Chapter 16Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory

Learning Objectives

After reading Chapter 16, you should be able to:

1. Define and give examples of observational learning.

2. List and define the processes governing observational learning.

3. Define Bandura's concept of triadic reciprocal causation.

4. Explain and give at least one example of the effect that chance

enconters and fortuitous events may have on a person's life path.

5. Define and discuss Bandura's concept of human agency.

6. Define and give examples of self-efficacy.

7. Describe the sources of self-efficacy.

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8. Define and give examples of proxy agency.

9. Define and give examples of collective efficacy.

10. Discuss Bandura's concept of self-regulation through moral agency.

11. Discuss ways in which people justify their own actions through

disengagement of internal control.

12. Describe Bandura's approach to understanding dysfunctional

behavior.

13. Briefly describe some of the recent research generated by Bandura's

theory.

Summary Outline

1. Overview of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura's social cognitive theory takes an agentic perspective,

meaning that humans have some limited ability to control their

lives. In contrast to Skinner, Bandura (1) recognizes that chance

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encounters and fortuitous events often shape one's behavior; (2)

places more emphasis on observational learning; (3) stresses the

importance of cognitive factors in learning; (4) suggests that

human activity is a function of behavior and person variables, as

well as the environment; and (5) believes that reinforcement is

mediated by cognition.

II. Biography of Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925, but he has spent his

entire professional life in the United States. He completed a PhD

in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa in 1951 and since

then has worked almost entirely at Stanford University, where he

continues to be an active researcher and speaker.

III. Learning

Bandura takes a broad view of learning, believing that people learn

through observing others and by attending to the consequences of

their own actions. Although he believes that reinforcement aids

learning, he contends that people can learn in the absence of

reinforcement and even of a response.

A. Observational Learning

The heart of observational learning is modeling, which is more

than simple imitation, because it involves adding and subtracting

from observed behavior. At least three principles influence

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modeling: (1) people are most likely to model high-status people,

(2) people who lack skill or status are most likely to model, and (3)

people tend to model behavior that they see as being rewarding to

the model. Bandura recognized four processes that govern

observational learning: (1) attention, or noticing what a model

does; (2) representation, or symbolically representing new response

patterns in memory; (3) behavior production, or producing the

behavior that one observes; and (4) motivation; that is, the observer

must be motivated to perform the observed behavior.

B. Enactive Learning

All behavior is followed by some consequence, but whether that

consequence reinforces the behavior depends on the person's

cognitive evaluation of the situation.

V. Triadic Reciprocal Causation

Social cognitive theory holds that human functioning is molded by

the reciprocal interaction of (1) behavior; (2) personal factors,

including cognition; and (3) environmental events—a model

Bandura calls triadic reciprocal causation.

A. Differential Contributions

Bandura does not suggest that the three factors in the triadic

reciprocal causation model make equal contributions to behavior.

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The relative influence of behavior, environment, and person

depends on which factor is strongest at any particular moment.

B. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events

The lives of many people have been fundamentally changed by a

chance meeting with another person or by a fortuitous, unexpected

event. Chance encounters and fortuitous events enter the triadic

reciprocal causation paradigm at the environment point, after

which they influence behavior in much the same way as do

planned events.

VI. Human Agency

Bandura believes that human agency is the essence of humanness;

that is, humans are defined by their ability to organize, regulate, and

enact behaviors that they believe will produce desirable

consequences.

A. Core Features of Human Agency

Human agency has four core features: (1) intentionality, or a

proactive commitment to actions that may bring about desired

outcomes: (2) foresight, or the ability to set goals; (3) self-

reactiveness, which includes monitoring their progress toward

fulfilling their choices; and (4) self-reflectiveness, which allows

people can think about and evaluate their motives, values, and life

goals.

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B. Self-Efficacy

How people behave in a particular situation depends in part on

their self-efficacy, that is, their beliefs that they can or cannot

exercise those behaviors necessary to bring about a desired

consequence. Efficacy expectations differ from outcome

expectations, which refer to people's prediction of the likely

consequences of their behavior. Self-efficacy combines with

environmental variables, previous behaviors, and other personal

variables to predict behavior. It is acquired, enhanced, or

decreased by any one or combination of four sources: (1) mastery

experiences or performance, (2) social modeling, or observing

someone of equal ability succeed or fail at a task; (3) social

persuasion or listening to a trusted person's encouraging words;

and (4) physical and emotional states, such as anxiety or fear,

which usually lowers self-efficacy. High self-efficacy and a

responsive environment are the best predictors of successful

outcomes.

