FIGHTING PERUVIAN ENERGY POVERTY IN A TYPICAL PERUVIAN ... · POLITECNICO DI MILANO School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering MASTER’S IN BUILDING AND

POLITECNICO DI MILANO School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction

Engineering MASTER’S IN BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING

FIGHTING PERUVIAN ENERGY POVERTY IN A TYPICAL PERUVIAN RURAL HOUSE

Supervisor: Prof. Enrico de angelis Master dissertation by: Gino Emerson Gutierrez Contreras 879087

Academic Year 2018/2019

POLITECNICO DI MILANO

1

ÍNDICE

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ 3

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. 6

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ACRONYMS ............................................................................ 7

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 8

1.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT: ......................................................................................... 8

1.2. AIMS: ........................................................................................................................ 9

CHAPTER II: PERUVIAN SITUATION ............................................................................ 10

2.1. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE .......................................................................... 10

2.1.1. Selection of architecture ....................................................................................... 14

2.2. ENERGY EFFICIENCY REQUIREMENTS IN PERU .............................................. 16

2.2.1. Peruvian energy consumption: ............................................................................. 16

2.2.2. Peruvian energy regulation .................................................................................. 18

2.2.3. Peruvian code requirements: ............................................................................... 19

CHAPTER III: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: ............................................................ 24

3.1. PASSIVE STRATEGIES ......................................................................................... 24

3.1.1. Building shape ..................................................................................................... 24

3.1.2. Shading................................................................................................................ 25

3.1.3. Natural Ventilation ................................................................................................ 27

3.1.4. Airtightness .......................................................................................................... 28

3.1.5. Thermal Mass: ..................................................................................................... 29

3.1.6. Thermal insulation ................................................................................................ 31

3.1.7. Thermal bridges ................................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER IV: BASE MODEL ......................................................................................... 35

4.1. METODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 35

4.2. CLIMATE DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................... 35

4.3. IESVE MODELLING ............................................................................................... 38

4.3.1. Model description: ................................................................................................ 38

4.3.2. Construction layers: ............................................................................................. 39


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4.3.3. Time Schedule ..................................................................................................... 41

4.3.4. Thermal layers ..................................................................................................... 44

4.3.5. Thermal comfort zones definitions........................................................................ 47

4.3.6. Results: ................................................................................................................ 50

CHAPTER V: MODEL OPTIMIZATION ........................................................................... 51

5.1. DEFINITION OF STRATEGIES .............................................................................. 51

5.1.1. Roofs: .................................................................................................................. 51

5.1.2. Floors: .................................................................................................................. 54

5.1.3. Walls: ................................................................................................................... 56

5.1.4. Windows: ............................................................................................................. 59

5.2. INSULATION OPTIMIZATION: ............................................................................... 61

5.2.1. Roof strategies selection – Step 1 ........................................................................ 62

5.2.2. Roof-floor strategies selection – Step 2 ................................................................ 64

5.2.3. Roof-floor-wall strategies selection – Step 3 ........................................................ 66

5.2.4. Roof-floor-wall-window strategies selection – Step 4............................................ 69

5.2.5. Door insulation strategy – Step 5 ......................................................................... 71

5.2.6. Ground-contact floorplan correction – Step 6 ....................................................... 73

5.3. THERMAL BRIDGE REDUCTION: ......................................................................... 75

5.3.1. Thermal bridge reduction – Step 7 ....................................................................... 75

5.4. INVESMENT – ENERGY COST EVALUATION: ..................................................... 78


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Bioclimatic Peruvian zones ................................................................................................ 10

Figure 2. Wooden house ................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 3. Reinforced masonry building ............................................................................................. 11

Figure 4. Massive adobe house ........................................................................................................ 11

Figure 5. Floating totora houses........................................................................................................ 11

Figure 6. Precarious adobe houses .................................................................................................. 11

Figure 7. Pile-dwelling houses .......................................................................................................... 12

Figure 8. Amount of houses in Peruvian department ........................................................................ 12

Figure 9. Main floor material in Peruvian houses .............................................................................. 13

Figure 10. Main wall material in Peruvian houses ............................................................................. 13

Figure 11. Main roof material in Peruvian houses ............................................................................. 13

Figure 12. Typical adobe brick construction ...................................................................................... 15

Figure 13. Typical confined masonry construction ............................................................................ 16

Figure 14. Total final energy consumption by source ....................................................................... 17

Figure 15. Total final energy consumption by sector ........................................................................ 17

Figure 16. Peruvian code timeline advances .................................................................................... 19

Figure 17. Example of recommended design angle.......................................................................... 21

Figure 18. Peruvian code scope........................................................................................................ 22

Figure 19. Plan of a pair of vertical devices (fins) and their shading mask ....................................... 26

Figure 20. A horizontal device (a canopy) and its shading mask. ..................................................... 26

Figure 21. An egg-crate device and its shading masks. ................................................................... 27

Figure 22. Capacity insulation effects ............................................................................................... 33

Figure 23. Climate analysis-psychometric chart ............................................................................... 36

Figure 24. Dry bulb temperature-24h moving average and montly average .................................... 36

Figure 25. Relative humidity-24h moving average and monthly average ......................................... 37

