Female Perceptions of Islam in Female Perceptions of Islam in Today’s MoroccoToday’s Morocco

A Case Study of the Fez-Boulmane A Case Study of the Fez-Boulmane Region (Morocco)Region (Morocco)

To appear in To appear in The New Voices of Muslim The New Voices of Muslim Women TheologiansWomen Theologians  Volume 2, Brill Volume 2, Brill

Academic Publishers, 2012Academic Publishers, 2012

Fatima SadiqiFatima Sadiqi

Isis Center & University of FezIsis Center & University of Fez

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

¤ B¤ Based on a survey, 25 interviews, and ased on a survey, 25 interviews, and my own writings.my own writings.

¤ Results: Islam means 3 things for “ordinary” ¤ Results: Islam means 3 things for “ordinary” women in today’s Morocco: faith, culture, and women in today’s Morocco: faith, culture, and politicspolitics

Islam as FaithIslam as Faith

Faith is generally defined as either absolute Faith is generally defined as either absolute confidence in a person or thing, or absolute belief confidence in a person or thing, or absolute belief that is not based on tangible proof. In the Qur’an, that is not based on tangible proof. In the Qur’an, faith is associated with the following verse (Surat faith is associated with the following verse (Surat 16:3+4,+5-8):16:3+4,+5-8):

“ “He has created the heavens and the earth with truth. . . He has He has created the heavens and the earth with truth. . . He has created man from a sperm-drop. . . And cattle He has created for created man from a sperm-drop. . . And cattle He has created for you (men): from them ye derive warmth, and numerous benefits, you (men): from them ye derive warmth, and numerous benefits, and of their (meat) ye eat. And ye have a sense of pride and and of their (meat) ye eat. And ye have a sense of pride and beauty in them as ye drive them home in the evening and as ye beauty in them as ye drive them home in the evening and as ye lead them forth to pasture in the morning. And they carry your lead them forth to pasture in the morning. And they carry your heavy leads to lands that ye could not (otherwise) reach except heavy leads to lands that ye could not (otherwise) reach except with souls distressed: for your Lord is indeed Most Kind, Most with souls distressed: for your Lord is indeed Most Kind, Most Merciful And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you Merciful And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and as an adornment; and He has created (other) things of to ride and as an adornment; and He has created (other) things of which ye have no knowledge.” which ye have no knowledge.”

Islam as FaithIslam as Faith

¤ ¤ Islam as “faith” is generally perceived as a Islam as “faith” is generally perceived as a “personal” relationship with God. Such a “personal” relationship with God. Such a relationship is seen as both rewarding and relationship is seen as both rewarding and empowering, but also “private”. empowering, but also “private”.

¤ Women who perceive Islam as “faith” observe the ¤ Women who perceive Islam as “faith” observe the Islamic rituals and may not wear the veil.Islamic rituals and may not wear the veil.

¤ Women’s perception of Islam as faith is a rather ¤ Women’s perception of Islam as faith is a rather poorly understood topic in research in a heavily poorly understood topic in research in a heavily space-based patriarchy, probably because of its space-based patriarchy, probably because of its intimate relationship with the private. intimate relationship with the private.

Islam as FaithIslam as Faith

In women’s conversations, both “attaqwa” and “al In women’s conversations, both “attaqwa” and “al iman” are used and asked, this faith is explained as iman” are used and asked, this faith is explained as an acknowledgement of Allah’s superiority and an acknowledgement of Allah’s superiority and his/her own position as God’s servant, who owes his/her own position as God’s servant, who owes Him gratitude for His mercyHim gratitude for His mercy

In the Islamic tradition, only God gives faith to men In the Islamic tradition, only God gives faith to men and women.and women.

These definitions are understood and lived These definitions are understood and lived differently by different women. In the interviews I differently by different women. In the interviews I had with women, one can read women’s faith as had with women, one can read women’s faith as their interpretations of the ways they experience their interpretations of the ways they experience life. Something that that transformed positively life. Something that that transformed positively their lives. their lives.

through faith women get acquainted with things through faith women get acquainted with things they cannot explain.they cannot explain.

Islam as FaithIslam as Faith

Many women told me that faith is part and parcel of their Many women told me that faith is part and parcel of their lives, that they needed it because what they could lives, that they needed it because what they could understand of life is very little compared to what they could understand of life is very little compared to what they could not. These perceptions of faith were not even: one senses not. These perceptions of faith were not even: one senses degrees of “conviction” across women’s expressions of degrees of “conviction” across women’s expressions of faith.faith.

