which Federal agencies can cooperate and integrate fireactivities across agency boundaries and provide leadership for cooperation with State and local fire manage-ment organizations .

F E D E R A L W I L D L A N D F I R E P O L I C I E SDEPART ENT OF THE INTERIOR USDA FOREST SERVICE PROPOSED FEDERAL

SAFETY No wildfire situation, with the possibleexception of threat to human survival,requires the exposure of firefighters tolife-threatening situations .

Conduct fire suppression in a timely, ef-fective, and efficient manner with a highregard for public and firefighter safety

i Forest officers responsible for planningand implementing suppression actionshall not knowingly or carelessly subor-dinate human lives to other values .

Firefighter and public safety is the firstpriority All Fire Management Plans andactivities must reflect this commitment .

PLANNING Fire will be used to achieve responsibleand definable land-use benefits throughthe integration of fire suppression andprescribed fire as a management tool,

integrate consideration of fire protectionand use into the formulation and evalu-ation of land and resource managementobjectives, prescriptions, and practices .

Every area with burnable vegetation musthave an approved Fire Management Plan .Fire Management Plans must be consis-tent with firefighter and public safety, val-ues Lobe protected, and land and resourcemanagement plans` and must address pub-lic health issues . Fire Management Plansmust also address all potential wildlandfire occurrences and include the full rangeof fire management actions .

W I LDLAN D FIRE Fire, as a critical natural process, will beintegrated into land and resource man-agement plans and activities on a land-s,ape scale, across agency boundaries,and will be based upon best availablescience . All use of fire for resource man-agement requires a formal prescription .Management actions taken on wildlandfires will be consistent with approvedFire Management Plans .

WILDFIRE Fires are classified as either wildfire orprescribed fire . All wildfires will be sup-pressed . Wildfire may not be used toaccomplish land-use and resource-man-agement objectives. Only prescribedfire may be used for this purpose,

Wildland fires are defined as either awildfire or a prescribed fire . Respondto a fire burning on National Forest Sys-tent, land based on whether it is a wild-fire or a prescribed fire ; implement anappropriate suppression response to awildfire .

USE of FIRE Wildland fire will be used to protect,

FIRE Prescribed fire may be utilized to ac-complish land-use or resource-manage-ment objectives only when defined inprescribed fire plans .

Use prescribed fires, from either manage-ment ignitions or natural ignitions, in asafe, carefully controlled, cost-effectivemanner as a means of achieving manage-ment objectives defined in Forest Plans .Prepare a burn plan for all prescribed fireprojects .

maintain,, and enhancepossible, b

allowedallcouede.

fet u, csn

pune-tion

lyon in

itits naturaaturall

ecocologicaall

rrole .

PRESCRIBEDNATURAL FIRE

Prescribed fire, designed to accomplishthe management objective of allowingnaturally occurring fire to play its rolein the ecosystem, will be allowed toburn if provided for in a Fire Manage-ment Plan, a valid prescription exists,and the fire is monitored .

Allow lightning-caused fires to play, asnearly as possible, their natural ecologi-cal role in Wilderness.

PREPAREDNESS Bureaus will maintain an adequate stateof preparedness and adequate resourcesforwildlandfiresuppression . Prepared-ness plans will include considerations forcost-effective training and equipping ofsuppression forces, maintenance of fa-cilities and equipment, positioning of re-sources, and criteria for analyzing, pd-oritizing, and responding to various lev-els of fire situations .

Plan, train, equip, and make availablean organization that ensures cost-effi-dent wildfire protection in support ofland and resource management directionas stated in Fire Management ActionPlans . Base presuppression planning onthe National Fire Management AnalysisSystem .

Agencies will ensure their capability toprovide safe, cost-effective fire manage-ment programs in support of land andresource management plans through ap-propriate planning, staffing . training,and equipment .

SUPPRESSION Wildfire losses will be held to the mini-mum possible through timely and eftec-rive suppression action consistent withvalues at risk and within the frameworkof land-use objectives and plans

Conduct fire suppression in a timely, ef-fective, and efficient manner with a highregard for public and firefighter safety

Fires are suppressed at minimum cost,considering firefighter and public safety,benefits, and values to be protected, con-sistent with resource objectives .

PREVENTION Wldfire prevention is an integral partI of the total suppression program andranges from public education to haz-ard reduction activities . Bureaus willdevelop and participate in interagencyfire prevention cooperatives .

The objective of wildfire prevention is thecost-efficient reduction of fire suppressionexpenditures and damages from human-caused fires to levels commensurate withresource management objectives and firemanagement direction .

Agencies will work together and withother affected groups and individuals toprevent unauthorized ignition of wild-land fires .

F E D E R A L W I L DI DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

L A N D F I R E P O L I C I E SUSDA FOREST SERVICE

PROPOSED FEDERAL

PROTECTION

The standard criterion to be used in es-

PRIORITIES

tablishmg protection priorities is the p 0-tential to destroy. (1) human life, (2)propert}, and (3) resource values . (Na-

I tional Interagency Mobilization Guide .March 1995.NFES2_092_)

The standard criterion to be used in es- Protection priorities are (I) human lifetablishing protection priorities is the po- and (2) property and naiural/cultural re-tential to destroy. (1) human life, (2) sources- hit becomes necessary to pri-property and (3) resource values . (Na- + unitize between property and natural/tional Interagency Mobilization Guide,March 1995, NFES 2092 .)

cultural resources, this is done based onrelative values tobeprotected, commen-surate with fire management costs .Once people have been committed toan incident, these resources become thehighest value to be protected .

INTERAGENCY

Bureaus will coordinate and cooperateCOOPERATION

' with each other and with other protee-non agencies for greater efficiency andeffectiveness.

)evelop and implement mutually ben-eficial fire management agreements withother Federal agencies and adjoiningcountries . Cooperate, participate . andconsult with the States on fire protectionfar non-Federal wildlands .

Fire management planning, prepared-ness, suppression. fire use, monitoring,and research will be conducted on aninteragency basis with the involvement Iof all partners .

STANDARDIZATION

The National % ldhre CoordinatingGroup (NWCG) provides a formalized

. se stem to agree upon standards of train-ing, equipment, aircraft, suppression

I priorities, and other operational areas-(Memorandum of UnderstandingNWCG; II. Function and Purpose)

Th National Wildfire CoordinatingGroup (NWCG) provides a formalizedsystem to agree upon standards of train-ing . equipment, aircraft, suppression pri-orities, and other operational areas .(Memorandum of Understanding,NWCG; 11, Function and Purpose-)

Agencies will use compatible planningprocesses, funding mechanisms, train-ing and qualification requirements, op-erationalprocedures, values-to-be-pro-tested methodologie, and public edu-cation programs for all fire managementactivities .

ECONOMIC

11 Bureaus will ensure that all fire manage-EFFICIENCY

meet activities are planned and basedupon sound considerations, includingeconomic concerns- Bureaus will coot-dinate and cooperate with each otherand with other protection agencies forgreater efficiency and effectivenesssWildfire damage will be held to theminimum possible, giving full consid-oration to minimizing expenditure ofpublic funds for effective suppression .

Provide a cost-efficient level of wildfireprotection on National Forest landscom-mensurate with the threat to life andproperty and commensurate with the po-

I tential for resource and environmentaldamage based on hazard, risk, values,and management objectives .

Fire management programs and activi-ties will be based on economic analysesthat incorporate commodity, non-com-modity, and social values,

WILDLAND/URBAN '', Emergency assistance may be providedINTERFACE

to properties in the vicinity of publicand Indian lands so long as Departmen-tai lands or the public's interest is notjeopardized Bureaus will develop andparticipate in interagency fire proven-Lion cooperatives-

Structural fi e suppression, 'hicheludes exterior and interior actions onburning structures, is the responsibilityof State and local government . Struc-tural fire protection from advancingwildfire within the National Forest pro-tectoan boundary is the responsibility ofState and local fire departments and theForest Service .

and education, and technical assistancee

The operational role of Federal agenrme,as a partner in the wildland/urhan in-terface is wildland firefighting, hazardfuels reduction, cooperative prevention

Structural fire protection is the respon-sfbility of Tribal, State . and local goy-

I ernments . Federal agencies may assistwith exterior structural suppression activities

under formal Fire ProtectionAgreements that snccify the mutual to-sponsibilities of the partners, includingFunding. (Some Federal agencies havefull structural protection authority fortheir facilities on lands they administerand may also enter into formal agree-ments to assist State and local govern-ments with full structural protection .)

ADMINISTRATOR

Wildfires are considered emergencies, and 11 Every Forest Service employee has the Employees who are traineo and certifiedAND EMPLOYEE

I their suppression will be given priority responsibility to support and participate will participate in the wildland fire pro-ROLES

over normal Departmental programs5

in wildfire suppression activities as the gram as the situation demands ; etnplop-situation demands . ees with operational, a dministrative. e r

other skills will support the wildland fireprogram as needed . Administrators areresponsible and will be accountable formaking employees available-

ROLE O F W I L D L A N D FIREI N RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Understory burning in ponderosa pine on the MalheurNational Forest in Oregon reduces competition from grass,brush, and small tices, allowing ponderosa pine to prosperWildland fire plays an important role in maintaining healthyforests_ (Ph (?to cnuncsv of Mike Apttelio, Forest Seretcc, NJPC.)

5 I T U A T I O N

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVELong before humans arrived in North America, there wasfire . It came with the first lightning strike and will remainforever . Unlike earthquakes, tornados, and wind, fire is adisturbance that depends upon complex physical, chemi-cal, and biological relationships . Wildland fire is inher-ently neither good nor bad, hut it is the most powerfulnatural force that people have learned to use . As aninevitable natural force, it is sometimes unpredictable andpotentially destructive and, along with human activities,has shaped ecosystems throughout time .

Early ecologists recognized the presence of disturb-ance but focused on the principle that the land continuedto move toward a stable or equilibrium condition .

Through the years, however, scientists have acknowledgedthat equilibrium conditions are largely the exception anddisturbance is generally the rule . Natural forces haveaffected and defined landscapes throughout time .Inasmuch as humans cannot completely control oreliminate these disturbances, ecosystems will continueto change .

Human activities also influence ecosystem change .American Indian Tribes actively used fire in prehistoricand historic times to alter vegetation patterns . In shop,people and ecosystems evolved with the presence of fire .This human influence shifted after European settlementin North America, when it was believed that fire, unlikeother natural disturbance phenomena, could and shouldbe controlled . For many years fire was aggressivelyexcluded to protect both public and private investmentsand to prevent what was considered the destruction offorests, savannahs, shrublands, and grasslands . Whilethe destructive, potentially deadly side of fire was obviousand immediate, changes and risks resulting from these fireexclusion efforts were difficult to recognize and mountedslowly and inconspicuously over many decades .

CURRENT PERSPECTIVEThere is growing recognition that past land-usepractices, combined with the effects of fire exclusion,can result in heavy accumulations of dead vegetation,altered fuel arrangement, and changes in vegetativestructure and composition . When dead fallen material(including tree boles, tree and shrub branches, leaves,and decaying organic matter) accumulates on theground, it increases fuel quantity and creates a continu-ous arrangement of fuel . When this occurs, surfacefires may ignite more quickly burn with greaterintensity, and spread more rapidly and extensively thanin the past . On the other hand, uses such as grazingcan sometimes reduce fine fuels, precluding periodicsurface fires that would typically burn in these areas .Without fire, encroachment of woody species mayoccur in some savannah and grassland ecosystems .