Figure 26. Global horizontal radiation-24h moving average and monthly average .......................... 37

Figure 27. . Typical Peruvian rural house-3D IESVE model ............................................................. 38

Figure 28. Defined thermal zones ..................................................................................................... 38

Figure 29. Thermal transmittance distribution - percentage ............................................................. 39

Figure 30. Base model - Roof construction layer .............................................................................. 40

Figure 31. Base model - Floor construction layer ............................................................................. 40

Figure 32. Base model - Wall construction layer ............................................................................... 40

Figure 33. Base model - Window construction layer ......................................................................... 41

Figure 34. Bedroom 1 and 2 - Daily profile ....................................................................................... 42


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Figure 35. Living room - Daily profile ................................................................................................ 42

Figure 36. Bedroom 1 and 2 - Weekly profile .................................................................................... 43

Figure 37. Living room - Weekly profile ............................................................................................. 43

Figure 38. Rates of heat gains - ASHRAE fundamental handbook .................................................. 44

Figure 39. Power densities by space - ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 ............................................. 45

Figure 40. Acceptable operative temperature ranges for naturally conditioned spaces ................... 49

Figure 41. Hours distribution for thermal zone .................................................................................. 50

Figure 42. Yearly boiler Load ............................................................................................................ 50

Figure 43. Roof 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution ........................................................ 52




Figure 47. Floor 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution ....................................................... 55




Figure 51. Wall 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution ........................................................ 57



Figure 54. Window 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution .................................................. 60



Figure 57. Step 1 (roofs) energy-cost results .................................................................................... 63

Figure 58. Step 1 yearly boiler loads ................................................................................................. 63

Figure 59. Step 1 area and thermal transmittance distribution - percentage .................................... 64

Figure 60. Step 2 (roofs-floors) energy-cost results .......................................................................... 65



Figure 63. Step 2 (roofs-floors-wall) energy-cost results .................................................................. 67



Figure 66. Step 4 (roofs-floors-walls-windows) energy-cost results ................................................. 69



Figure 69. Step 5 Door insulation combinations-energy cost results ................................................ 71


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Figure 72. Step 6 ground-contact floorplan correction combinations-energy cost results ................ 73



Figure 75. Step 7 Thermal bridge reduction combinations - energy cost results .............................. 75




Figure 79. Ground-contact floorplan insulation detail........................................................................ 77

Figure 80. Investment – energy cost evaluation ............................................................................... 78


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Wall material used along the time [39] ................................................................................ 14

Table 2. Wall material used in urban and rural houses ..................................................................... 15

Table 3. Maximum thermal transmittance allowance ........................................................................ 20

Table 4. Climatic characteristics for the Middle Andean zones ........................................................ 20

Table 5. Recommended design angle .............................................................................................. 21

Table 6. Mass effect boundaries ....................................................................................................... 30

Table 7. Thermal mass strategies ..................................................................................................... 30

Table 8. Thermal transmittance distribution ...................................................................................... 39

Table 9. Sensible and latent heat gains for people ........................................................................... 44

Table 10. Selected values ................................................................................................................. 45

Table 11. Air exchanges considered ................................................................................................. 46

Table 12. Fanger and adaptive model - levels of expectation .......................................................... 47

Table 13. Recommended desing values for indoor temperature ...................................................... 49

Table 14. Selected roof strategies description .................................................................................. 52

Table 15. Selected floor strategies description ................................................................................. 54

Table 16. Selected wall strategies description .................................................................................. 57

Table 17. Selected window strategies description ............................................................................ 59

Table 18. Considered air infiltrations ................................................................................................. 62

Table 19. Selected roof strategies..................................................................................................... 62

Table 20. Selected floor strategies .................................................................................................... 64

Table 21. Selected wall strategies..................................................................................................... 67

Table 22. Selected window strategies ............................................................................................... 69

Table 23. Selected door strategy ...................................................................................................... 71

Table 24. Step 5 Door insulation combinations ................................................................................. 71

Table 25. Step 6 ground-contact floorplan correction combinations ................................................. 73

Table 26. Step 7 Thermal bridge reduction combinations ................................................................ 75


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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ACRONYMS

UNFCCC, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

TCSC, Technical Code of Sustainable Construction (Peruvian)

GBC, Green building council

CO2, carbon dioxide

NZEB, nearly zero energy building

WWR, window to wall ratio

HVAC, heating, ventilation and air conditioning

IAQ, Indoor air quality

IEQ, Indoor environmental quality


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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

The present work has as main aim to develop an optimized model in order to find out which

are the best passive strategies for a vernacular Peruvian construction located in the

highlands characterized for cold temperatures.

The Location selected is Cuzco due to the fact that, in terms of Temperature, relative

humidity and meters above sea level (approx. 3400), is a representative city, for the kind of

climate that is desired to be evaluated in our building,

To carry out this study a masonry house made of adobe will be evaluated with the Integrated

Environmental Solution – Virtual Environment (IESVE) software and the data will come from

the energy plus weather data.