C. Proxy Agency

Bandura also recognizes the influence of proxy agency through

which people exercise some partial control over everyday living.

Successful living in the 21st century requires people to seek

proxies to supply their food, deliver information, provide

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transportation, etc. Without the use of proxies, modern people

would be forced to spend most of their time securing the

necessities of survival.

D. Collective Efficacy

Collective efficacy is the level of confidence that people have that

their combined efforts will produce social change. At least four

factors can lower collective efficacy. First, events in other parts of

the world can leave people with a sense of helplessness; second,

complex technology can decrease people's perceptions of control

over their environment; third, entrenched bureaucracies discourage

people from attempting to bring about social change; and fourth,

the size and scope of worldwide problems contribute to people's

sense of powerlessness.

VII. Self-Regulation

By using reflective thought, humans can manipulate their

environments and produce consequences of their actions, giving

them some ability to regulate their own behavior. Bandura

believes that behavior stems from a reciprocal influence of external

and internal factors.

A. External Factors in Self-Regulation

Two external factors contribute to self-regulation: (1) standards of

evaluation, and (2) external reinforcement. External factors affect

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self-regulation by providing people with standards for evaluating

their own behavior.

B. Internal Factors in Self-Regulation

Internal requirements for self-regulation include: (1) self-

observation of performance; (2) judging or evaluating

performance; (3) and self reaction, including self-reinforcement or

self-punishment.

C. Self-Regulation through Moral Agency

Internalized self-sanctions prevent people from violating their own

moral standards either through selective activation or

disengagement of internal control. Selective activation refers to

the notion that self-regulatory influences are not automatic but

operate only if activated. It also means that people react

differently in different situations, depending on their evaluation of

the situation. Disengagement of internal control means that

people are capable of separating themselves from the negative

consequences of their behavior. People in ambiguous moral

situations—who are uncertain that their behavior is consistent with

their own social and moral standards of conduct—may separate

their conduct from its injurious consequences through four general

techniques of disengagement of internal standards or selective

activation. The first is redefining behavior, or justifying otherwise

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reprehensible actions by cognitively restructuring them. People

can use redefinition of behavior to disengage themselves from

reprehensible conduct by: (1) justifying otherwise culpable

behavior on moral grounds; (2) making advantageous comparisons

between their behavior and the even more reprehensible behavior

of others; (3) using euphemistic labels to change the moral tone of

their behavior. Second, people can disengage their behavior from

its consequences by displacing or diffusing responsibility. A third

set of disengagement procedures involves dehumanizing or

blaming the victims. A fourth method is to distort or obscure the

relationship between behavior and its injurious consequences.

People can do this by minimizing, disregarding, or distorting the

consequences of their behavior.

VIII. Dysfunctional Behavior

Dysfunction behavior is learned through the mutual interaction of

the person (including cognitive and neurophysiological processes),

the environment (including interpersonal relations), and behavioral

factors (especially previous experiences with reinforcement).

A. Depression

People who develop depressive reactions often (1) underestimate

their successes and overestimate their failures, (2) set personal

standards too high, or (3) treat themselves badly for their faults.

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B. Phobias

Phobias are learned by (1) direct contact, (2) inappropriate

generalization, and (3) observational experiences. Once learned

they are maintained by negative reinforcement, as the person is

reinforced for avoiding fear-producing situations.

C. Aggression

When carried to extreme, aggressive behaviors can become

dysfunctional. In a study of children observing live and filmed

models being aggressive, Bandura and his associates found that

aggression tends to foster more aggression.

IX. Therapy

The goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation. Bandura

noted three levels of treatment: (1) induction of change, (2)

generalization of change to other appropriate situations, and (3)

maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors. Social

cognitive therapists sometimes use systematic desensitization, a

technique aimed at diminishing phobias through relaxation.