The arrangement of live vegetation also affects theway fires burn . For example, an increase in the densityof small trees creates a multi-storied forest structurewith a continuous vertical fuel arrangement This


7


arrangement may allow a fire normally restricted tothe surface to spread into the trees and become acrown fire. In addition to structural changes, vegetationmodification resulting from fire exclusion can cause ashift toward species that are not adapted to lire (some ofwhich are not native) and are therefore more suscep-tible to damage from fire- Fire exclusion sometimesfavors non-native species in some fire-dependent areas,while in other areas fires may encourage non-nativespecies Fires in areas of altered vegetation and fuelscan adversely affect other important forces within theecosystem, such as insects and diseases, wildlife popu-lations, hydrologic processes, soil structure and miner-alogy, and nutrient cycling . Any of these components,if altered greatly by unusually evere fire, can seriouslydiminish the long-term sustainability of the land. Inaddition, effective protection from, and control of. theselarge fire events will likely he much more difficult

Paradoxically, rather than eliminating lire, exclu-sion efforts .. combined with other land-use practices .have in many places dramatically altered fire regimescircumstances of fires, including frequency, intensity,and spatial extent) so that today's fires tend to be largerand more severe . No longer a matter of slow accum-ulation of fuels, today's conditions confront us withthe likelihood of more rapid, extensive ecologicalchanges beyond any we have experienced in the past .To address these changes and the challenge theypresent, we must first understand and accept the roleof wildland fire and adopt land management practicesthat integrate fire as an essential ecosystem process .

While other techniques, such as mechanicalremoval, may he used to reduce heavy fuels .. theycannot always replace the ecological role that fire plays .Fire not only reduces the build-up of dead and downedfuel, it performs many other critical ecosystem func-tions . Fire can recycle nutrients that might otherwisebe trapped for long periods of time in the dead organicmatter that exists in many environments with slow ratesof decay. It can also stimulate the production of nuui-entss and provide the specific conditions, includingseed release, soil, light, and nutrients, that are criticalfor the reproduction of fire-dependent species . Formore extensive information about the ecological roleof fire and current ecosystem conditions, refer to thedocuments listed in Appendix 1 .

PLANNING

Although ecological knowledge and theories haveevolved relatively quickly, the scope and process ofland management have had difficulty keeping pace .Ecological processes, including fire and other distur-bance, and changing landscape conditions are oftennot integrated into land management planning anddecisions . With few exceptions, existing land manage -merit planning is confined within individual agencyboundaries and is based on single-program goals thatare driven by agency missions and policies Separate,incompatible planning systems can also preclude theecosystem perspective in land management planningThis type of planning can result in an inefficient,fragmented . short-term approach to management thattends to ignore broad, interdisciplinary-based, long-term resource issues that cross agency boundaries .land management agencies now recognize the need tobreak down these barriers and seek cooperative,ecologically sound approaches to land management ona landscape scale . One way to break down thesebarriers is to involve all interests, including the pu'afic-scientists, resource specialists, and regulators . through-out the planning process . Another is to establish a dearlink for communication and information transferbetween scientists and managers . These measures w ifEhelp to ensure that management needs are met and tuts'.current science is used in land management planning atall levels .

Planning must also consider the risks, probabilities,and consequences of various management s trategics. e g ._fire use versus fire exclusion . In a responsive planningprocess, management decisions must be monitored,integrated, and supported at each step . In order tocarry out critical and effective "adaptive management"(a feedback approach to management that uses monholingresults to plan future actions), planners and managersneed a nationwide baseline measure of ecological condi-tion and a compatible method of assessing long-termecological health by ecosystem type .

We must understand and accept the need tointegrate wildland fire into land management plans andactivities, and this integration must be reconciled withother societal goals, e .g_. maintaining species habits.,producing commodities, and protecting air quality .water quality, and human health . Laws and regulationsmust consistently address long-term ecosystemprocesses and must guide agencies toward a common

goal . Information about the consequences of variousmanagement strategies is not currently available toassist in working toward and prioritizing simultaneousgoals . Land management and regulatory agencies mustinteract and collaborate and must rely upon a continu-ous process of public involvement and feedback toachieve a balance of ecosystem and other societal goals .

REINTRODUCTION OF FIRESeveral factors hinder the reintroduction of wildlandfire on an ecologically significant scale . Even now itsometimes takes years to reach agreement about appro-priate treatments and to take action . Land managersoften feel the need to wait for scientific certainty beforeacting . This favors the status quo, impedes progress,and deters investigation of new techniques. In someecosystems, little or no information is available aboutdisturbance regimes, historical fire patterns, response topast management actions, and likely future responses .Information needed to reintroduce fire includes a well-planned, large-scale scientific assessment of currentecosystem conditions and the consequences of variousmanagement strategies .

Another constraint is that Fire Management Plansarc not in place in all areas, thus precluding managersfrom taking advantage of the management optionspresented by wildland fires . Planning should considerall wildland fires, regardless of ignition source, asopportunities to meet management objectives- In areaswhere planning has determined a range of appropriatemanagement actions for the use of wildland fire, therewill be more opportunities to safely and cost-effectivelyreintroduce fire . This approach will also make suppres-sion resources available for the highest-prioritysituations. All wildland fire management actions willcontinue to be based on values to be protected, fire andland management objectives, and environmentalconditions . In many situations, such as fires occurringin highly developed areas or during particularly severeweather, immediate initial attack and prompt suppres-sion will still he required .

An additional contributing factor is the increasinghuman settlement that encroaches upon wildlands(wildland/urban interface) . Such development dividesand fragments wildlands, making it difficult to applyecosystem-based management strategies. This increasesthe risk of escaped fires and generates complaints about

smoke and altered scenic values- In these areas, the useof fire may be limited in spatial extent and, even wherefire introduction is desirable, progress may be slow .

Smoke is perceived as a factor that may affect landmanagers' ability to use larger and more frequentwildland fire for restoration and maintenance of fire-dependent ecosystems . Several Federal air qualityprograms under the Clean Air Act (CAA) regulatewildland fire emissions . The Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) is required to set air quality standards forpollutants that affect public health . States are thenrequired to submit plans to ensure measures will betaken to meet those air quality standards . Local areasmay also develop plans that may be more (but not less)restrictive than State and national standards .

In areas where air quality standards are violated,measures must be taken to reduce emissions . Emissioncontrol measures for fires that are used to meet man-agement objectives include smoke management tech-niques that minimize and disperse smoke away fromsmoke-sensitive areas . Smoke from fires may also causestandards to be exceeded in communities miles awayfrom the source . Currently, prescribed fires are notconsidered to be a significant cause of nonattainment,but with increased burning to reduce fuels and restoreor maintain ecosystem health, this may change . Inmany areas, fire managers and local air quality authori-ties have successfully worked together to accomplishfire and land management objectives, resolve conflictswith smoke emissions, and avoid violation of air qualitystandards. With guidance from the national level toprovide consistent interpretation, further cooperation atthe local level will help to achieve a balance of airquality and other ecosystem goals .

Fire is a unique tool that land managers can useto complement agency missions and land managementobjectives . But in order to successfully integrate fireinto natural resource management, informed managers,partners, and the public must build upon soundscientific principles and social values . Researchprograms must be developed to create this foundationof sound scientific principles . Before fire is applied onan ecosystem-scale, an understanding of historical fireregimes, as well as a knowledge of the current condi-tions of each system, is needed . Then all parties mustwork together in the land management planning andimplementation process according to agreed-upongoals for public welfare and the health of the land .


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EDUCATIONFor many people, fire remains a fearsome, destructiveforce that can and should be controlled at all costs .Smokey Bear's simple, time-honored only you" fireprevention message has been so successful that anycomplex talk about the healthy, natural role of fire andthe scientific concepts that support it are often lost byinternal and external audiences . A comprehensivemessage is needed that clearly conveys the desiredbalance of avoiding fires with adverse effects whilesimultaneously increasing ecologically beneficial fire .

The ecological and societal risks of using andexcluding fire have not been adequately clarified andquantified to allow open and thorough discussionsamong managers and the public . Few understand thatintegrating fire into land management is not a one-time,immediate fix but a continual, long-term process . It isnot an end in itself but rather a means to a morehealthy end_ Full agency commitment to internal andexternal information and education regarding fire andother ecological processes is needed . Adaptive andinnovative fire and land management is severely limitedwhen agency employees and the public misunderstandor remain skeptical about the role of fire .

THE TASKThe task before us - reintroducing fire - is bothurgent and enormous- Conditions on millions of acresof wildlands increase the probability of large, intensefires beyond am' scale yet witnessed . These severe fireswill in turn increase the risk to humans, to property,and to the land upon which our social and economicwell-being is so intimately intertwined .

RECOMMEND A T I O N S :PLANNING

GOALS• Fire management goals and objectives, including thereintroduction of fire, are incorporated into land man-agement planning to restore and maintain sustainableecosystems . Planning is a collaborative effort, with allinterested partners working together to develop andimplement management objectives that cross jurisdic-tional boundaries .

Clearly defined fire management goals, objectives,and actions are developed and updated in comprehen-sive Fire Management Plans. The use of fire to sustain

ecosystem health is based on sound scientific principlesand information and is balanced with other societalgoals . including public health and safety, air quality,and other specific environmental concerns

ACTIONSFederal agencies will :•

use a compatible fire management planning systemthat recognizes both fire use and fire protection asinherent parts of natural resource management. thissystem will ensure adequate fire suppression capabili-ties and support fire reintroduction efforts .

•

develop Fire Management Plans for all areas subjectto wildland fires . These plans will :

- use information about fire regimes, currentconditions, and land management objectivesas a basis to develop fire management goalsand objectives .

- address all potential wildland fire occur-rences and include a full range of firemanagement actions .

-use new knowledge and monitoring resultsto revise fire management Goals, objectives,and actions .

-be linked closely to land and resourcemanagement plans .

develop research programs that provide a soundscientific basis for the integration of wildland fire intoland-use and resource management .

create a system for coordination and cooperationamong land managers and regulators that exploresoptions within existing laws to allow for the use of fireto achieve goals of ecosystem health while at the sametime protecting individual components of the environ-ment, human health, and safety. This system will :

-allow for early collaboration during theprocess of developing new land managementplans and provide a mechanism for incorpor-ating input as existing plans are implementedor revised .

encourage land managers and regulators toenter into agreements that set forth the actionseach will take before and during the time fireis reintroduced in their area of responsibility

continue ongoing efforts to jointly develop compat-ible, ecosystem-based, multiple-scale, interagency landmanagement plans that involve all interested partiesand facilitate adaptive management . This process will :

- fully integrate ecological concepts thatconsider long-term dynamics and crossagency boundaries .

- effectively incorporate current fire-relatedinformation, including scientific knowledge,risk assessment, social and economicconcerns, and public health considerations .

- ensure that existing land managementplans are revised or updated to address theabove actions .

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S :R E I N T R O D U C T 1 O N O F F I R E

GOAL• Based upon sound scientific information and land,resource, and fire management objectives, wildland fireis used to restore and maintain healthy ecosystems andto minimize undesirable fire effects . Fire managementpractices are consistent for areas with similar manage-ment objectives, regardless of jurisdiction_

ACTIONS

Federal agencies wilt•

expedite the decision-making process by jointlydeveloping criteria for evaluating ecosystem conditionby ecosystem type and for prioritizing areas for thereintroduction of fire to meet resource objectives andreduce hazards . This process will identify thoseecosystems.

- where fire does not need to be reintroduced(fire is not a significant natural component, orthe fire regime has not been altered) .

- where fire is unlikely to succeed (fire wouldbe adverse, such as areas significantly alteredby fuel accumulations and species changes) ;determine appropriate, ecologically soundalternatives for these areas .