1.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The first problem is the reduction of the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. this is a problem

around the world since today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a

proportion that is expected to increase to 68% by 2050, Today, the most urbanized regions

include Northern America (with 82% of its population living in urban areas in 2018), Latin

America and the Caribbean (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%). On the other hand,

the level of urbanization in Asia is now approximating 50% and Africa remains mostly rural,

with 43% of its population living in urban areas [1].

In Peru, it is estimated that 70% of the population lives in cities [2] and during the following

decades, this will increase to 90% [3]. This urbanization process has been accompanied by

a remarkable environmental deterioration, that is why Peru has been actively taking part

since the 90’s in the Clean Development Mechanism.

Peru is a country with low per capita and total emissions, with a global share of emissions

of only 0.3%, of which approximately half of them generate through land use, land-use

change and forestry sector activities (LULUCF).

The Peruvian INDC (September 2015) envisages a reduction of emissions equivalent to

30% in relation to the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions of the projected Business as Usual

scenario (BaU) in 2030.

The Peruvian State considers that a 20% reduction will be implemented through domestic

investment and expenses, from public and private resources (non-conditional proposal), and

the remaining 10% is subject to the availability of international financing and the existence

of favorable conditions (conditional proposal)


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The main GHGs considered are Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide

(N2O) baseline scenario starting in 2010, as reference year, and ending in 2030.

Therefore, the first problem is to reduce the amount of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.

Reduce of (GHG) emissions and improve of thermal comfort in constructions are directly

related, so this improvement will be our second problem, to explain the magnitude of this

problem it can be pointed out that cold season in Peru cause a wide range of losses in zones

above 3000 meters above sea level. The main of them, the loss of human lives that reach

around to 700 deaths every year and approximately 200 of them are children under 5 years

[4] [5].

Most of this losses account for poor and vulnerable people that not only can’t afford HVAC

systems more than that they struggle economically which generates other problems such

as several health issues such, malnutrition, etc. Because of this, the only feasible possibility

for them is to find out and provide them some affordable options in order to be protected

from the severe temperatures.

Due to this economic problem, the strategies selected to be evaluated are all passive, also,

an estimated cost will be calculated to evaluate them.

1.2. AIMS:

Evaluate the optimization of a Peruvian building in a hierarchical pathway, evaluating

the comfort improvements, the energy savings and the cost of every strategy.

A final cost evaluation will be done by evaluating the cost of every strategy

Contribute to the knowledge of possible strategies that can be feasible and proper for

cities with similar climates or with similar resources by the evaluation of strategies

mainly done with local resources.

Finding out the best options for the typical Peruvian rural house by developing an optimized

model for the average Peruvian climate in the highlands, this study because a humble guide.

Therefore, the options of insulations, improve of solar gains and all the others related to

comfort can be taken from here.


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CHAPTER II: PERUVIAN SITUATION

2.1. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

When it comes down to history, we can divide the Peruvian architecture in 3 main periods:

Pre-Columbian Peru Architecture

Colonial Peru Architecture

Contemporary Architecture in Peru

In addition, Peru has 84 out of the 117 life zones of the world [6], because of this, along its

history several kinds of vernacular designs have been developed.

These 84 zones are sum up in nine bioclimatic Zones according to the TCSC, figure [1],

Nowadays every one of these zones has some specific kind of structures, in order to have

an idea of the current construction practice in Peru the six main are showed in the figures

[2-7]. In addition, to depict quantitatively the current amount of Peruvian houses the figure

[8] is showed. Finally, the materials or technologies used in the eight departments with

highest number of houses are showed in the figures [9-11].

COASTAL

DESERTIC

DESERTIC

LOW

INTERANDEAN

MIDDLE ANDEAN

HIGH ANDEAN

SNOW

MONTAIN

Figure 1. Bioclimatic Peruvian zones


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Bioclimatic Zone:

- Coastal desertic

Technology:

- Floor: Soil, Walls: Wood

- Roof: Corrugated

calamine sheets

Active/passive

strategies:

Bioclimatic Zone:

- Desertic

Technology:

-Floor: Concrete, Walls:

Clay brick

- Roof: Reinforced

concrete

Active/passive

strategies:

Shading and natural

vent.

Bioclimatic Zone:

- Low Interandean

- Middle Andean

Technology:

-Floor: Soil, Walls: Adobe

- Roof: Straw

Active/passive

strategies:

Thermal mass

Bioclimatic Zone:

- Middle Andean

Technology:

-Floor: Totora, Walls:

Totora

- Roof: Totora

Active/passive

strategies:

Bioclimatic Zone:

- Middle Andean

- High Andean

- Snow

Technology:

-Floor: Soil, Walls: Stone,

adobe

- Roof: Corrugated

calamine.

Active/passive

strategies:

Figure 2. Wooden house

Figure 3. Reinforced masonry building

Figure 4. Massive adobe house

Figure 5. Floating totora houses

Figure 6. Precarious adobe houses


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Bioclimatic Zone:

- Border of mountain

- Subtropical humid

- Tropical wet

Technology:

-Floor: Wood, Walls:

Wood

- Roof: Woven palms

Active/passive

strategies:

Shading and natural

ventilation Figure 7. Pile-dwelling houses

Figure 8. Amount of houses in Peruvian department


13

Figure 9. Main floor material in Peruvian houses

Figure 10. Main wall material in Peruvian houses

Figure 11. Main roof material in Peruvian houses


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2.1.1. Selection of architecture

Despite of the fact that, as we have seen, Peruvian houses can be of many vernacular types,

in this section, we will review just the two most important in the highlands, which are adobe

bricks constructions and confined masonry constructions, Also will explain why in the end

adobe constructions were the one selected to be evaluated.