X. Related Research

Bandura's concept of self-efficacy has generated a great deal of

research demonstrating that people's beliefs are related to their

ability to perform in a wide variety of situations, including coping

with the threat of terrorism and managing Type 2 diabetes.

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A. Self-Efficacy and Terrorism

Psychologists have always been interested (even before 9/11/01) in

both how people are drawn into terrorist culture, and how innocent

people cope with the constant threat of terrorism (Ben-Zur &

Zeidner, 1995; Moghaddam & Marsella, 2004; Zeidner, 2007).

After 2001, this interest in terrorism increased exponentially, and

some researchers began to consider how self-efficacy might help

people cope with terrorism. People report feeling less personal

security following a terrorist attack (Gallup, 2002). An increased

sense of self-efficacy may help to offset this insecurity and

negativity. Peter Fischer and colleagues wanted to investigate

relationships among self-efficacy, religion, and coping with the

threat of terrorism (Fischer, Greitemeyer, Kastenmuller, Jonas, &

Frey, 2006). They used Allport’s Religious Orientation Scale

(ROS; see Chapter 13). Previous research had found that using

prayer as a coping mechanism is related to an increased feeling of

internal control over events (Ai, Peterson, Rodgers, & Tice, 2005),

so Fischer and colleagues predicted that intrinsically religious

people would experience greater self-efficacy. The results of their

study found that the intrinsically religious did report greater

feelings of self-efficacy, and better moods due to the increased

sense of self-efficacy, but only when the salience of terrorism was

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high. When salience of terrorism was low, religiosity caused no

difference among test subjects. The conclusion is that in the face

of a threat, self-efficacy is crucial to decreasing the threat’s

harmful effects.

B. Self-Efficacy and Diabetes

Bandura himself has written about the usefulness of his theory for

encouraging people to engage in healthy behaviors that can

increase overall well-being and longevity (Bandura, 1998).

Recently, William Sacco and colleagues (2007) studied self-

efficacy related to diabetes. Since depression is twice as prevalent

in diabetics as in the general population (Anderson, Freeland,

Clouse, & Lustman, 2001), and a hallmark of depression is lack of

motivation, the strict adherence to diet and exercise plans required

of Type 2 diabetes management is especially problematic. Sacco

and his colleagues (2007) thus wanted to explore the role of self-

efficacy in raising adherence to disease management plans, and in

lowering negative physical and mental health symptoms. The

results clearly showed that self-efficacy is important to managing

chronic disease: Higher levels of self-efficacy were related to

lower levels of depression, lower BMI, lower incidence and

severity of diabetes symptoms, and higher levels of adherence to

doctors’ orders. BMI was positively correlated with depression,

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and adhering to doctors’ orders was negatively correlated with

depression. Self-efficacy was directly responsible for the

relationships of depression to both BMI and adherence. Of the

many parts of social-cognitive theory that have influenced

psychological research, these studies on terrorism and diabetes

show the far-reaching implications of the construct of self-efficacy.

Bandura’s theory continues to generate an impressive amount of

research.

XI Critique of Bandura

Bandura's theory receives the highest marks of any in the text

largely because it was constructed through a careful balance of

innovative speculation and data from rigorous research. In

summary, the theory rates very high on its ability to generate

research and on its internal consistency. In addition, it rates high

on parsimony and on its ability to be falsified, organize knowledge,

and guide the practitioner.

XII. Concept of Humanity

Bandura sees humans as being relatively fluid and flexible. People

can store past experiences and then use this information to chart

future actions. Bandura's theory rates near the middle on teleology

versus causality and high on free choice, optimism, conscious

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influences, and uniqueness. As a social cognitive theory, it rates

very high on social determinants of personality.

Test Items

Fill-in-the-Blanks

1. Bandura's _______________________ reciprocal causation

determinism model assumes that personality is shaped by an

interaction of person, behavior, and environment.

2. A ___________________ encounter is an unintended meeting of

persons unfamiliar to each other.

3. A ____________________ event is an environmental experience

that is unexpected and unintended.

4. If behavior were completely a function of the _________________,

Bandura believes that it would be much more varied and less

consistent.

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5. The core of observational learning is ________________________.

6. Adolescents are most likely to model __________________ people.

7. The first process governing observational learning is

_____________________.

8. Bandura believes that ___________________ factors, such as

memory and foresight, give some unity to personality.