- where treatment with fire is essential orpotentially effective (fire is needed to improveresource conditions or reduce risk andhazard) .

j• ointly implement ecosystem-based fire managementprograms to accomplish resource or landscape manage-ment objectives when consistent with land managementplans . These programs will :

- strive to maintain the long-term integrity ofthe natural resources and minimize theundesirable effects of fire .

address the highest-priority needs inecosystem assessment, monitoring, andmanagement and determine the appropriatescope of fire use, consistent with historical fireregimes, including extent, timing, and risksand consequences .

- use existing tools and develop new ones toaddress today's more fragmented landscapesand to enhance our ability to manage wildlandfires of varying size and intensity

- illustrate the management actions and theirresults by establishing or expanding firemanagement demonstration areas .

•

conduct a collaborative fire research program toimprove the predictive understanding of wildland fireand its relationship to ecosystem dynamics and tostrengthen the technological capabilities and organiza-tional framework necessary to sustain the role of fire innatural ecosystems .


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RECOMMEND A T 1 O N SE D U C A T 1 O N

GOALClear and consistent information is provided to

internal and external audiences about existing condi-tions, management goals and objectives, the role offire in achieving these objectives .. and alternatives andconsequences of various fire management strategies .As a result, informed audiences participate fully inthe land and fire management planning processes .

ACTIONSFederal agencies will

establish an interdisciplinary team that includes allagencies, regulators, and other partners to design aconsistent fire-role and -use message for decisionmakers and the public. This message will :

- describe and cleat IN explain issues such asecosystem condition, risks, consequences(including public health impacts), and costsin open dialogue with internal and externalconstituents .

-be designed to maximize open communica-tions and reduce polarization among conflict-ing interests regarding the use of fire .

•

build on existing interagency efforts to develop andimplement a strategic plan that educates the generalpublic and agency personnel about the role of fire . Aspart of this effort, agencies will .

- develop and widely transmit a clear messageabout the important role of fire as a naturalprocess and the risks and consequences of itsuse and exclusion .

- integrate this message into existing agencycommunication systems, agency and partnerinitiatives (such as forest health, ecosystem,management, etc.), and all external outreachefforts, including television, magazines,newspapers, and public meetings .

- encourage, create, and coordinate partner-ships to achieve consistency in messages ..build public trust, and obtain public opinion .

- develop mandatory national and regionalinteragency training programs to instill in allemployees an understanding of the role of firein natural systems .

USE OF W I L D L A N

Igniting a wildland fire using drip torches is an effectiveresource management tool . Here, fire is being used to restorecritical wildlife habitat (Photo courtesy of National InteragencyFor C (I nter.)

S I T U A T 1 O N

BACKGROUNDThe use of wildland fire to accomplish land and resourcemanagement objectives is referred to as prescribed fire,the deliberate application of fire to wildlands to achievespecific resource management objectives . Prescribed firesmay be ignited either by resource managers or by naturalevents such as lightning . Wildland fire may be used toaccomplish a number of resource management purposes,from the reduction of fuel hazards to achieving specificresponses from fire-dependent plant species, such as theregeneration of aspen . Often, multiple fire protection andresource management benefits are achieved concurrently

Prescribed burning is a well-established practiceutilized by public and private land managers . In orderto effectively use prescribed fire, land managers mustprepare comprehensive burn plans . Each plan specifiesdesired fire effects ; weather conditions that will result in

D F 1 R E

acceptable fire behavior ; and the forces needed to ignite,hold, monitor, and extinguish the fire . Generally, thepractice of prescribed burning has been used on a rela-tively small scale and confined to single land ownershipsor jurisdictions . Success has been built around qualifiedand experienced people, their understanding of plantcommunities and terrain conducive to the use of fire,adequate funding, a supportive public, and a willingnesson the pan of agency administrators to assume a reason-able amount of risk to achieve desired results .

Recent fire tragedies in the West have helped tofocus attention on the need to reduce hazardous fuelaccumulations . Many areas are in need of immediatetreatment of both live and dead vegetation to preventlarge-scale, high-intensity fires and to maintain theirsustainability as healthy ecosystems . Fuel treatmentmay be achieved by mechanical, chemical, biological,and manual methods, including the use of fire . Strate-gic landscape-scale fuel management and fire-use plan-ning, often integrating a variety of treatment methods,will be necessary to cost-effectively reduce fuel hazardsto acceptable levels and to achieve both ecosystemhealth and resource benefits . Both naturally occurringfuels and hazardous fuel accumulations resulting fromresource management and land-use activities mustbe addressed .

IMPLEMENTATIONManaging for landscape health requires expansionof cooperative interagency prescribed fire programs .Agencies must make a commitment with highly qual-ified people, from leader to practitioner, and providefunding mechanisms to conduct the program . Federalagencies must foster a work force that understands therole of fire and, at the same time, raise the level ofpublic understanding. Public opinion and perceptionmay limit increases in interagency prescribed fireprograms if this is not achieved . Therefore, continuedFederal efforts to work collaboratively with and educateprivate landowners, interest groups, and the media isparamount . Education efforts should focus on exposingthe public to accurate information on the environmen-tal, social, and economic benefits that result whenprescribed fire is used ; how natural resources may bemaintained ; and the risks involved, including thoseassociated with not taking any action . Increased use of


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wildland fire may also increase public exposureto smoke and reduced visibility Understanding ofthe trade-offs involved is an important educationalobjective .

Recent concerns about potential climate changecaused by increased carbon dioxide in the atmospherehave also raised questions about the potential impactsof increasing the use of fire . Current analysis suggeststhat the carbon dioxide released from prescribed firesis ultimately removed by the subsequent regrowth ofvegetation . Lower-intensity prescribed fires emit farless carbon dioxide than high-intensity fires . There-fore . if the occurrence of high-intensity fires is reducedthrough an increase in prescribed burning, a netreduction in carbon dioxide emissions will be achieved .On the other hand, the effects of global warming andincreased carbon dioxide on fire occurrence are stillbeing determined . Possibilities include higher rates offuel accumulation and a warmer climate with moredays that favor the occurrence of wildland fire . Thismay mean it is even more important to increase the useof fire for ecosystem management and hazard fuelreduction. The policies described in this report areconsistent with current concerns about climate change .In any case, information about changes in the atmos-phere should be incorporated into the preplanningrequired by these policies .

ADMINISTRATIVE BARRIERSin the current atmosphere of downsizing and reducedbudgets, agencies may not be able to maintain sufficientnumbers of qualified personnel to accomplish broad-scale prescribed fire programs. Many of the employeeswho are most experienced in the application of pre-scribed fire arc the same employees who arc responsiblefor wildfire suppression . This can lead to competitionfor their time during the fire season. Administrativeprocedures also inhibit temporary hiring of personnelneeded to conduct on-the-ground prescribed burningactivities .

Current direction on hazard-duty pay also tendsto limit the number of prescribed fire professionals .This direction restricts fire-related hazard pay to firesuppression activity within or adjacent to the perimeterof an uncontrolled wildfire, even though prescribed firepractitioners are exposed to as much risk, if not more,from smoke and other environmental factors thanfirefighters engaged m suppressing wildfire .

Retirement benefits have also been a factor incareer choices involving prescribed fire . Recently, theBLM recognized that, based on 5 CFR 831 .900 and842 .800, prescribed fire activity qualifies for primarycoverage under special firefighter retirement. in someagencies, however, prescribed fire activity qualifiesonly for secondary coverage, resulting in a careerchoice limitation .

`To provide optimal biological benefit to forests

and rangelands, the timing and intensity of prescribedfire used for ecosystem maintenance should resemblea natural occurrence . Historically, fires were oftenvery large, however, current land-ownership patterns,development, and the processes of funding andconducting prescribed fire are not conducive toreplicating this process . For example . i t is difficult tohave a landscape-size project without involving landsof another ownership, and there are barriers tospending agency funds on non-agency lands . Further,planning, budgeting, and accomplishment-reportingprocesses do not encourage managers to plan largeprojects with multiple benefits, even when locatedentirely on agency-administered lands .

Lastly, there is no consistent method to determinethe potential for a prescribed fire to escape .e nor is therea mechanism to compare the values at risk from anescaped fire versus those at risk by continuing toexclude fire . When a prescribed fire does escape, theonly way a private property owner can be compensatedfor more than S2,500 in damages is to pursue a tortclaim against the Federal government . To prevail, thedamaged party must prove negligence on the part ofthe agency. This cumbersome process leads to ill willbetween the managing agency and neighboringlandowners, adversely affecting cooperation .

RISK MANAGEMENTBecause of the potential for unintended consequences,prescribed fire is one of the highest-risk activities thatFederal land management agencies engage in . Escapedprescribed fires can result from poorly designed orpoorly executed projects ; they can also result fromevents beyond the control of those conducting theproject. such as unpredicted winds or equipmentfailure. Currently, the stigma associated with anescaped prescribed fire does not distinguish betweenpoor performance and an unfortunate consequence ofunplanned events .

Although fire is used to accomplish resourceobjectives in many areas of the United States, otherthan in the South it is rarely used enough to improveecosystem health or to reduce fuel hazards on a land-scape scale. One reason for this is a lack of commit-ment to the use of fire . While land managementagencies as a whole generally recognize the role of fireas a natural process, not all individual disciplines andmanagers fully understand or support this role . Somemanagers are unwilling to accept the risk of potentialnegative consequences associated with prescribed fire .Differences of opinion concerning the effect of fire onspecific resources, such as cultural resources, waterquality, air quality, and certain flora and fauna, canalso impede the use of fire as a management tool .

R E C O M M E N D A T 1 O N S :I M PLE'M E N TAT ION

GOALSThe use of wildland fire is accepted as an essential

process in a fully integrated program to improve forestand rangeland health and to maintain wildlandecosystems_

• Wildland fuels are managed at levels consistent withMidland fire protection and resource management object-ives identified in land and resource management plans .

•

Agencies collectively and cooperatively developand maintain an organization that can effectively planand safely implement prescribed fire and fuel manage-ment programs .


j•

ointly develop programs to plan, fund, andimplement an expanded program of prescribed fire inlire-dependent ecosystems .

•

facilitate the planning and implementation oflandscape-scale prescribed burns across agencyboundaries . Seek opportunities to enter into partner-ships with Tribal, State, and private land managers toachieve this objective where appropriate .

•

require appropriate treatment of fuel hazards createdby resource-management and land-use activities .

conduct all prescribed fire projects consistent withland and resource management plans, public healthconsiderations, and approved prescribed bum plans .

•

implement the National Wildfire Coordinating Group(NWCG) interagency prescribed fire qualification andcertification standards .

• train and maintain a qualified and adequate work forceto plan and implement interagency prescribed fire projectssafely and effectively, and make these personnel availablewhen needed .

jointly develop simple, consistent hiring andcontracting procedures for prescribed fire activities .

•

Conduct research and development on fuel treat-ment alternatives and techniques .

R E C O M M E N D A T 1 O N S :A D M I N I S T R A T I V E B A R R I E R S

GOAL•

Administrative procedures support the accomplish-ment of prescribed burning programs and objectives .


seek authority to eliminate internal barriers to thetransfer and use of funds for prescribed fire on non-Federal lands and among Federal agencies .

• seek authority or provide administrative direction toeliminate barriers to carrying over from one year to thenext all funds designated for prescribed fire .

•

work with the Office of Personnel Management toacquire authority for hazard pay to compensateemployees exposed to hazards while engaged inprescribed burning activities .

•

clarify that prescribed fire positions qualify forprimary coverage under special firefighter retirementand issue appropriate guidance to field offices .