To explain how this two kind of structures became the most used in the country it can be

explained historically. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, most buildings, (single-

family and multi-family homes with 1 to 5 floors), were done using simple solid brick masonry

with high density and thickness of walls.

The 1970 earthquake caused the collapse of this type of simple masonry buildings (without

columns). This earthquake clearly showed the need to incorporate reinforcements to these

buildings. The confined masonry became the most popular construction system for low and

medium-height buildings in cities.

However, in the highlands adobe brick constructions are still widely used due the fact that

this is a considerable less seismic zone than the coastal one.

The use of this two kind of constructions along the time can be depicted quantitatively

comparing the last three housing censuses; it is observed that brick and block walls have

displaced adobe as the predominant material [7].

As we can see, adobe and confined masonry are the two main structures used in Peru and

they will be explained in the following lines:

Adobe bricks constructions

The first kind of construction is the one most used in rural regions of Peru; in these regions,

architectural traditions have remained largely unchanged for centuries. Adobe bricks are still

used in dwellings today, combined with roofs constructed from wood, straw or hand-made

clay tiles [8].

Table 1. Wall material used along the time [39]

Wall material 1993 2007 2017

bricks or blocks 35.70% 46.70% 55.80%

Adobe 43.30% 34.80% 27.90%

Others: wood, stone, quincha, etc. 21% 18.50% 16.30%


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Despite of the fact that this is not the main kind of structure used nowadays in Peru (table

1). This will be the selected one to be evaluated due to the fact that is the one most used in

rural zones (table 2), it means for the Peruvians with lowest income, since brick clay masonry

can be more seen in urban areas than in rural areas as well as the differences of price are

really high.

So by selecting this kind of construction this study will be more effective to accomplish the

aims indicated previously. An image of this kind of construction is showed in figure 12.

Wall material 2007 2017

bricks or blocks 63.90% 70.60%

Adobe 20.50% 15.10%

Others: wood, stone, quincha, etc. 15.60% 14.30%

bricks or blocks 4.60% 8%

Adobe 69.90% 69.50%

Others: wood, stone, quincha, etc. 25.50% 22.50%

Urban

Rural

Table 2. Wall material used in urban and rural houses

Figure 12. Typical adobe brick construction


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Confined masonry constructions

The second kind of vernacular construction is a typical self-construction in zones of low-

income people, nowadays it is estimated that 70% of these houses are produced informally.

which implies non-formal occupation of urban space, building without professional

assistance and the use of poor quality materials [9], focusing only on the economy these

constructions leave aside a correct structural design and totally disregard any concept of

sustainability.

Besides the social and economic issues, the sited plots and houses are not adequate to

capture solar energy, the fresh daily winds, then are thermally uncomfortable. In addition,

there is a use of industrial materials, not suitable for indoor comfort, and producing too much

material waste [12].

This second kind of construction will not be the one evaluated in this study, but it is important

to point out the relevance of the evaluation of this kind of structure, due to the fact that is the

most used in Peru. An image of this kind construction is showed in figure 13.

[10]

2.2. ENERGY EFFICIENCY REQUIREMENTS IN PERU

2.2.1. Peruvian energy consumption:

This section has the aim to have an small review of the Peruvian energy consumption, in

order to have an idea of the current situation, figure 14 shows the source of the final energy

consumption and as we can see, Peru still has its main energy consumption based on oil

products. So by reducing energy consumptions GHG emissions will be directly reduced,

Figure 13. Typical confined masonry construction


17

Figure 15 shows the total final consumption by sector. The industry sector includes the

construction sector, so it can be seen the considerable share of this sector in Peruvian

energy consumption, due to this the use of local materials in the selected strategies is

implemented. The residential sector has a share similar to the industry, this show the

importance of improving thermal comfort and with this reducing the final energy needs for

residence.

All in all these two graphics show the importance of improve the energy savings during

construction and service life of the residences.

Figure 14. Total final energy consumption by source

Figure 15. Total final energy consumption by sector


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2.2.2. Peruvian energy regulation

When it comes, down to sustainability, the Peruvian situation is just at the beginning but at

least it has started. To reach the Goal of 30% reduction on GHG emissions, stated in the

Peruvian INDC (September 2015). Peruvian government through the Ministry of

Environment (MINAM), as the national focal point for the UNFCCC, designed a process

since 2014 in which three levels of dialogue were included:

a) "Technical and scientific" with experts for the calculation of emissions, based on technical

parameters and the estimation of the costs of mitigation options;

b) "Technical and political" with representatives of the Ministries linked to the emission

sources and mitigation options in order to gather technical opinions in the framework of

political and sectoral plans; and,

c) "High political level", for which a Multisectoral Commission (9) was established at the level

of Ministers or Deputy Ministers, responsible to develop the technical report containing the

proposed Peruvian INDC (Supreme Resolution No 129-2015-PCM) [6].