Women’s conception of Islam as faith cuts across social Women’s conception of Islam as faith cuts across social class, level of education and social status, but whereas it is class, level of education and social status, but whereas it is associated with some kind of abstract spiritual conviction in associated with some kind of abstract spiritual conviction in the statements of educated middle and upper class women, the statements of educated middle and upper class women, it is more associated with fate and tangible experience by it is more associated with fate and tangible experience by non-literate lower-class women. For all the interviewed non-literate lower-class women. For all the interviewed women, however, faith allows you to pursue knowledge as women, however, faith allows you to pursue knowledge as a pious endeavour incumbent upon all Muslims, men and a pious endeavour incumbent upon all Muslims, men and women.women.

Islam as CultureIslam as Culture I use «Culture» as «a way of life». I use «Culture» as «a way of life». Islam as “culture” is mainly viewed by women as an Islam as “culture” is mainly viewed by women as an

inherent part of who they are and what socio-inherent part of who they are and what socio-cultural background they belong to. Unlike faith, cultural background they belong to. Unlike faith, which is often considered personal, culture is often which is often considered personal, culture is often viewed as part of a “package” including community viewed as part of a “package” including community and society. A large portion of the women who view and society. A large portion of the women who view Islam as culture do not necessarily practise the Islam as culture do not necessarily practise the Islamic rituals, may not wear the veil, but would feel Islamic rituals, may not wear the veil, but would feel “insulted” if they are called “non-Muslim”. “insulted” if they are called “non-Muslim”.

This view oes not necessarily attach Islam to This view oes not necessarily attach Islam to cultural traditions; on the contrary, culture is often cultural traditions; on the contrary, culture is often perceived as a lively, flexible and dynamic concept. perceived as a lively, flexible and dynamic concept.

Islam as CultureIslam as Culture

Women who perceive Islam as culture are often aware of the Women who perceive Islam as culture are often aware of the dynamics of the patriarchal system and condemns dynamics of the patriarchal system and condemns traditions and traditions and customs such as enforced marriage, female genital mutilation, or customs such as enforced marriage, female genital mutilation, or instant divorce. They associate more with religion as part of instant divorce. They associate more with religion as part of culture. culture.

Islam as culture is attested in some women’s statements such as: Islam as culture is attested in some women’s statements such as: “Islam is like the color of eyes”, “I am born Muslim and I cannot be “Islam is like the color of eyes”, “I am born Muslim and I cannot be otherwise”, “I don’t even question Islam; it is part of what I am!”. otherwise”, “I don’t even question Islam; it is part of what I am!”. This cultural perspective is more related to identity. An example of This cultural perspective is more related to identity. An example of women who view Islam as culture are the “liberal” feminists who women who view Islam as culture are the “liberal” feminists who chose to articulate their legal demands in terms of “liberalizing” chose to articulate their legal demands in terms of “liberalizing” society and do not concentrate on religious texts. society and do not concentrate on religious texts.

Islam as CultureIslam as Culture These women use literate languages and address issues of These women use literate languages and address issues of

legal rights and modernity (Sadiqi, 2003, Ennaji 2005). It is legal rights and modernity (Sadiqi, 2003, Ennaji 2005). It is interesting to note that liberal feminists do not attack Islam interesting to note that liberal feminists do not attack Islam as a religion; on the contrary, attacks on patriarchy have as a religion; on the contrary, attacks on patriarchy have been supported by Islam’s ethical ideals where men and been supported by Islam’s ethical ideals where men and women enjoyed the same rights. women enjoyed the same rights.

Faced with modernity issues, liberal feminists sought to Faced with modernity issues, liberal feminists sought to play down the narrow religious aspect, and vis-à-vis play down the narrow religious aspect, and vis-à-vis international feminisms, they sought in Islam a international feminisms, they sought in Islam a characterizing identity and a strategy of liberation that characterizing identity and a strategy of liberation that standard Western explanatory frameworks, often based on standard Western explanatory frameworks, often based on egalitarian and individualistic assumptions, do not include.egalitarian and individualistic assumptions, do not include.

The main argument that proponents of cultural Islam The main argument that proponents of cultural Islam espouse is that secularization cannot successful without espouse is that secularization cannot successful without securing women’s civil rights.securing women’s civil rights.

Islam as PoliticsIslam as Politics

Women’s view of Islam as politics is a recent Women’s view of Islam as politics is a recent phenomenon. This phenomenon started around phenomenon. This phenomenon started around the mid-1980s when political Islam reached the mid-1980s when political Islam reached Morocco in the aftermath of the success of the Morocco in the aftermath of the success of the Iranian revolution, the downfall of the Soviet Iranian revolution, the downfall of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the US as the sole Union and the emergence of the US as the sole superpower. superpower.

The Moroccan Islamist movement is, like the The Moroccan Islamist movement is, like the women’s and Berber movements, a social women’s and Berber movements, a social movement. movement.