9. Self-____________________ refers to our beliefs about our

capabilities to exercise control over events that affect our lives.

10. Those expectations that refer to the likely consequences of our

behavior are called __________________ expectations.

11. Ordinarily, _____________________, or mastery, provides the

strongest source of self-efficacy.

12. Self-efficacy is increased when we observe people of

_____________________ ability performing an activity.

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13. Social _________________________ increases self-efficacy when a

trusted individual convinces us that we have the ability to perform

an activity.

14. High efficacy and a responsive _______________________ are the

best predictors of a successful outcome.

15. With __________________ agency, we rely on the work of other

people to control those social conditions that affect everyday living.

16. __________________ efficacy is the level of confidence people

have that their combined efforts will produce social change.

17. _________________________ of internal control is used to justify

to oneself a behavior that would normally be morally unacceptable.

18. One form of disengagement is to blame the __________________.

19. When a terrorist blows up a government building, kills many adults

and children, and refers to the deaths of the children as "collateral

damage," he is using ____________________ labeling to disengage

himself from the moral consequences of his actions.

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True-False

_____1. Bandura's social cognitive theory assumes that people have

the capability to exercise some control over their lives.

_____2. Compared with Skinner, Bandura has developed a much

more cognitive theory.

_____3. Bandura believes that chance plays a role in people's

environment and behavior.

_____4. Basic to Bandura's social cognitive theory is the assumption

that consistency of behavior is the outstanding characteristic

of humans.

_____5. Compared to Skinner, Bandura places more emphasis on

observational learning.

_____6. Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation notion assumes that

behavior is the product of two variables—heredity and

environment.

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_____7. Most of our chance encounters have a significant and

permanent impact on our personality.

_____8. Bandura believes that personality is mostly the product of

heredity.

____9. In Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation hypothesis, all three

factors typically make equal or nearly equal contributions to

action.

____10. Chance encounters and fortuitous events enter the triadic

reciprocal causation model at the point of behavior.

____11. The self-system makes personality extremely consistent and

resistant to change.

____12. Bandura believes that all human behavior is ultimately the

product of an aggressive drive.

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____13. People's belief that they can or cannot execute those

behaviors necessary to produce desired outcomes is

Bandura's definition of disengagement.

____14. It is possible to have high efficacy and yet have low

confidence that one's actions will produce the desired results.

____15. Ordinarily, the strongest source of self-efficacy is mastery

experiences.

____l6. The type of efficacy that involves indirect control over the

social conditions that affect a person's life is called self-

efficacy.

____17. Bandura believes that collective efficacy is inherited from

one's ancestors.

____18. Bandura believes that although reinforcement facilitates

learning, it is not a necessary condition for learning.

____19. Bandura suggests that responses need not occur in order to

be learned.

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____20. High levels of anxiety generally increase self-efficacy.

Multiple Choice

______1. Bandura believes that human functioning is a product of the

mutual interaction of environment, person, and

a. heredity.

b. learning.

c. cognition.

d. behavior.

______2. Bandura's social cognitive theory takes _____ perspective.

a. a behavioral

b. a learning theory

c. an existential

d. an agentic

______3. Bandura first became interested in clinical psychology when

he

a. entered graduate school at Stanford University.

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b. worked on the Alaska highway after graduation from high

school.

c. met Skinner at the 1972 APA convention.

d. entered graduate school at the University of Iowa.

_____4. Bandura believes that learning

a. can occur in the absence of a response.

b. is facilitated by the unconscious mind.

c. and performance are identical.

d. is not facilitated by reinforcement.

_____5. According to Bandura, there are two major types of learning

—observational and

a. modeling.

b. instinctive.

c. developmental.

d. enactive.

e. conditioning.

____6.Modeling is enhanced when the person being modeled is

a. a low-status person.

b. attractive.

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c. speaking a foreign language.

d. a social isolate.

e. a child.

_____7. According to Bandura, reinforcement

a. is necessary for learning.

b. is cognitively mediated.

c. is environmentally determined.

d. has extrinsic value.

______8. According to Bandura, the essence of humanness is

a. human agency.

b. imitation

c. aggression.

d. memory.