In order to achieve these goals in January 2014 the Standing Committee of Sustainable

Construction was created [11], conformed mainly by:

The Ministry of Housing, Construction and Sanitation.

The Ministry of Environment

The Peruvian Chamber of Construction.

The International Finance Corporation (IFC)

The National University of Engineering (UNI)

The Peru Green Building Council (Peru GBC)

This committee reached to create the first Technical Code of Sustainable Construction

approved by the Peruvian Government on August 28th 2015.

The code focus on three main impact categories:

Water saving

Energy saving

The users’ thermal comfort inside the buildings.

For water savings, it is sought to generate a saving of 30% through efficient sanitary

equipment and innovative solutions such as gray water treatment. On the other hand, in

terms of energy saving and thermal comfort the goal is to comply with the standard of energy

efficiency, thermal comfort and lighting EM 110.


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Peruvian code is still at the beginning and it is not as stringent as codes from others countries

in the region, i.e. Colombia [12], But still it exists.

2.2.3. Peruvian code requirements:

The aim of this section is to review the current Peruvian code in order to see in which

situation it is now, how stringent it is and if it can be used to have an effective and proper

evaluation of the thermal performance in buildings.

According to the TCSC the following fields are taken into account

2.2.3.1. Energy efficiency:

Thermal transmittance

Scope: New buildings

Main regulation: Technical Standard EM.110 "Thermal and Light Comfort with Energy

Efficiency"

Main requirements:

Climate zone definition: Middle Andean

Maximum thermal transmittance

Figure 16. Peruvian code timeline advances


20

Climatic characteristics of each bioclimatic zone (Middle Andean)

Lighting and cooling

Scope: New buildings (but cultural heritage buildings and emergency lighting are

exceptions).

Main regulation: Technical Standard EM.010 “Indoor Electrical Installations"

Main requirements:

Minimum lighting by use according to the RNE, And verified according to the following

formula: Eint = Eext x FLDc

Solar control: Sun protection design angle

Table 3. Maximum thermal transmittance allowance

Table 4. Climatic characteristics for the Middle Andean zones

Bioclimatic peruvian

zones

Maximum thermal

transmittance (wall)

W/m2K

Maximum thermal

transmittance (roof)

W/m2K

Maximum thermal

transmittance (floor)

W/m2K

4. Middle Andean 2.36 2.21 2.63

Solar radiation Hours of sun Annual rainfall AltitudeEquivalent in the

Koppen classification

2 a 7,5 kWh/m2

North: 6h

Center: 8-10h

South: 7-8h

150-2500mm 3000-4000 masl Dwb

Bioclimatic peruvian

zones

Average annual

temperature

Average relative

humidityWind speed

Predominant wind

direction

4. Middle Andean 12 C° 30-50%

North: 10m/s

Center: 7.5m/s

South: 4m/s

South-East: 7m/s

S-SW-SE


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Example of sun protection design angle:

[13]

Thermal solar energy

Scope: New buildings with the following uses (Residential, Education, Health, Lodging)

Main regulation: Technical Standard EM.080 “Installations with Solar Energy”

Main requirements:

Any medium density (RDM) and low density (RDB) housing unit, which is located in the

bioclimatic zones called Coastal Desert, Desert, Low Interandean, Middle Andean, High

Andean and Snow, must include a water heating system with solar energy.

The buildings contained in Technical Standards A.030 Lodging, A.040 Education and

A.050 Health of the National Building Regulations must include a solar water heating

system.

All solar heaters must be dual and comply with the Peruvian Technical Standards

indicated in the Regulatory Framework [14].

Orientation South Latitude Angle

North 13.3° 45°

South 13.3° 71°

East 13.3° 40°

West 13.3° 48°

North-East 13.3° 53.5°

South-East 13.3° 60.5°

South-West 13.3° 69.5°

North-West 13.3° 47.5°

Table 5. Recommended design angle

Figure 17. Example of recommended design angle


22

Stationary photovoltaic panels should be oriented to the north and maintain an inclination

angle equivalent to the latitude of the installation site plus 10 degrees [15].

2.2.3.1. Water Efficiency:

Scope: New buildings

Main regulation: Technical Standard IS.010 "Sanitary Installations for Buildings"

Main requirements:

Toda edificación nueva debe ser entregada a su propietario con aparatos sanitarios que

incluyan tecnologías de ahorro de agua.

La grifería de los urinarios, lavaderos, lavatorios o duchas deben ser ahorradores, con

dispositivos que reduzcan el consumo de agua en un 30% como mínimo, en

comparación con aparatos sanitarios convencionales existentes en el mercado.

Las aguas residuales domesticas de lavatorios, lavaderos, urinarios, duchas, tinas e

inodoros serán tratadas para su reúso, en forma tal que no generen conexiones

cruzadas o interferencias con los sistemas de agua de consumo humano.

It is important to mention that due to the TCSC is at the beginning it is still optional in every

field and is supported in other previous Peruvians codes. On the other hand, it is also

important to mention that the Peruvian code does not focus just in the requirements for

buildings; it also takes into account other intervention areas showed in the following image:

.[16] Figure 18. Peruvian code scope


23

When it comes down to energy efficiency we can see that Peruvian code is not stringent at

all in terms of thermal transmittance, on the other hand present a practical but simplified

advice in solar control by indicating a sun protection design angle and in thermal solar

energy requirements it presents some interesting indications.