Islam as PoliticsIslam as Politics The Moroccan Islamist movement is complex and The Moroccan Islamist movement is complex and

heterogeneous (covering a variety of heterogeneous (covering a variety of organizations and individual actors). However, organizations and individual actors). However, two major trends may be singled out: the Party of two major trends may be singled out: the Party of Justice and Development and the Association of Justice and Development and the Association of Justice and Spirituality. Both trends are pacifist Justice and Spirituality. Both trends are pacifist and do not seek to destabilize the regime. and do not seek to destabilize the regime. Indeed, it may be said that terrorism and religious Indeed, it may be said that terrorism and religious extremism do not constitute the hard core of extremism do not constitute the hard core of Moroccan Islamism.Moroccan Islamism.

However, while the PJD has been functioning However, while the PJD has been functioning within the Moroccan political party system since within the Moroccan political party system since the 1990s, the JS reject the Moroccan Constitution the 1990s, the JS reject the Moroccan Constitution (and hence the legitimacy of the regime). (and hence the legitimacy of the regime).

Islam as PoliticsIslam as Politics

In other words, whereas the PJD runs for In other words, whereas the PJD runs for parliament and participates in the elections, the parliament and participates in the elections, the JS does not.JS does not.

Both Islamist trends count female activists. These Both Islamist trends count female activists. These women share a number of characteristics: a women share a number of characteristics: a strong belief that Islam provided women with strong belief that Islam provided women with rights, an rights, an adherence to the veil, work within the adherence to the veil, work within the ideological tenets of the party/association they ideological tenets of the party/association they are affiliated to, and a belief in complementarity are affiliated to, and a belief in complementarity (instead of equality) between men and women (instead of equality) between men and women and between rights and obligations, a tendency and between rights and obligations, a tendency to consider women’s problems within a whole to consider women’s problems within a whole context, and not as individual’s problems.context, and not as individual’s problems.

Islam as PoliticsIslam as Politics

Both Islamist trends count female activists. These Both Islamist trends count female activists. These women share a number of characteristics: a women share a number of characteristics: a strong belief that Islam provided women with strong belief that Islam provided women with rights, an rights, an adherence to the veil, work within the adherence to the veil, work within the ideological tenets of the party/association they ideological tenets of the party/association they are affiliated to, and a belief in complementarity are affiliated to, and a belief in complementarity (instead of equality) between men and women (instead of equality) between men and women and between rights and obligations, a tendency and between rights and obligations, a tendency to consider women’s problems within a whole to consider women’s problems within a whole context, and not as individual’s problems.context, and not as individual’s problems.

Islam as Politics Islam as Politics

However, there is a difference in Islamist However, there is a difference in Islamist women’s activism: those in JS are more vocal and women’s activism: those in JS are more vocal and outspoken; they are more political, whereas the outspoken; they are more political, whereas the PJD activists focus more women’s everyday PJD activists focus more women’s everyday problems. A reason may be that the JS is not problems. A reason may be that the JS is not recognized, hence the apparent erasure of recognized, hence the apparent erasure of gender and class/gender and class/

All in all, while these activists refute the idea that All in all, while these activists refute the idea that women in conservative parties are silent, they women in conservative parties are silent, they also present Islam as the only source of women’s also present Islam as the only source of women’s rights.rights.

Islam as Politics Islam as Politics

Given that religion has been a public space in the Given that religion has been a public space in the Arab-Muslim patriarchy, the voices of these Arab-Muslim patriarchy, the voices of these Islamist activists constitute a challenge in Islamist activists constitute a challenge in themselves, a challenge that has been welcomed themselves, a challenge that has been welcomed by the more liberal feminists. The agency of these by the more liberal feminists. The agency of these new veiled feminists (Sadiqi 2006) resides in their new veiled feminists (Sadiqi 2006) resides in their advocating new interpretations of the Qur’an in advocating new interpretations of the Qur’an in collaboration with the Ulemas (religiopus collaboration with the Ulemas (religiopus authorities). It is important to note at this authorities). It is important to note at this juncture that liberal, unveiled feminists preceded juncture that liberal, unveiled feminists preceded them in advocating female interpretations of the them in advocating female interpretations of the Qur’an (Bennani; Maadi). Qur’an (Bennani; Maadi).

Islam as PoliticsIslam as Politics

The road is still long as the problem is not in the The road is still long as the problem is not in the interpretation but in the cultural worth of a interpretation but in the cultural worth of a woman’s opinion. Women have power but not woman’s opinion. Women have power but not authority.authority.

It is important to note that women’s perception of It is important to note that women’s perception of Islam as politics is not a reaction to women’s Islam as politics is not a reaction to women’s perception of Islam as faith or Islam as culture. perception of Islam as faith or Islam as culture. The former is the result of important events that The former is the result of important events that greatly affected both international and local greatly affected both international and local politics from the end of the 1970s onward as politics from the end of the 1970s onward as mentioned earlier.mentioned earlier.