______9. The primary component of Bandura's P factor is

a. cognition.

b. probability.

c. performance.

d. environment.

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______10. Chance encounters enter the triadic reciprocal causation

paradigm at this point.

a. environment

b. behavior

c. person

d. any or all of these

_____11. According to Bandura, if behavior were completely controlled

by the environment, it would be

a. solely the result of chance.

b. less consistent and more varied.

c. rigid and stilted.

d. solely the result of imitation.

_____12. People's expectations that they are capable of performing a

behavior that will produce desired outcomes in any particular

situation is called

a. outcome expectancy

b. self-efficacy

c. distortion of consequences

d. the self-system

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_____13. Which technique is LEAST likely to increase a person's self-

efficacy?

a. verbal persuasion

b. increased emotional arousal

c. vicarious experiences

d. performance accomplishments

_____14. Carlos has great confidence in himself as a hairdresser.

However, the economy in his city has recently turned

downward, and few people can afford a hairdresser. When

Carlos applies for a job at Mr. Dan's Hair Salon, he will likely

have high _______ and low _______.

a. self-efficacy; outcome expectations

b. self-efficacy; self-confidence

c. reward expectancy; self-efficacy

d. anxiety; motivation

_____15. Which of these is MOST likely to increase self-efficacy?

a. verbal persuasion

b. increased emotional arousal

c. decreased emotional arousal

d. performance accomplishments

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_____16. Low self-efficacy and an unresponsive environment are

MOST likely to result in

a. a high level of performance.

b. apathy and feelings of helplessness.

c. decreased locus of control.

d. increased optimism and self-confidence.

_____17. The personal efficacy of many people working together to

bring about social change is called

a. collective efficacy.

b. disengagement of internal control.

c. disengagement of external control.

d. outcome expectations.

______18. Taylor, like most people, relies on auto mechanics, air

conditioning repairmen, network news, and hundreds of other

people who enhance her lifestyle. In so doing, Taylor is

making use of

a. collective efficacy.

b. proxy efficacy.

c. self-efficacy.

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d. self-regulation.

______19. A set of cognitive structures used to evaluate behavior

describes Bandura's concept of

a. observational learning.

b. modeling.

c. the self system.

d. the ego.

e. the superego.

______20. According to Bandura, the first requirement for self-

regulation is

a. self-observation.

b. modeling.

c. a responsive environment.

d. motor production.

e. reinforcement.

_____21. Which of the following would be an example of

disengagement of internal control?

a. A student skips class, and then tells the instructor that she had

to attend her grandmother's funeral.

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b. A child is punished for playing with his genitals and

consequently represses the experience.

c. A conscientious doctor performs an illegal operation, but

justifies her actions to herself by saying the surgery was

necessary to save a life.

d. A store clerk shoplifts merchandise, feels guilty, and returns it

before anyone notices.

_____22. Bandura believes that personal conduct is controlled by

a. an autonomous internal agent called the ego.

b. environmental stimuli.

c. reinforcement.

d. the triadic reciprocal causation paradigm.

_____23. The study by Bandura, Ross, and Ross involving young

children and a Bobo doll found that

a. children exposed to an aggressive cartoon character were

more aggressive than children not subjected to an aggressive

model.

b. children exposed to an aggressive live model were more

aggressive than children not subjected to an aggressive live

model.

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c. both of these was true.

d. neither of these was true.

______24. The ultimate goal of social-cognitive therapy is

a. self-regulation.

b. self-actualization.

c. an increase in self-efficacy.

d. uncovering hidden conflicts.

______25. Which statement is most consistent with Bandura's concept

of humanity?

a. People are most strongly motivated to increase self-efficacy.

b. Human personality is formed mostly by the forces of biology.

c. People must successfully navigate the stages of development

in order to become psychologically healthy.

d. Humans have the capacity to become many things, within the

limits set by biology.

Short Answer

1. List three differences between Skinner's and Bandura's theories.

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2. Discuss the processes governing observational learning.

3. Explain the differences between efficacy expectations and outcome

expectations.

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4. Name four sources of self-efficacy.

5. Explain Bandura's concept of collective efficacy and give four

examples.

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6. Name and explain four ways a person can justify reprehensible

behavior.

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