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R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S : RISKMANAGEMENT/SUPPORT

GOALS•

Risk of escaped prescribed fire is minimizedthrough sound planning and execution .

• Agencies within the Departments of Agriculture andthe Interior support employees when properly plannedand conducted prescribed fire projects have unfavorableoutcomes .

ACTIONS

Federal agencies will• jointly develop an assessment process for deter-mining the probability of success and/or failure asso-ciated with the use of prescribed fire and evaluatingpotential positive and negative consequences . As apart of this process, the effects of not conducting theproject will also be evaluated .

jointly develop tools to identify, assess, andmitigate risks from prescribed fires.

•

create an organizational climate that supportsemployees who implement a properly planned pre-scribed fire program .

•

reevaluate prescribed burn planning andexecution requirements to ensure adequacy ofdirection without unnecessary constraint .

Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture will seeklegislation providing for prompt reimbursementto private landowners for damages resulting fromescaped prescribed fires originating on Federal lands .

PREPAREDNESS AND SUPPRESS 10 N

Helicopter with bucket fighting a wildland fire . Aircraft andother mechanized equipment are important tools in suppressingand managing wildland fire . (Photo courtesy of NationalInteragency Fire Center .)

S I T U A T I O N

The business of suppressing wildland fires is costly,time-consuming, and often dangerous to firefightersand the public . Wildland fires occur unexpectedlyand create an emergency in which firefighters race tominimize harm to valuable resources or propertyDespite public expectations, when the combinationof excessive fuel build-up, topography, extreme weatherconditions, multiple ignitions, and extreme fire behav-ior occurs, it is impossible to immediately suppressevery wildland fire . Firefighters' safety and their abilityto contain and limit the spread of fires can only beensured by preparing well ahead of time, thoroughlyexamining various possibilities of fire numbers andsizes, and developing contingency plans to cope withthem .

Our ability to plan for and suppress fires isnegatively impacted by successes in the past . Almostone hundred years of fire suppression, coupled with

other resource management activities, has altered thelandscape and resulted in millions of acres of forestsand rangelands at extremely high risk for devastatingfires to occur . Already we are seeing the effects throughan increase in the number of fires and acres burned, asshown in the table below. This trend, combined with anumber of existing policies and procedures, impacts allaspects of interagency preparedness and suppression,including safety, planning, priority setting, and organi-zational response capability In some cases, agencies areindividually attempting to solve these problems . How-ever, in light of diminishing work forces and funding,it is critical that Federal wildland fire managementagencies work together and with cooperators to arriveat common solutions and successful strategies .

WILDFIRE TRENDS - ELEVEN WESTERN STATESAVERAGE ACRES BURNED, 1940-1994

2 .5

0 .1940

1950 1960 1970

1980

1990 1994

SAFETY LEADERSHIPThe environment of numerous and complex wildlandfires and overextended firefighting resources has led toincreased potential for compromising firefighter safetyAgency administrators and fire managers struggle to getthe job accomplished, and while they focus on sup-pressing fires, sufficient attention may not be paid tosafety. They may not provide adequate oversight tomake sure employees are in good physical conditionand adequately rested so they are mentally and physi-cally prepared for the challenge of firefighting . Assuppression actions increase, it becomes more difficultto ensure that all the necessary information to makegood firefighting strategic decisions is shared .


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1S

Reorganization and downsizing efforts are com-pelling Federal agencies to look at new ways toaccomplish their prop ams . including hrehghting .Retirements and organizational changes have changedthe demographics and experience levels within the fireprogram. in some cases, agency administrators and liremanagement olticers do not have the same level ofexperience in fire management oversight as did theirpredecessors . Managers are rarely rewarded for successor raven incentives to improve . Further, the demandscreated by more complex natural resource issues andmultiple program priorities have diverted administra-tors attention away from the bee management program .Lack of oversight and attention to preparedness canresult in crisis decision making and safety failures .When fires become emergencies, public and politicalpressures may lake precedence over suppression plansthat arc based on values to he protected and the bestuse ol-avatla hle firefightingresources .

VALUES To BE PROTECTED ANDPREPAREDNESS PLANNING

\•b lues at risk, or more clearly : values to he protected area primary consideration when determining strategies forlarge-lire suppression . Only anticipated fire suppres-sion costs and losses in values have been considered inthese calculations, because in suppression operations,the objective as predetermined in land managementplans and Congressional budget appropriation languageis to suppress wildfires at the least total cost . Whilefire benefits have been considered in planning the his,suppression resources for budget allocations, positivebenefits of fires have not been factored into theformulation or choice of suppression strategies .

Use of values-to-be-protected entena rn liresuppression has not been consistent across agencies,and the definition is too narrow without consideringfire benefits as well . These practices contribute,sometimes signifiica t ry . t o inflated fire suppressioncosts The values-to-be-protected concept should herevised to reflect current recognition of the positivebenefits of fire as compatible with agency land manage-ment objectives. as well as the need for a broader rangeof strategic suppression alternatives for large fires tohold costs in check and recognize limits of firefightingresources .

Preparedness planning is critical to ensure thatimminent fire situations are recognized, that anappropriate level of fire protection is provided insupport of land and resource management goals andobjectives, and that appropriate priorities are estab-lished and actions taken . The absence of careful hdeveloped and specific preparedness plans frequentlyresults in poor decisions that lead to costly operationalmistakes or unsafe practices during emergency situa-tions . Another critical aspect of preparedness planningis development and implementation of wildland fireprevention plans . The objective of these plans, asdemonstrated by the message of Smokey Bear over thepast 50 years, is to prevent unauthorized ignition ofwildland fire .

PROTECTION PRIORITIESStandard criteria have been established to guide firesuppression priorities . These have been based onthe potential for the fire to destroy : (1) human life,(2) property, and (3) resource values . Human liferemains the first priority ; however, the second priorityof property over natural or cultural resource values isbeing questioned by fire managers and others . It limitsmanagers' flexibility to consider low-value propertiesrelative to higher-valued natural or cultural resources .Property protection is a significant contributor toinflated suppression costs as well as increased sireof wildfires when limited suppression resources areconcentrated to protect property . More flexibility isneeded in assessing the relative values of property'and natural/cultural resources in order to achieveeconomic efficiency .

PROTECTION CAPABILITYDifferences in budget processes among agenciesinhibit full cooperation . The most important issue isthe separate funding requests for seasonal severityfunding, where coordinated planning and funding tarpre-positioning resources on a local basis is a criticalpart of preparedness . This requires shifting fundsfrom emergency suppression to pre-positioningresources Differences in the use of emergencyfirefighting appropriations among agencies also inhibitcooperation on prescribed fire actions- Standardizationof budget processes and solution of sonic of thesebudget harriers will help to incrementally improve firesuppression capabilities_

R E C O M M E N D A T IONS :S A F E T Y L E A D E R S H I P

GOAL

•

Every firefighter, every fireline supervisor, every firemanager, and every agency administrator takes positiveaction to ensure compliance with established safefirefighting practices .

ACTIONS

Federal agencies will :•

establish fire management qualifications based onprogram complexity and staff existing and futureagency administrator and fire management vacancieswith individuals who meet these qualifications and whoare committed to accomplishing the total fire manage-ment program .

•

develop appropriate tools (training, handbooks, jobperformance guidelines, planning documents) neces-sary to assist administrators and fire managementpersonnel to develop and manage a safe and effectivefire management program .

• through training, job details, or other methods,increase experience and fire qualifications of agencyadministrators and fire management personnel .

•

enforce a system of accountability to manage a safeand efficient fire management program based onstandard job performance requirements . Theserequirements should include items specifically relatedto safety and will recognize and reward success andprovide disciplinary action for failure .

•

establish partnerships with contractors, coopera-tors, such as rural and volunteer fire departments : andothers, which encourage and assist them to adopt andimplement Federal standards for training, qualifica-tions . firefighting equipment, personal protectiveequipment, etc .

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S :•

ALUES T O B E PROTECTED•

PREPAREDNESS P L A N N I N G

GOAL•

Federal agencies maintain preparedness planningand suppression programs to prevent unacceptable lossfrom fire . Agencies implement consistent strategiesbased on estimates of suppression costs commensuratewith values to be protected .

ACTIONS

Federal agencies will :• define values to be protected, working in coopera-tion with State, local, and Tribal governments : permit-tees; and public users . Criteria will include environ-mental, commodity, social, economic, political, public-health, and other values .

•

develop long-range interagency wildland firemanagement objectives, based on values to be pro-tected, across geographic and agency boundaries .

• develop interagency preparedness planning basedon established interagency wildland fire managementobjectives .

•

develop interagency strategies to implementpreparedness plans . These strategies must considerboth initial-attack and extended-attack capability andshould include the full range of available cooperatorand contractor resources .

•

develop consistent language to be included inbudget appropriations, enabling the full spectrum offire management actions on wildland fires .

• work together and with other affected cooperators,groups, and individuals to develop and implement fireprevention plans to prevent unauthorized ignition ofwildland fire .


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RECOMMEND A T 1 O N 5PROTECT 1 O N P R I O R I T I E S

GOALFirefighter and public safety is the first priority

when managing wiidiand fire . Federal agencieshave established protection priorities that recognizethe relative values of property and naturakeulturalresources to be protected .

ACTIONSFederal agencies will .•

provide first Inr lit-cligster and public safetyOnce people are committed to an incident, thoseresources become the highest value to be protectedand receive the highest management considerations .

•

protect property and natural/cultural resourcessecondary to firefighter and public safety

base the second protection priority on the relativevalues of property and naturaiicultural resources whenfirchghting personnel and equipment are limited .

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N SPROTECTION C A P A B I L I T Y

GOAL

•

Federal agencies maintain sufficient fire suppressionand support capability .

ACTIONSFederal agencies will•

use standard criteria to assess overall suppressionand support requirementss

examine and identify, on an interagency basis,employee availability at each organizational level,based on fire qualifications and other necessary skillsto provide needed suppression and suppor This willinclude planning for both initial attack and extendedattack at the local level .

•

develop and utilize, to the maximum extent possible,the concept of closest initial attack forces and interagencystaffing for wildland fire suppression and support,optimizing the use of the Federal and non-Federal workforce . Qualified contractors are a component to beconsidered in suppression and support planning

•

use an analysis and decision making process thatconsiders, on an interagency basis, existing andpotential fire severity, suppression resource commit-ment and availability ; prescribed fire activity ; environ-mental, social, and political concerns ; and otherpertinent factors .

• develop interagency severity plans to provideincreased fire suppression capability in emergencysituations, including accessing additional resources,pre-positioning resources, and training emergencyfirefighters .

•

develop a standard interagency planning, budget-ing, and staffing process .

W I L D L A N D /URBAN INTERFACEPROTECTION

Fire threatening homes in the wildland/urban interface . Flammable buildingmaterials and homes surrounded by dense vegetation create a dangerous fuelsource and hazardous conditions . (Photo courtesy of National InteragencyFire Center)

S I T U A T I O N

BACKGROUNDThe wildland/urban interface is defined as the line, area,or zone where structures and other human develop-ment meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildlandor vegetative fuels (SAF, July 1990) . It is synonymouswith the term "intermix .'

In reviewing current conditions, it is evident thatwildland/urban interface fire protection and prevention isnot a new problem, nor are the recommended solutionsnewly conceived . Many of the reports and recommen-dations generated in the aftermath of the wildfires thatdestroyed homes are very similar in content and sub-stance. For example, documents created as early as 1960and through the 1970's and 1980s all contain the samegoals, i .e . . "create a uniform hazard rating system" orwildland fuels must be managed near structures ."

