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Feeding the Premature Infant the NICU and Beyond

The premature infants nutritional requirements are substantially different from those of the terminfant, and meeting their unique needs can be challenging. Early care in the NICU is focused on

vital organ development; nutrition may be introduced only gradually in the first weeks of life in

recognition of the risk of intolerance due to immaturities of the infants digestive system andfeeding abilities. On the other hand, optimizing nutrition early in life is essential to improve

survival and promote growth and development. Avoiding early malnutrition can have both short-and long-term benefits for the infant.

Physical challenges to optimal nutritionProviding adequate nutrition to the preterm infant is complicated by immature organ systems,

particularly the GI system, and metabolic processes.

GI immaturities in the preterm infant include:

inability to coordinate breathing, sucking and swallowing

low esophageal sphincter pressure delayed gastric emptying slower upper and lower intestinal motility immature digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, protein and lipids.

In addition, prior to birth the GI tract is sterile and therefore immunologically immature. Normal

gut colonization, acquired through contact with the mother and feeding, may be delayed orabsent following birth due to isolation of the infant and residence in the NICU setting. Preterm

infants may therefore be at risk of acquiring abnormal bacterial flora and developing nosocomial

infections.1

Parenteral or enteral feeding?Taken together, these immaturities pose particular demands on the composition and route of

nutrition for the preterm infant.

The rapid advancement of feeding that is possible with enteral nutrition has been shown to

contribute to development of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Recognizing this risk, the

development of complete parenteral nutrition led to the strategy of withholding enteral nutritionin preterm infants for the first several weeks of life. Practices in the NICU have varied over the

years between emphasis on early enteral feeding and complete parenteral nutrition; both

strategies have benefits and drawbacks.2,3

Parenteral nutrition: Preterm infants have low energy reserves and require support soon after

birth to meet their needs for energy, as well as protein and lipids. The goal of parenteral nutrition

is to meet the infants energy needs to prevent catabolism while providing sufficient protein andlipids to avoid early deficiencies. However, while early parenteral nutrition provides crucial

nutritional elements while avoiding putting stress on an immature GI system, with prolonged

parenteral nutrition these digestive processes are not receiving the very stimulation that will helpto mature and initiate normal GI functioning.3,4

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Minimal enteral nutrition: Growing recognition of the importance of enteral feedings in

stimulating growth and development of the gastrointestinal tract has prompted a number ofstudies that have shown the benefits and safety of early minimal enteral nutrition as a supplement

to parenteral nutrition.

Minimal enteral nutrition refers to enteral feeding of breastmilk, formula, or a combination of thetwo. Even at very low volumes, enteral nutrition is considered beneficial to the preterm infant in

large part because of its role in stimulating GI function including maintaining mucosal mass andfunction, supporting fluid and electrolyte balance, nutrient absorption and immune defenses.2-4

A strategy of early parenteral nutrition, followed by combined parenteral and enteral nutrition,then phasing to complete enteral nutrition is currently common practice.3,4

Enteral nutrition: when, what, and how much?Studies suggest that minimal enteral nutrition can be started within the first days of life in many

preterm infants, particularly those who are clinically stable. Extremely small volumes may be

initiated to prime the digestive system, increasing the volume as the infant becomes morestable and tolerance is confirmed.2,3

Breastmilk provides the same advantages to the preterm infant as to the full term infant. Earlyimmune system development is particularly important for the preterm infant to help protect

against infection, including NEC, and the contributions of breastmilk to immune developmentare well confirmed. The nutrient content of breastmilk may not be sufficient to meet the needs ofthe preterm infant, particularly for calcium, phosphorus and protein, and energy in the form of fat

content, and nutrient fortifiers are often recommended. Monitoring of the infants nutritionalstatus is important to ensure that breastmilk is meeting the infants needs.

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If breastmilk is not available or not in sufficient quantity, a preterm formula containing 24calories/oz is recommended. Concerns about feeding tolerance with cows milk formula

characterized by vomiting, larger gastric residuals, gas and constipation have prompted studieson the implications of protein source and type. In term formulas, improved digestibility has been

observed with hydrolyzed formulas as compared to formulas with intact protein, and whey

protein-based formula has been shown to promote a faster gastric emptying rate than casein.5,6

It is difficult to develop optimal recommendations for minimal effective volumes and quantity of

volume increases considering that preterm infants differ widely with respect to developmentalstage, particularly GI maturity. One study comparing minimal feeding volumes with advancing

volumes found that 10% of infants receiving advancing feeding volumes developed NEC versus

1.4% receiving minimal volumes. Compared with later introduction of enteral feedings, early

minimal enteral nutrition does not increase the incidence of NEC, shortens the time to full enteralfeedings, improves weight gain, and produces lower rates of feeding intolerance while promoting

maturation of GI functioning.2,3,7

Goals of nutritionFeeding tolerance, digestibility, and progression to full feeds are key goals in nutrition of the

preterm infant. The nutritional guideline for postnatal nutrition in preterm infants, established by

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the AAP in 1985, aimed to duplicate normal in utero growth rates. But while weight gain has

been seen as a primary goal for optimal nutrition of the preterm infant, the emphasis hasexpanded to include enhancement of neurodevelopment, organ maturity and functioning,

prevention of infection and development of immune function.2,4

Post-discharge nutrition: after the NICUThe preterm infants digestive and absorptive capabilities improve as they mature and with

exposure to enteral nutrition.4 However, at discharge from hospital, most preterm infants havemoderate to severe growth failure and many may be malnourished. Malnutrition contributes to

early growth deficits in preterm infants and may have long-lasting effects on health and

neurodevelopmental outcomes. Approximately 30% of preterm infants remain below the 10thpercentile for weight at 18 months, and about 20% at 7 to 8 years of age.3,8,9

Management of potential nutritional deficiency following discharge is important to the infants

long-term growth and development. The rate of catch-up growth varies according to a number offactors including birthweight, gestational age, clinical course, and nutrition. Most catch-up

growth occurs within the first 2 to 3 years of life, although it can continue into adolescence andadulthood. With the critical period of brain development spanning the first 18 months of life,accelerated rates of catch-up growth are associated with better neurodevelopmental outcomes.9

For the breastfed infant, continuing supplementation/fortification post-discharge is commonlyadvised. For the infant receiving preterm formula in hospital, recommendations for post-charge

formula choice vary. Some sources recommend that if the infant is gaining weight well, they

may be maintained on a term formula, while nutrient-enriched formulas are often prescribed forVLBW preterm infants following discharge. Several studies have reported that preterm infants

fed an enriched versus standard term infant formula have greater rates of catch-up growth during

the first year of life, including greater increases in head circumference. The tolerability and

digestibility of the formula are key criteria in formula choice. Formula based on partiallyhydrolyzed whey protein is associated with appropriate growth in premature infants. It may also

support feeding tolerance, since whey has been shown to have a faster gastric emptying rate than

casein in term infants. Whey also has a high biological value and protein efficiency ratio, so itcompares favorably to other protein sources used in routine infant formulas.3,6,8,9

Overall, the goals for ongoing nutrition of the preterm infant are to continue to meet theirincreased nutritional needs to safely support catch-up growth and development while supporting

GI function and helping to build their developing immune system.