Talking about water efficiency it presents also some good advices yet really general, given

that not more technical indications are given or how this technical advices should be verified.

Overall, Peruvian code requirements are still at the beginning, it can be considered that its

main interest is to be the base for further improvements and in this way to have a applicable

and useful national regulation adapted to the country conditions and resources.


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CHAPTER III: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:

3.1. PASSIVE STRATEGIES

Global warming generates a higher cooling and heating energy loads in buildings and at the

same time its production generates higher carbon emissions, which in the end increase the

global warming closing a vicious circle. Because of this a near zero energy or carbon building

design start with the passive strategies and the remaining needs are covered by active

strategies.

In this study, we will evaluate just passive strategies due to the fact that the inhabitants of

the construction to evaluate will not be able to afford active strategies and at the same time,

passive strategies are the ones that does not generate energy loads.

This section has the aim to give some basic concepts for passive strategies and in this way

to give the lector a base in order to understand better the practical part.

3.1.1. Building shape

Sometimes disregard and sometimes not possible to be implemented (due to previous

decisions or due to the fact that land borders are already defined), building shape have

actually a really important impact in our building performance and are our first passive

strategies to be implemented.

Building's stretch affects the heating and cooling energy consumption of buildings. In

addition, changing the depth of a building leads to changing in the amount of daylight'

penetration in the inner spaces of buildings. Hence, this will have impact on the consuming

electricity for providing the building's light. As it's said, the building's stretch is one of the

effective factors for building's energy consumption [17].

3.1.1.1. Compactness

According to the Biot number theory it is know that a body will be thermally more stable if

the Volume-Area ratio will be as high as possible, from this point of view the hemisphere is

the most efficient shape [18]. However, in real design it is not a common shape, to say so,

that is why a compact plan is the advisable thing to do in order to take advantage of this

physical property.

On the other hand a high surface to volume ratio represent the amount of exposed “skin” of

the buildings and therefore, their potential for interacting with the climate through natural

ventilation, day lighting, etc. [19].


25

Due to this, it is always important to define when it is convenient to have a compact shape

or to have a shape that interacts more with the environment.

3.1.1.2. Orientation

Depending on the hemisphere we are, north and south will be the best options to orientate

the building and to place windows given that in these positions, It will be possible to protect

the building of the high solar heat intensities that occur in the middle of the day during hot

seasons and also it will be possible to take advantage of the mentioned heat during the cold

season.

In addition, it is important to say that low altitude sun is more difficult to deal with [20], so it

is important to protect the glazing located in the east and west positions with adequate

shadings or reduce their dimensions.

In this study this considerations will be taking into account by orientating the biggest surface

to the north and placing windows on it.

3.1.2. Shading

When it comes down to solar control, we can see how wise nature can be because in

summer we will have sun in a higher position than in winter. Therefore, due to this it can be

designed in a way that we can define covers in order to avoid the heat in summer and allow

it in winter.

3.1.2.1. Shading devices

External shading devices are the most effective tools to control sun penetration. Three

basic categories of shading design devices can be distinguished:

Vertical devices:

E.g. vertical louvres or projecting fins. These are characterized by horizontal shadow

angles (HSA) and their shading mask will be of a sectoral shape (Fig. 19). These devices

may be symmetrical, with identical performance from left and right, or asymmetrical [21].


26

Horizontal devices:

E.g. projecting eaves, a horizontal canopy or awning, or horizontal louvres and slats.

These are characterized by a vertical shadow angle (VSA) and their shading mask,

constructed by using the shadow angle protractor, will be of a segmental shape (Fig.

20). The next figure also shows a canopy with a “device VSA” OF 60° [21].

Egg-crate devices:

E.g., concrete grille-blocks, metal grilles, have a complex behavior because of this they

cannot be characterized by a shadow angle and their shading mask will have a complex

shape. An example of these devices is shown in Fig. 1.44 [22].

Figure 19. Plan of a pair of vertical devices (fins) and their shading mask

Figure 20. A horizontal device (a canopy) and its shading mask.


27

In this study, no shading device will be implemented because in our cold climate solar gains

are always useful, a hangover is defined in the roof but its purpose is to protect walls from

rain.

3.1.3. Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation is the strategy of supplying and subsequently removing air through the

building openings by natural means without the use of fan or any mechanical systems.

Natural Ventilation is ventilation provided by thermal, wind, or diffusion effects through

doors, windows, or other intentional openings in the building [23].

3.1.3.1. Driving forces:

There are two driving forces:

Wind pressure: Wind is the result of a difference in air pressure. Wind-driven ventilation

within a space is accomplished when there is a pressure differential between the indoors

and the outdoors.

Thermal buoyancy: sometimes referred as the stack effect or the chimney effect,

Buoyancy force is generated by the different densities in warm and cold air, which

increase with the height between the openings [24].

These two kind independently or in combination are used in the different kind of strategies

for ventilation in buildings.

Figure 21. An egg-crate device and its shading masks.