The problem is not one of finding new solutionsto an old problem but of implementing known solu-tions . Deferred decision making is as much a problemas the fires themselves . If history is to serve us in theresolution of the wildland/urban interface problem, we

must take action on these issues now .To do anything less is to guaranteeanother review process in the after-math of future catastrophic fires .

CURRENT STATUSWildland/urban interface protection isimportant to the Federal governmentbecause Federally managed lands arelocated adjacent to or among Statelands and developed private lands .Past fire management practices havecontributed to a build-up of highlyflammable, decadent fuels on thoseFederal lands that are adjacent toprivate residential developments .The result is that fire hazards andrisks, as well as the population, areincreasing in the wildland/urban

interface adjacent to many Federal lands . In these areas,Federal wildland firefighters are .often called upon to assistlocal agencies . In some cases, Federal agencies are theonly source of fire protection . Federal firefightingresources may also be asked to provide assistance wherethere is no direct threat to Federal lands, such as occurredon Long Island, New York, in August 1995 . However,with limited amounts of money, time, equipment, andpeople, a fire burning in the interface currently demandsthe protection of scattered structures at the sacrifice ofnatural resources elsewhere . This represents a significantfiscal liability to the Federal treasury, State and localgovernments, and insurance carriers . There are oftenlarge unreimbursed costs to property owners as well . Inaddition, Federal response in the interface creates a safetyconcern, "spreading Federal firefighters thin" and placingthem in situations for which they may not be adequatelytrained or equipped.

Recent fires such as the 1994 Tyee fire in Washing-ton, the 1994 Chicken and Blackwell/Corral complexesin Idaho, the Southern California fire siege of 1993, andthe 1991 Oakland Hills fire are clear examples of thecomplexity of protecting the wildland/urban interface .


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EDERAL WILULANDIRE MANAGEMENT

22

Nearly every State has experienced wildland/urbaninterface fire losses, including the Pine Barrens in NewJersey. Piedmont in North and South Carolina . Palmettoin Florida, and Jack Pine in the Lake States .

The interface has become a major fire problem thatwill escalate as the nation moves into the 21st century .People continue to move from urban areas to ruralareas . These new wildlandeurban immigrants give littlethought to the wildfire hazard and bring with themtheir expectations for continuation of urban emergencyservices . The National Fire Protection Association(NFPA) estimates that since 1985 wildfire destroyedmore than 9,000 homes and resulted in the deaths ofmany firefighters and private citizens . It is estimatedthat in 1994 5250 - 5300 million of Federal wildlandfire suppression dollars were spent in protecting thewildland/urban interface . Since fiscal year 1970, theFederal Emergency Management Agency fFEMA) hasprovided approximately S64 million in fire suppressionassistance grants to States for the suppression of fires onpublicly or privately owned forests or grasslands thathave threatened destruction that would constitute amajor disaster .

Recent reports such as the National Commissionon Wildfire Disasters Report (1993) and Fire In RuralAmerica (1992) document the continued expansionfrom urban areas to rural areas . There is limited data toquantify the extent of the current or projected growthin the wildland/urban interface ; however, it is clearfrom recent episodes that losses will continue toincrease in the future .

Fire protection problems in the wildland/urbaninterface are very complex. Complicated barriers musthe overcome to address them_ These barriers includelegal mandates, zoning regulations, fire and buildingcodes, basic lire protection infrastructure, insurance/lireprotection grading and rating systems .. environmentalconcerns, and Fire Protection Agreements . Political,social, and pschological tactors further complicate theproblems . There is no one simple solution . Leadershipand cooperation are essential .

The autonomy and multiple mandates of Federalagencies contribute to inconsistent and sometimesconflicting policies and procedures . Federal, Tribal,State, and local agencies, as well as the private sector ..are all facing the wildland/urban interface projectionissue . Even though past reports, reviews . and mitiga-tion plans have articulated the problems and recom-mended solutions, mane of the problems still have not

been solved . We can no longer continue to study.. butmust have a commitment to carry out solutions .

The ability of the Federal agencies to provideleadership for solving interface protection problemsis complicated because responsibilities extend beyondthe Departments of the Interior and Agriculture .FEMA is directly responsible for providing Fire Sup-pression Assistance Grants and, in certain cases, majordisaster assistance and hazard mitigation grants inresponse to fires . Fire Suppression Assistance Grantsare provided to a State for the suppression of a forest orgrassland fire on public or private lands that threatensto become a major disaster. The grants are provided toprotect life and improved property and may includefunds for equipment, supplies, and personnel A FireSuppression Assistance Grant is the form of assistancemost often provided by FEMA to a State for a fire . Thegrants are cost-shared with States . FEMAs U .S. FireAdministration (USFA) provides public educationmaterial addressing wildland/urban interface issues,and the USFAs National Fire Academy providestraining, primarily for structural fire service organiza-tions . The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) hasregulatory responsibility concerning air quality, smokemanagement, and other environmental issues . TheDepartment of Defense has direct suppression responsi-bility on military reservations and may also be tasked toprovide suppression assistance .

But there is no central coordination, and there isno single policy that clearly defines the Federal landmanager role or requires agencies to take compatibleactions in the wildland/urban interface Only theNational Park Service has specific structure protectionresponsibility, and only for their facilities on theirlands. Current Federal agency mission statementsand operational policies vary and generally restrictactivity within these areas . As a result, Federal landmanagers and lire personnel are uncertain about theirrole Further, personnel are often inadequately trainedand equipped, but in practice they are expected toprovide assistance .

Uncertainty over the role of Federal land manage-ment agencies in the wlldland/urban interface is a barncrto effective lire protection . This was validated by publiccomments received during the public scoping process andfrom the comments received during the Draft Reportcomment period for this policy review . It is also apparentin current policies of the Federal land managementagencies . There is a dichotomy between Federal policy

and expectations . Agency administrators' views on thisissue cover the entire spectrum from `the Federal govern-ment has no business in the urban interface" to "Federalinvolvement is essential in the interface ." This causesconfusion and operational inconsistency both before andduring suppression efforts .

Current Federal agency wildland/urban interfacepolicies are limited to providing emergency assistanceand training and cooperating in prevention efforts . Butproperty owners and elected officials generally have abroader perception of Federal responsibility andconsequently oppose Federal government withdrawalfrom wildland/urban interface fire protection .

Current Federal policy that protection priorities are(1) life, (2) property and (3) resources limits flexibility indecision making when a wildfire occurs . Wildlandsuppression resources are often diverted to protectproperty with less value than adjacent or intermixednatural resources, and the safety of wildland fire personnelis compromised . Federal agencies' capability to fulfill theirresource-protection responsibilities outside of the interfaceis weakened by commitment of firefighting resourcesbefore and during wildland/urban interface fires .Firefighter safety is threatened when they are placed in aposition of operating beyond their training, experience,and equipment capabilities . In addition, after-actionreports indicate that fire suppression resources are often"over-mobilized," which results in inefficient use andunder-utilization . Generally, in emergency situations,protection agencies respond with more suppression forcesthan can be effectively managed in the interlace .

Current protection programs and policies do notinclude all urban and wildland fire protection entitieswith statutory responsibility which has led to inefficien-cies in training and operations . Operations in thewildland/urban interface are not always well organizedand safe due to inconsistent qualifications, performancestandards, and experience among local, State, andFederal agencies and Tribal governments . Performancequalifications in the wildland/urban interface aredivided between the structural and wildland firecertification systems, resulting in inconsistencies .

Primary responsibility for wildland/urban interfacefire prevention and protection lies with property ownersand State and local governments . Property owners haveresponsibility for compliance with State statutes andlocal regulations where they exist . These primaryresponsibilities should be carried out in partnershipwith the Federal government and private sector .

PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF RISK ANDFIRE PREVENTIONIn general, the public does not perceive a risk from firein the wildland/urban interface . Further, propertyowners believe that insurance companies or disasterassistance will always be there to cover losses . Whenpeople believe the government will protect them fromnatural hazards, the damage potential of a catastrophicevent increases . Fire prevention efforts, officialpronouncements, and media depictions of imminentrisk have beenshown to have little effect on those indanger (Beebe and Omi, 1993) . The effects of publiceducation efforts have not been significant whencompared to the need . Unless a catastrophic eventoccurs, wildland/urban interface protection issuesgenerate little interest . There is a widespread miscon-ception by elected officials, agency managers, and thepublic that wildland/urban interface protection is solelya fire service concern .

Local incentives to property owners, State andlocal organizations, and the private sector are aneffective way to reduce the overall involvement of theFederal government in the wildland/urban interface .The Federal government itself has few mechanisms toencourage incentives to resolve the problems in theseareas . There are two programs delivered through theUSDA Forest Service: Rural Fire Prevention andControl (RFPC) and Rural Community Fire Protection(RCFP) that provide cost-share grants to Rural FireDistricts . The annual Federal share of these programshas remained relatively stable, totaling approximately$16 million and $3 million, respectively Renewedfocus of these programs, emphasizing local solutions,is encouraged .

Effective fire prevention in the wildland/urbaninterface is critical because of the values at risk .Traditional fire prevention campaigns have not recog-nized the beneficial role of fire in the environment .However, wildland agencies are beginning to incorpo-rate this message, while structural fire preventionactivities generally exclude wildland fire and thusdepict all fire as undesirable . This sends conflictingmessages to the public, particularly where prescribedfire is a desirable fuels management tool in wildland/urban interface protection .

It has been suggested that adjustments to insur-ance company premiums are the key to providingmitigation activities or to reducing wildland/urbaninterface hazards . Insurance companies are not in a


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24

position to provide large economic incentives to addressissues locally through a change in the existing gradingand rating criteria or by supporting prevention orhazard mitigation activities . There is poor communica-tion within and among the insurance industry and lireservice organizations . The insurance industry does notfully understand wildland/urban interface problems,and the public and the fire service do not understandthe role of the insurance industry in the interface_Currently, Insurance Service Offices/Commercial RiskServices (ISO/CRS) grading and rating criteria do notreflect wildland/urban interface hazards or protectionneeds at specific risk locations . Because fire riskconstitutes only a relatively small portion of thehomeowners insurance cost, premium-reductionincentives are not necessarily the answer . Insurancecompanies can, however, help with education, improve-ments in building code rating systems, and revisedprotection criteria in the wildland/urban interface .Antitrust laws prohibit insurance companies fromworking together to establish minimum insurancerequirements, and in some States, laws such as the FairAccess to Insurance Requirements Plan (FAIR) givehomeowners access to insurance coverage generallywithout regard to the wildland/urhan interface .

It has also been suggested that Federal costs couldbe reduced by billing property owners for suppressioncosts . While Federal agencies may have authority toseek reimbursement for fire suppression services in thewildland/urban interface, the probability of successfulcollection is extremely low . This is due to broad tortlaws related to responsibility and negligence, existingState fire laws regarding point of fire origin anddetermination of suppression responsibility . and whatconstitutes reasonable action and appropriate hazardmitigation . The corollary is that the government can hesued for fires that originate on Federal land and burnonto private property

The current fire protection infrastructure, such asroads and water-delivery systems, is often inadequatefor property and resource protection during fast-movingwildfires . The cost of improving the existing infrastruc-ture would be staggering . During major fire operationsin the wildland/urban interface, most structure lossoccurs in the first few hours of an incident . This isoften due to a lack of fire-safe vegetation managementpractices. These losses will continue until appropriateaccess, landscaping. and construction standards areimplemented and enforced .

HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESSWithout a consistent process that assesses wildland/urban interface hazard and risk, values, and lossexperience, it is difficult to prescribe appropriatemitigation measures . State and locai communitiesperceive determination of hazard and risk -as well asregulation in response to these issues - as a localprerogative . Further, that regulation, through ordi-nances, is also determined by local governments_ Anationally adopted hazard assessment model wouldlikely lead to the implementation of options andalternatives that can be utilized in lire and buildingcodes for new and existing construction . Developers,builders, and property owners generally opposestandards because they fear potential building restric-tions and higher costs . Wildland/urban interface mapscould be developed based on this uniform criteria .

MODEL PROGRAMSSome areas of the country are facing wildland/urbanissues collaboratively_ These are model programs thatinclude local solutions . Summit Countti, Colorado, hasdeveloped a hazard and risk assessment process thatmitigates hazards through zoning requirements . InCalifornia, the Los Angeles County Fine Department hasretrofitted more than 100 fire engines with lire retardantfoam capability, and Orange County is evaluating a pilotinsurance grading and rating schedule specific to thewildland/urban interface- All arc examples of successfulprograms that demonstrate the value of presuppresionand prevention efforts when combined with propertowner support to mitigate hazards within the wildland/urban interface . The International Fire Code Insdtatc(IFCI) is developing an "urban-wildland" fire code

FIRE PROTECTION AGREEMENTSCurrent Federal agency wildland/urban interfaceprotection policies do not lay out a clear, compatiblc-and unified role for the Federal land managing agencies .Consequently, some Federal agencies perceive them bearthe heaviest burden in Fire Protection Agreements .Some administrators enter into agreements committingFederal firefighters, equipment, and money withoutunderstanding the implications of their action, Stillothers are confused about the differences amongFederal mutual-aid assistance, Fire Protection Agree-ments, and FEMA lire suppression assistance grants toStates for declared lires-

PARTNERSHIPS

The key to solving the total wildland/urban interfaceproblem rests with development of a unified, collabora-tive partnership among Federal agencies; Tribal, State,and local governments, and the private sector. Thispartnership should identify risks, hazards, values, andresponsibilities . To be successful, the emphasis must beat the local level, supported by the States and coordi-nated with the Federal agencies . This fire protectionand prevention issue cannot be solved by any one entityacting independently. Meanwhile, these long-termissues do not preclude Federal agencies from develop-ing a compatible policy for wildland/urban protectionon the lands they administer .

PROPOSED ROLE OF FEDERAL AGENCIES

The proposed role of the Federal land managingagencies in the wildland/urban interface is reducing fuelhazards on the lands they administer; cooperating inprevention and education programs ; providing techni-cal and financial assistance ; and developing agreements,partnerships, and relationships with property owners,local protection agencies, States, and other stakeholdersin wildland/urban interface areas . These relationshipsfocus on activities before a lire occurs, which renderstructures and communities safer and better able tosurvive a lire occurrence .

The following protection priorities proposed inthis report will guide fire planning and operations inthe wildland/urban interface: I) life and 2) propertyand natural/cultural resources based on relative valuesto he protected, commensurate with suppression costs.

Under the proposed policy ; in emergency re-sponses, the primary role of the Federal government iswildland firefighting . The Federal agencies may assistlocal protection agencies within the scope of Federalfirefighters' training and experience . Often this involvesworking among structures . in these cases, attemptingto protect the exterior of structures from fire is inevi-table . Agreements should clarify respective roles andresponsibilities regarding fire suppression in thewildland/urban interface . Federal, State, Tribal, andlocal agencies must share in the cost and allocation ofsuppression resources. The Federal government doesnot bear this responsibility alone .

In order to fulfill this proposed role, there must betraining, qualifications, and equipment performance

standards. Standards must be institutionalized withinexisting training curricula, qualifications systems, andequipment performance criteria .

In support of others, the role of FEMA in thewildland/urban interface is to encourage comprehensivedisaster preparedness plans and programs, increase thecapability of State and local governments, and providefor a greater understanding of FEMAs programs at theFederal. State, and local levels. FEMA provides FireSuppression Assistance to States in response to fires onpublic or private land that threaten to become a majordisaster, encourages the development and implementa-tion of viable multi-hazard mitigation measures, andprovides training to clarify FEMAs programs .

FEMA administers the Robert T . Stafford DisasterRelief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act),which may provide assistance in response to a fire .First, a major disaster may be declared by the Presidentwhen any natural catastrophe causes damage ofsufficient severity and magnitude to warrant majordisaster assistance . Such assistance supplements theefforts and available resources of States, local govern-ments, and disaster relief organizations in alleviating thedamage, loss, hardship, or suffering caused by theevent . Second, Fire Suppression Assistance Grants maybe provided to a State for the suppression of a forest orgrassland fire that threatens to become a major disasteron public or private lands . These grants are providedto protect life and improved property and may includefunds for equipment, supplies, and personnel . Third,following a major disaster declaration, the FEMAHazard Mitigation Grant Program provides for long-term hazard mitigation projects and activities to reducethe possibility of damages from all future fire hazardsand to reduce the costs to the nation for responding toand recovering from the disaster . States must have anapproved hazard mitigation plan in place to receiveeither a Fire Suppression Assistance Grant or a HazardMitigation Grant .

The USFA serves to provide information to thepublic and training and standardization for structuralfire service organizations . It is a member of theNational Wildfire Coordinating Group's (NWCG)Wildland/Urban Interface Steering Committee andprovides impetus to continue programs that address thewildland/urban interface issue .


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R E C O M MEND A T I O N SR E S P O N S I B I L I T Y

GOALS• Wildland/urban interface fire protection policiesare compatible among Federal agencies and promotepartnerships with Tribal. State, and local governmentsand the private sector .

•

Federal agencies address wildland/urban interfaceprotection needs occurring on and adjacent to Federallands through collaborative planning . analysis, andcooperative action across agency boundaries .

ACTIONSFederal agencies will .•

adopt an operational role in the wildland/urbaninterface that includes wildland firehghting, hazardfuels reduction, cooperative prevention and education,and technical assistance .

•

identify and fund- on a cost-share basis, high-priority fuels management activities on Federal landsadjacent to w-ildland/urhan interlace areas identifiedthrough a fire protection assessment process thatconsiders relative values to be protected . Theseactivities may involve adjacent non-Federal lands .

•

lead by example in utilizing fire-safe standards atFederal facilities .

R E C O M MEND A T 1 O N SPREPAREDNESS

GOALS•

Fire Protection Agreements and partnerships aredeveloped, approved, and promoted to clarify responsi-bilities and to provide for pre-fire hazard and riskmitigation activities and suppression preparedness .

•

Firefighters are properly trained and equipped toensure firefighter safety during wildland/urban interfaceoperations.

ACTIONSFederal agencies will• ensure that all wildland/urban interface areas arecovered by Fire Protection Agreements, renegotiateexisting agreements as needed to reflect a Federal

responsibility that is compatible with Federal policyand to ensure that State and local responsibilities areapportioned appropriately Agreements will addressall partners in these areas .

•

incorporate wildland/urban interface considerationsinto agreements, operating plans, land managementplans, and agency Fire Managenhent Plans .

•

charge the National Wildfire CoordinatingGroup with:

- identifying specialized skills and trainingthat are needed by both Wildland andstructural fire agencies in the interface andincorporating those requirements into theWildland Fire Qualification System to providefor safe and efficient operations in thewildlandlurban interface,

developing operational cur icula, incooperation with the National Fire Academy.for protection in the wildland/urhan interface .

- implementing training through inter-agency systems and joint training activitiesand augmenting fire training not available atithe State and local levels .

-identifying and implementing equipmennstandards for Wildland/urhan interlaceoperation .

identifying and estahiishing a data-collection mechanism, in coordination withTribal, State, and local governmenu, insuranceindustry : National Fire Protection Association :and others, to better assess the nature andscope of the wildland/uroan interlace fireproblem .

increase emphasis on cost-share program assistancein the wildland/urban interface through the ForestService State and Private Cooperative Fire Program .including training and equipping of State and localagencies . Assess and revise, as needed, other mechan-isms to ensure funding is directed to agencies withwildland/urban interface responslhilities .

• educate agency personnel on Federal cost-share andgrant programs, Fire Protection Agreements, and otherrelated Federal programs so the full array of assistanceavailable to States and local agencies is understood .

• participate in the development and execution of anational wildland/urban interface fire hazard mappingscoping'study in cooperation with Tribal, State, andlocal governments and the private sector .

R E C O M MEN D A T I O N SP U B L I C E D U C A T I O N

GOAL• An informed public understands the hazards andrisks from fire in the wildland/urban interface and theprevention methods available to mitigate these hazards .

ACTIONSFederal agencies will•

increase communication with wildland/urbaninterlace property owners, planners, elected officials,and others through education and awareness messagesabout the role of fire in wildland ecosystem health,inherent risks in wildland/urban interface areas,available prevention/protection measures, and Federaldisaster assistance programs.

• expand programs, curricula, and distributionsystems for wildland/urban interface educationalmaterials in cooperation with structural protectionagencies .

•

support and participate in public education effortsin cooperation with the Insurance Institute for PropertyLoss Reduction (IIPLR) and fire and building codeorganizations .

R E C O M M E N D A T 1 O N S :PARTNERSHIPS

GOALS•

Public fire protection roles, responsibilities, andactivities within the wildland/urban interface areidentified through a partnership among Federal, Tribal,State, local, and private entities .

• Responsibility is focused on individual propertyowners and local, county, and State governments, incooperation with Federal agencies, to reduce losseswithin the wildland/urban interface .

ACTIONS

Federal agencies will :•

utilize the recently rechartered National Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Protection Program, whichincludes the Department of the Interior, Department ofAgriculture, FEMAs U .S . Fire Administration, NationalAssociation of State Foresters, National Association ofState Fire Marshals, and National Fire ProtectionAssociation, to focus on wildland/urban interface fireprotection issues and actions .

•

utilize the Western Governors' Association (WGA)as a catalyst for involving State agencies, as well as localand private stakeholders, with the objective of develop-ing an implementation plan to achieve a uniform,integrated national approach to hazard and riskassessment and fire prevention and protection in thewildland/urban interface .

•

work with the States to develop viable and compre-hensive wildland fire hazard mitigation plans andperformance-based partnerships .


27

I

COORDINATED PROGRAM MANAGEMENT

The National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho, provides national-levelwildland fire operational guidance and program coordination . (Photo courtesyof National Interagency Fire Center.)

S I T U A T I O N

The issues grouped in this section reflect the need forconsistency across all aspects of fire management .They include accountability', measurement of programefficiency ; organization ; legal and policy analysis ofprograms, authorities, responsibilities, and liabilities ;weather support, and data management .

ACCOUNTABILITYMost employees and many fire managers don't believethat fire accomplishments or failures, especially insuppression activities, can be measured . There is awidely held view that agency administrators are neitherheld accountable for failures nor rewarded for accom-plishments . This aggravates the perception that agencyadministrators can give fire management planning, firesuppression, and fire-use activities a low prioritywithout being held responsible for the consequences .Furthermore, there is a perception by employees thatonly political or public pressure affects agency adminis-trators' involvement with fire .

This perception of a lack of accountability isincreased by managers not speaking out in support ofthe fire program, not motivating employees to becomecertified and to be available for fire-suppression and fire-use duties, limiting forces available for regional or nationalmobilization, or de-emphasizing fire priorities . This per-

ception is also exacerbated by agency adminis-trators' broad interpretations and varying levelsof implementation of policies requiring supportof fire suppression activities .

EFFICIENCYA growing concern shared by Members ofCongress, agency administrators, and thepublic is the cost of fighting large wildfires .Some critics believe expenditures are excessiveand that the crisis nature of wildfire has led toimprudent use of personnel, equipment, andsupplies . Others believe that firefightingpractices are not as effective as some naturalforces in bringing wildfires under control andthat fire suppression efforts should take betteradvantage of weather, terrain, fuel, and othernatural conditions . In the future there will be

less tolerance for excessive expenditures on large-firesuppression . The costs and benefits of fire suppressionactivities must be analyzed . Analyses done so far havenot resulted in improved practices or reinforcedconfidence in current suppression strategies .

Services provided by Federal agencies are beingcritically scrutinized, both internally and externally, todetermine the relative priority of every program and itscontribution to the agency mission and the publicgood. As part of that scrutiny, returns on investmentsin the fire program must be compared with returns inother programs . Every activity within the fire manage-ment program must be analyzed according to itseconomic efficiency For example, presuppressionactivities such as prevention and preparedness mustcontribute to reduced suppression costs, and prescribedfire programs must show a return in improved orrestored ecosystems or reduced suppression costs .

Agency administrators must be able to analyzeprogram economic efficiency in order to establish thepriority and scope of the fire management program .Current information on . fire program benefits and costs areneither reliable nor consistent, and present programanalysis methodologies are inadequate and inconsistentamong Federal agencies . One dilemma is the question ofwhat values should be included in such an analysis ofdiverse Federal wildlands . However, commodity, non-commodity, and social values all must be considered .


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ORGANIZATIONAL ALTERNATIVESEach Federal agency currently maintains its ownseparate fire management organization_ with qualifiedemployees horn other programs available as the firesituation dictates . Federal agencies and cooperators alsoshare resources nationally, and, in some cases, localinteragency fire organizations exist, contract services areused, or other innovative approaches .. such as the AlaskaFire Service, arc being developed or used to accomplishthe fire management mission_ The Federal fire workforce is currently decreasing at an uncomfortable rate ..particularly in key specialized skills . More aggressiveexamination and implementation of organizationalaiternatives are hampered by the inability to measurerelative efficiencies among these alternatives

LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSISFire program activities and the increasing interconnec-tion between fire activities and existing environmental,public health.. and tort laws require inter-Departmentallegal and policy analysis to ensure coordination andcompliance . Consequences of prescribed fire activities,where fire is allowed to play a natural role or is intro-duced into the wildlands, may conflict with someinterpretations of existing laws or regulations . Cur-rently, these differences are identified independently byeach agency and resolved on a case-by-case basis

WEATHER SUPPORTFire weather forecasting is a sophisticated and long-standing tool used by fire managers . As lire behaviorprediction techniques have improved and becomeparamount in wiidiand fire management, weathersupport has become a critical actor . Fire weathersupport is critical to firefighter and public safety andprotection of public health . Maintaining the currentcapability as well as enhancing future services isessential to managing a sale and effective fire manage-inent program_ In addition, longer-term fires demandforecasts beyond the six- to ten-day reliable range .

Fire weather services are provided on request bythe National Weather Service (NWS as a specialprogram in that agency : however, increasing demandsfor weather support, especially spot fire weatherforecasts, coupled with diminished resources in theNW S, have caused demands to exceed the existingcapability Pre-fire season predictions are often re-quested by managers in order to prioritize workloads .Long-range severity forecasts are commonly needed for

pre-positioning suppression forces, but they are either'not available or are unreliable . As agencies seek toincrease the use of fire as a management tool, demandsfor spot fire weather forecasts and other services couldfar exceed present weather support capability

DATA MANAGEMENTAccurate, organized, and accessible information aboutnatural/cultural resources and fire activities is the basisfor coordinated agency program decisions and is criticalto effective and efficient program management .

Agencies have not achieved complete consistencyin compiling, managing, and accessing fire information,which prevents a reliable, holistic view of the Federa;fire program . Although some data, such as historicalwildland fire patterns, response to past managementactions, resource values, prescribed fire statistics, andhazard mapping have been collected, it is incomplete .,difficult to use, and not portrayed consistently Insome cases, such as the wildland/uihan interface, thetypes of data needed are only now being identified .

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S :ACCO U N T A B I L I T Y

GOAL

• Agency administrators and fire program managersconduct the fire management program in accordancewith established policies, procedures, standards, anddirection .


develop and utilize consistent fire managementqualification standards and specific selection criteria forfire program managers .

•

establish job performance standards for agency admin-istrators and fire managers that clearly reflect the com-plexity and scope of fire management responsibilities .

•

provide consistent and adequate training for agencyadministrators commensurate with their roles andresponsibilities in fire management .

•

ensure that agency administrators and fire programmanagers are held accountable for conducting the fireprogram in accordance with established policies,procedures, standards, and direction .

• ensure that trained and certified employees partic-ipate in the wildland fire program as the situationdemands; employees with operational, administrative,or other skills support the wildland fire program asneeded, and administrators are responsible, account-able, and make employees available.

j• ointly manage fire use and suppression resourcesand activities to achieve accomplishment of bothprograms concurrently

R E C O M M E N D A T 1 O N S :E F F I C I E N C Y

GOAL

•

A system is developed and used to analyze therelative efficiency of specific activities of the firemanagement program .

ACTIONFederal agencies will :•

jointly develop a standard methodology formeasuring and reporting fire management efficiencythat includes commodity, non-commodity, and socialvalues . This methodology should specifically address,among other considerations, the costs and benefits oflarge-fire suppression .

R E C O M M END A T 1 O N S :O R G A N I Z A T I O N A LA L T E R N A T I V E S

GOAL•

The wildland fire program is managed through themost efficient and effective organization available .

ACTIONFederal agencies will•

develop criteria to be used in evaluating alternativefire management organizations. Some examples ofcriteria include meeting land management objectives,reintroducing fire in the ecosystem, ensuring costeffectiveness, eflectively dealing with wildland/urbaninterface fire protection, and using partnerships andcooperative relationships

use these criteria to analyze, with cooperators, abroad range of organizational alternatives on a national,regional, and local basis . Examples of alternativesinclude : a single Federal fire organization ; contractswith States, private sector, Tribal governments, military,or combinations thereof ; and status quo .

R E C O M M END A T I O N SLEGAL & POLICY ANA L Y S I S

GOAL•

Federal agencies have a clear legal foundation forthe various fire management policies and programs .


jointly identify the legal context for reintroducingfire into wildlands and develop options for accomplish-ment . Options may include modifying regulations toaddress ecological processes where appropriate ;exercising broader interpretations of policy ; or resolvingobstacles at regional and local levels, including those onnon-Federal lands, Based on this interpretation,develop standardized agreements or new agreementsthat permit these activities .

•

clarify and differentiate between agency liability andpersonal liability resulting from prescribed fire, basedon legal review and interpretation of tort law .

• early in the process, involve public health andenvironmental regulators in developing the mostworkable application of policies and regulations .

The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture willdirect the Office of the Solicitor and the Office of theGeneral Counsel, in coordination with the Departmentof justice and other appropriate Federal agencies, toconduct and publish a comprehensive legal review onwildland/urban interface fire protection to provide thelegal foundation for Federal actions . This review willaddress :

• current authority under Federal laws such as theOrganic Act, National Forest Management Act, Robert T-Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act,and the Federal Land Policy and Management Act .


31


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the subjects of tort liability budget authorities .cooperative agreements, mitigation activities, andnatural resource protection/environmental laws .

R E C O M MEN D A T I O N SWEATHER SUPPORT

GOAL•

Sufficient fire weather resources are provided tomeet the total wildiand fire management programneeds,

ACTIONS

•

The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture,together with the Secretary of Commerce, will assesscurrent and projected requirements for fire weatherproducts necessary to support total wildland firemanagement program needs .

•

The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture,together with the Secretary of Commerce, will evaluatealternative methods, including non-Federal sources, toprovide weather service to the agencies' fire manage-ment programs .

• The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture willseek commitment from the Secretary of Commerce toresearch and develop technology to provide accurate,long-range weather forecasts .

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N SD A T A MANAGEMENT

GOAL

•

Federal agencies achieve a coordinated Federal fireinformation database that supports critical decisionsrelated to the fire management program .


fire statistics and develop an easilyaccessible common database_

•

jointly identify, develop, and use tools needed forecosystem-based fire management programs withmechanisms to integrate fire-related databases withother systems . These tools will include

- the collection of ecosystem-related datasuch as disturbance regimes, historical firepatterns, response to management actions,and others .

- consistent methods to track and accessfire-use statistics and administrative costs .

- mechanisms to transfer and exchange firemanagement systems information .

•

cooperate with Tribal, State, and local governmentsto establish a data-collection mechanism to better assessthe nature and scope of the wildland/urban interfacefire problem .

• take a lead role in the adoption of the National FireIncident Reporting System standards for all fire agenciesthat operate in the wildland/urban interface and modifyexisting reports to reflect wildland/urban interface fareprotection data .

•

complete a national wildland/urban interface firehazard scoping and mapping study in partnership withthe Western Governors' Association, Tribal, State, andlocal governments, and the private sector_

APPEND I C E S

APPENDIX 1 : REFERENCES

(1)

Manfreda, M . J ., In press. Attitude trends regarding controlled-burn fire policies . In Fire in Wilderness and ParkManagement conference, Missoula, MT .

(2)

Tampa Declaration : Environmental Regulation and Prescribed Fire Conference . In prep .

(3)

Ahlgren, IF. and C .E . Ahlgren . 1960 . Ecological effects of forest fires . The Botanical Review 26 :483-533 .

(4)

Biswell, H .H. 1972 . Fire ecology in ponderosa pine grassland . Proceedings, Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference12 : 69-97 .

(5)

Cooper, C.E 1960 . Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forest since whitesettlement . Ecological Monographs 30 :129 :164 .

(6)

Bright, A . D ., In prep . Influencing public attitudes toward prescribed fire policies . In EnvironmentalRegulation and Prescribed Fire Conference, Tampa, FL .

(7)

Hardy, C . C ., 1995 . Research Study Proposal: Change in Fuels Over Time. USDA Forest Service,Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory Missoula, Montana, 16 pp .

(8)

USDI, 1994 . Draft Strategic Plan for the Interagency Fire Education Initiative .

(9)

Report of the National Commission on Wildfire Disaster, 1994 .

(10)

USDA-Forest Service, 1994 . Fire-Related Considerations and Strategies in Support ofEcosystem Management .

(11)

USDI-National Park Service, 1994 . Fire Management and Ecosystem Health in the National Park Service .

(12)

USDA-Forest Service, 1994 . Western Forest Health Initiative .

(13)

Thomas, Jack Ward, 1994 . Chief, USDA Forest Service, Statement before House Agriculture and NaturalResources Committees, Oversight Hearing .

(14)

Armstrong, Robert, 1994 . Assistant Secretary, Land and Minerals Management, Department of theInterior . Statement before House Agriculture and Natural Resources Committees, Oversight Hearing .

(15)

USDI, 1994 . Forest Health Briefing Statement, House Agriculture and Natural Resources Committees,Oversight Hearing .

(16)

Report of the Interagency Management Review Team, 1994 . South Canyon Fire .

(17)

Resultsfrom a Nationwide Survey on Forest Management, 1994. American Forests, Washington, D.C ., 9 pp .

(18)

Covington, W Wallace, Richard L. Everett, Robert Steele, Larry L . Irvin, Tom A. Daer, and Allan N .D .Auclair, 1994 . Historical and Anticipated Changes in Forest Ecosystems ofthe Inland West of the UnitedStates . Food Products Press, New York .