28

3.1.3.2. Air Infiltration:

This kind of air is included in this section because can be considered as part of the effects

of air, however as opposite than air ventilation air infiltration just cause detrimental effects.

To quantify its effect it can be point out that Incidental air infiltration in a poorly built house

can be as much as N = 3 air changes per hour, but with careful detailing and construction it

can be reduced to N = 0.5 [25].

This study will consider a conditional natural ventilation, it means its implementation will be

done just when the inside temperature is higher than 26°C.

When it comes down to infiltration it will be used values less conservative than the ones

defined above, considering one air change per hour for the baseline reducing it progressively

until 0.25 air change per hour for the final optimized combination.

3.1.4. Airtightness

Indoor air has generally a higher water content than outside air, in a cold climate the airflow

will be dominated in the direction inside-outside (exfiltration). The colder air will not be able

to keep the high amount of water vapor, so condensation will appear at some parts of the

construction, whereas in hot and humid climates the airflow will be dominated in the direction

outside-inside (infiltration) and will cause the same moisture problem.

These two processes show that airtightness is always useful.

And despite of the fact that a too well airtight building will be detrimental for the IAQ, in a

passive house you don’t have to worry about this, because to ensure an adequate IAQ a

heat recovery system will be taken into account.

Also is important to point out that:

It is essential that only a single airtight layer is planned and implemented, two nearly

airtight layer will be pointless.

Built examples of Passive Houses constructions have demonstrated that airtightness is

not about the specific construction method, it has been proved that standard values from

0.2 to 0.6 ach can be obtained with any construction method.

Airtightness can be measured with the air pressure test, or the n50-value, which

describes the air changes at a differential pressure of 50 Pa between the outside and

the inside of the building. More than that an air pressure test is essential for passive

house, it is a part of the certification procedure [26].


29

Since airtightness and infiltration are directly related in this study, airtightness will be taken

into account by reducing progressively the air changes per hour as stated in the previous

section.

3.1.5. Thermal Mass:

In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building, which enables it to

store heat, providing "inertia" against temperature fluctuations.

When outside temperatures are fluctuating throughout the day, a large thermal mass within

the insulated portion of a house can serve to reduce the daily temperature fluctuations, since

the thermal mass will absorb thermal energy when the surroundings are higher in

temperature than the mass, and give thermal energy back at night when the surroundings

are cooler. because of this thermal mass is effective in improving building comfort in any

place that experiences these types of daily temperature fluctuations, both in winter as well

as in summer [27].

It is also important to point out that more stable internal conditions are achieved if the thermal

mass is located inside the resistive insulation [28].

Properties required for good thermal mass:

1. High specific heat capacity.

2. High density.

3.1.5.1. The mass effect

The mass effect is the effect generated by the thermal mass when heavy constructions are

provided.

In a cold climate, for a continuously occupied building (e.g. a house or a hospital), where it

would allow the use of intermittent heating and still keep a stable temperature, on the other

hand in an intermittently used and heated building (an office or a school) lightweight

(insulated) construction may be better.

When it comes to down to the mass effect the definition of a ‘massive, heavyweight’ and a

‘lightweight’ building is useful and can be defined with the following criterion denominated

SM (Specific Mass) [29]:

𝑆𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density


30

Alternatively, the CIBSE “response factor” (f), which is defined as:

𝑓 = 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑞𝑣

𝑞𝑐 + 𝑞𝑣

Where:

qa = total admittance

qc = envelope conductance

qv = the ventilation conductance

The boundaries for three divisions are:

3.1.5.2. Strategies

The use of the different strategies depend on the prevailing climate and implies the use of

thermal mass with other passive strategies, which enhance its effect.

The different strategies can be summarized in the following table:

Classification SM f

Light < 150 kg/m2 < 3

Medium 150–400 3–5

Heavy >400 >5

Table 6. Mass effect boundaries

ClimateExposed to

sunlight

Insulated from

heat lossNight cooling Notes

Winter YES YES -

Summer NO - YES

Hot, arid climates - YES -

Hot humid climates - NO - YES

Temperate and cold

temperate climates

Table 7. Thermal mass strategies


31

As we can see in temperate and cold temperate climates, thermal mass is combined with

the passive solar design, which means that the building will be exposed to sunlight in winter

but not in summer.

For hot, arid climates normally the differences of temperatures between the day and night

are considerable because of this the construction will be exposed to sunlight to store the

heat and released at night, in addition massive walls are normally used in order to enhance

this effect.

Finally, for hot humid climates the temperatures are high along day and night because of

this, the sunlight exposition must be avoided and the elements must be not massive as well.

3.1.5.3. Seasonal energy storage

If enough mass is used it can create a seasonal advantage. That is, it can heat in the winter

and cool in the summer. This is sometimes called passive annual heat storage or PAHS.

The PAHS system has been successfully used at 7000 ft. in Colorado and in a number of

homes in Montana, It has also been used successfully in the UK at Hockerton Housing

Project [27].

It is opportune to indicate that some adobe brick constructions have the mass effect due to

the fact that they have massive external walls, these walls were intended just to bear seismic

actions but in the end, they also generate this beneficial effect.