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36


(19) Sampson, R . Neil . and David L . Adams (eds), 1994 . Assessing Forest Ecosystem Health in the Inland West

(20)

Food Products Press, New York, 461 pp .

Agee . James K ., 1993 Fit,, Eeoln y of Pacific Northwest Forests . Island Press, Washington . D C., 493 pp

(21) Final Report on Fur Management Policy . 1989 .

(22 .1 Pickett . S .T.A., and P.~ . White (eds1, 19T) . The Ecolo,v of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics .

(23)

Academic Press, New York, 472 pp .

Sanders. K . and J- Durham (eds), 198o . Rangeland Fire Effects . A Symposium, Boise, Idano, 124 pp .

(24) Pyne .. S,I ., I9Th . Fire m America : A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire . Princeton

(25)

University Press . Princeton . New Jersey, 654 pp .

Clements. FL ., 193( . Nature and dtruaurc of the Climax . J, of Ecol ., 24 .252-284 .

(26) USDA-Forest service, I99,. Coarse to the Future : Positioning Frre Management .

(27) Beebe, Grant S_S and Philip N . Omi, September 1993 . Wildland Burning: The Perception of Rish .

28}

Journal of Forestry_

Federal Emergency Management agency, July 1992 . Report of the Operation Urban Wild fur Tash E)ILL,

FA-115 .

(29) Williams, Woody. March/April 199x_ Pushed to the Limit . NFPA Journal .

(30) Orange County.1993 . Fin, .xorm .

(31) Report of the Orange Coin ie U ildiand/lerbarn Interlace Task Force (and Addendum), July 1994 .

(32) United States Lire Admmnstration, 1990 . Wildland Fire Management. Federal Policies and then

(33)

Implications to Local Fire Departments .

Sierra Front A\ Ildiire Cooperators, 199? Wildhre Protection /or Homeowners and Developer,_

(34)

A Guide to Building and Living Fire Sale in the Wildlands .

De Crosky-Michael 7.. 1992 9 . A Momana Approach to Rating Risks in Wildlarul Devciopments .

(35?

Fire Management Notes, Volumes 5354, Number 4, USDA-Forest Service .

National Association of State Foresters . 1094 Fire Protection in Rut of America . A Challenge Jot the

(36)

Future, A Report to Congress .

NFPA, 1991. Protection of Life and Property from Wildfi r, NFPA 299 .

(37) Governors Office of Emergency Services . California . 1993 . After-Action Report. The Southern

Cali/ornia Wildfiii Siege .

(38)

Montague, Ronald E ., and Richard E . Montague, December 1994 . Firewise Planning, Wildfire .

(39)

Mason, Eric, September 1994 . Firestorm Documentary . Portland, Oregon .

(40)

The National Wildland Urban Interface Fire Protection Initiative, 1993 . The Oakland/BerkeleyHills Fire : October 20, 1991 . NFPA .

(41)

Heinselman, M .L. 1981 . Fire intensity and frequency as factors in the distribution and structure ofnorthern ecosystems . In : Fire regimes and ecosystem properties . USDA Forest Service . General TechnicalReport WO-26 .

(42)

Kozlowski, T.T. and C .E. Ahlgren (eds) . 1974 . Fire and Ecosystems . Academic Press, New York .

(43)

Mooney, H A ., T .M. Bonmckson, N .L. Christensen, J .E . Loran and WA . Remers (Technical Coordinators) .Fire regimes and ecosystem properties . Proceedings of the conference held December 11-15, 1978 .Honolulu, HI . USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-26 .

(44)

Oliver, C .D. and B .C. Larson . 1990 . Forest Stand Dynamics . McGraw-Hill . New York

(45)

van Wagtendonk, J . W 1984 . Fire suppression effects on fuels and succession in short fire intervalwilderness ecosystems . P 119-126 in : Proc . Symp . and Workshop on Wilderness Fire . USDA, For. ServGen. Tech . Rep . INT-182 . 424 p. New York .

(46)

Parsons. D .J . 1976 . The role of fire in natural communites : an example from the southern Sierra Nevada,California . Environmental Conservation 3(2) :91-99 .

(47)

Rowe, J .S . 1983 . Concepts of fire effects on plant individuals and species . In : The Role of Fire in NorthernCircumpolar Ecosystems . R.W Wein and W.A. Maclean (eds) . Wiley, New York .

(48)

Sampson, R . Neil and David L . Adams (eds) . 1994 . Assessing Forest Ecosystem Health in the Inland West .New York. Food Products Press .

(49)

Sando, R .W 1978 . Natural fire regimes and fire management - foundations for direction . WesternWildlands 4(4).34-44 .

(50)

Weaver, H . 1959 . Ecological changes in the ponderosa pine forest of Cedar Valley in southern Washington .Journal of Forestry 57 :12-20

(51)

White, PS . 1979 . Pattern, process, and natural disturbance in vegetation . Botanical Review 45:229-297 .

(52)

Wright, H .A. and A.W Bailey 1982 . Fire Ecology - United States and Southern Canada . Wiley, New York .


37

APPENDIX II : WORK GROUPSFEDERAL WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY AND PROGRAM REVIEW

STEERING GROUP

Dr. Charles Philpot, Co-Chair USDA Forest Service

Claudia Schechter, Co-Chair DOI / Office of the Secretary

Dale Bosworth USDA Forest Service

Dr. Mary Jo Lavin USDA Forest Service

Mike Edrington USDA Forest Service

Dr. Ann Bartuska USDA Forest Service

Lester K . Rosenkrance DOI / Bureau of Land Management

Rick Gale DOI / National Park Service

Dr. Robert Streeter DOI / U . S . Fish & Wildlife Service

Keith Beartusk DOI / Bureau of Indian Affairs

Stan Coloff DOI / National Biological Service

Dr. Jan van Wagtendonk_ DOI / National Biological Service

Jim Douglas- _ . DOT / Office of the Secretary

Carve B . Brown U. S . Fire Administration

Rich Praywarty NOAA / National Weather Service

Richard Krimm Federal Emergency Management Agency

Sally Shaver U . S . Environmental Protection Agency


39


40

GORE T E A M

Tim Hartzell, Co-Chair

DOI / Bureau of Land Management Washington, DCJohn Chambers, Co-Chair

USDA Forest Service Washington, DC

MaryBeth Keifer,

National Park Service Sequoia/Kings Canyon Nat'I ParksRole or Wildland Fire in Resource Management Three Rivers . CA

Walt Tomascak

USDA Forest Service Northern RegionUse of Wildland Fire Missoula, MT

Joe Stutler

USDA Forest Service Invo National ForestPreparedness and Suppression Bishop, CACoordinated Program Management

Mike Dietrich

Bureau of Land Management Salem DistrictWildland/Urban Interface Protection Salem, OR

Pat Entwistle

Bureau of Land Management National Interagency Fire CenterPublic Involvement/Support Boise, ID

Shayla Simmons

Department of the Interior Washington, DC

Gene Lessard


Dr. Sharon Fnedman


SUBJECT - MATTER TEAMS


4 1

ROLE OF WILDLAND FIRE IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

MaryBeth Keifer, Team Leader National Park Service Sequoia/Kings Canyon Nat'l ParksThree Rivers, CA

Steve Botti National Park Service National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Gardner Ferry Bureau of Land Management National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Claire Hong Environmental Protection Agency Region 10Seattle, WA

Bill Leenhouts Fish & Wildlife Service National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Gene Lessard USDA Forest Service Washington, DC

Ron Myers The Nature Conservancy Tallahassee, FL

Neil Sampson American Forests Washington, DC

Susan Sater USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest RegionPortland, OR

Gale Sitter Bureau of Land Management Klamath Falls DistrictKlamath Falls, OR

Peter Teensma Bureau of Land Management Oregon State OfficePortland, OR

Dr. Jan van Wagtendonk National Biological Service Yosemite Field StationEl Portal, CA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

John Core WESTAR Portland, OR

Randy Eardley Bureau of Land Management Boise DistrictBoise, ID

Jennifer Jones Bureau of Land Management Idaho State OfficeBoise, ID

Rick Tholen Bureau of Land Management Idaho State OfficeBoise, ID


USE OF WILDLAND FIRE

42

Walt Tomascak, Team Leader

Russ Davis

Linda Gross

Rich Lasko

John Lissow v

Dennis Macomber

Larry Mahaffey

Mark Rounsaville

Paul Tine

USDA Forest Service

Bureau of Indian Affairs

Bureau of Land Management

USDA Forest Service

National Park Service

Fish & Wildlife Service

Bureau of Land Management

USDA Forest Service

USDA Forest Service

Northern RegionMissoula, MT

Billings Area OfficeBillings, MT

Kremling Resource AreaKremling, CO

Chippewa National ForestCass Lake, MN

Bandelier National MonumentLos Alamos. NM

Region 1Portland, OR

National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Southern RegionAtlanta, GA

Eastern RegionMilwaukee, WI

PREPAREDNESS & SUPPRESSIONCOORDINATED PROGRAM MANAGEMENT


43

Joe Stutter, Team Leader USDA Forest Service Inyo National ForestBishop, CA

Dan Clark Kern County Fire Department Bakersfield, CA

Dean Clark National Park Service Yosemite National Park . CA

Mike Edrington USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest RegionPortland . OR

Rick Gale National Park Service Washington, DC

Geoff Middaugh Bureau of Land Management Vale DistrictVale, OR

John Roberts USDA Forest Service National Advanced ResourcesTechnology CenterMarana, AZ

Roger Trimble Bureau of Land Management Washington, DC

Sue Vale USDA Forest Service Wenatchee National ForestWenatchee, WA

Kathy Voth Bureau of Land Management Grand Junction DistrictGrand Junction, CO


44

WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE PROTECTION

Mike Dietrich . Team Leader Bureau of Land Management Salem DistrictSalem. OR

Bill Baden National Fire Protection Assoc . Quincy. MA

Ron Coleman State Fire Marshal Sacramento, CA

Jim Farrel National Park Service National Interagency Fire CenterBoise. ID

Dean Flesner Insurance Institute for Property Bloomington, ILLoss Reduction

Cal Gale Fish & Wildlife Service Region 4Atlanta, GA

Paul Hefner Bureau of Land Management Grand Junction DistrictGrand Junction, CO

RussJohnson USDA Forest Service San Bernardino National ForestSan Bernardino, CA

ToniMinnich U .S . Fire Administration Emmitsburg, MD

Bill Patterson Federal Emergency Management Region 9Agency (Retired) Presidio, CA

Larry Schwab Insurance Institute for Property Bloomington . ILLoss Reduction

Mark Stanford Texas Forest Service Lufkin, TX

Jim Stires Bureau of Indian Affairs Billings, MT

Rosey Thomas Bureau of Land Management Carson City Distric:Carson City, NV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Karen Forbes Federal Emergency Management National OfficeAgency Washington, DC

Mark Merritt Federal Emergency Management National OfficeAgency \vashingtoa, DC

Phil Omi Colorado State University Ft . Collins, CO

FEDERAL WILDLAND ;,FIRE MANAGEMENT

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT/SUPPORT

Pat Entwistle, team Leader Bureau of Land Management National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Dave Morton USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest RegionSan Francisco, CA

Jack DeGolia USDA Forest Service Beaverhead National ForestDillon, MT

Judy Kissinger USDA Forest Service Washington, DC

Mike Apicello USDA Forest Service National Interagency Fire CenterBoise, ID

Pat Tolle National Park Service (Retired) Gassville, AR

Documents

FEDERAL WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENT...And, as firefighting resources become increasingly scarce, it is more important than ever to strengthen cooperative relationships. The Federal Wildland