In this study, this will be not considered due to the fact that most of the adobe construction

has normally just a single adobe layer, so this will be the option selected.

Thermal mass will not be implemented instead external insulation will be the one evaluated.

3.1.6. Thermal insulation

During summer it is important to reduce the heat gains in order to avoid high temperatures

in the place and to reduce or avoid cooling loads, on the other hand in winter is important to

reduce the heat losses in order to do not have low temperatures and reduce or avoid the

heating loads as well. Therefore, thermal insulation is useful in any climate.

It is estimated that up to 70% of the total heat losses are through external walls and roof, so

this indicate how important can be to improve the thermal insulation.

Thermal transmittance values from 0.10 to 0.15 [W/m2k] have showed to allow negligible

heat losses and to prevent moisture build up [30], this values will be taken into account for

our design.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockerton_Housing_Project

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockerton_Housing_Project


32

3.1.6.1. Mechanisms

Three different mechanisms can be distinguished:

Reflective: Used when the heat transfer is mainly radiant, i.e. across a cavity or through

an attic space, so the heat flow will be determined by the emittance of the warmer surface

and the absorptance of the receiving surface.

I.e. a shiny aluminium foil has both a low emittance and a low absorptance, it is therefore

a good reflective insulator, but it will be effective only if it is facing a cavity, because it

does not have and R-value itself, but modifies the R-value of the cavity.

This kind of insulation (reflective foil facing a cavity) is advisable in hot climates since in

this period the low emittance will work due to the fact that heat is transmitted mainly by

radiation, while in cold climates is almost useless because the heat will be transmitted

by convection.

Also in hot climates it will be more effective than resistive insulation because reflective

insulation will reduce the downward heat flow but also will allow the escape of heat at

night [31].

Resistive: Of all the common materials, air has the lowest thermal conductivity: 0.025

W/m2.K, as long as it is still, that is why the purpose of resistive insulation is just to keep

the air still, dividing the space in small cells with the minimum amount of actual material.

Such materials are often referred to as ’bulk insulation’.

The most often used insulating materials are:

Expanded or extruded plastic foams, such as: polystyrene or polyurethane

Fibrous materials in the form of batts or blankets, such as mineral wool, glass

fibers or even natural wool.

Loose cellulose fibers or loose exfoliated vermiculite can be used as cavity fills

or poured over a ceiling.

While a second class of insulators include:

Wood wool slabs (wood shavings loosely bonded by cement)

wood fiber soft boards

And various types of lightweight concrete (either using lightweight aggregate or

autoclaved aerated concrete) [31].

Capacitive: Both reflective and resistive insulation respond to temperature changes

instantaneously, but no capacitive insulation, which affect not only the magnitude of heat

flow, but also its timing.


33

In a non-steady, randomly varying thermal environment the tracing of heat flows requires

sophisticated and lengthy calculation methods, fortunately, most meteorological

variables (temperature, solar radiation) show a regular variation, a repetitive 24-h cycle

which correspond to a sub-set of non-steady heat flow regimes, the periodic heat flow,

the analysis of which is quite easy.

In order to explain the capacitive effects and what is a periodic heat flow, the following

figure is showed over a 24-h period. The solid line is the heat flow through an actual

masonry wall and the dashed line is the heat flow through a ‘zero-mass’ wall of the same

U-value [32].

[33]

Two main effects can be explain from the figure

There is a delay for the heat flow in the masonry wall respect to the dashed line,

this delay is referred to as the time lag, (or phase-shift, denoted Ø) measured in

hours.

The amplitude for the daily average heat flow is smaller for the solid line; the ratio

between the two amplitudes is referred to as the decrement factor, or amplitude

decrement, denoted μ.

The benefits of capacitive insulation (or mass effect) will be greatest in hot-dry climates,

which show large diurnal temperature variations [34].

Finally, it is of paramount importance to point out that the order of the layers with respect

to the direction of the heat flow, would affect our dynamic properties (time lag, decrement

factor and admittance). For the mass inside the resistive insulation, we will have a higher

time lag, which means the heat gain will be more delayed; also, we will have a smaller

Figure 22. Capacity insulation effects


34

decrement factor which means the heat gain will be more reduced and result in a more

stable indoor temperature

In this study reflective insulation is not considered due to it is convenient just for hot climates,

neither capacitive insulation because we decided to evaluate just a wall layer of 30cm which

is more representative of a typical Peruvian rural house.

The option selected for walls will be the resistive insulation, due to the fact that totora will be

selected as insulation material and this present an structure with small cells which remain

the air still reaching a thermal conductivity of 0.06 (W/m.k).

3.1.7. Thermal bridges

The effect of thermal bridges can increase the final U value from 1% until even more than

100%, there lies the importance of a correct sealing in the linear contacts of our components.

Programs as THERM are used in order to take into account and quantify the effects of this

not ideal situation in not sealed construction.

In our case, the not sealed contacts will be taken into account by considering infiltration,

which will be reduced in every step of the optimization process from 1ach for the baseline

model to 0.25 for the final optimized model.

Finally yet importantly, also natural soil can be considered as a pathway for heat and

because of that be considered a kind of thermal bridge, due to this in the final step a border

insulation inside the ground will be defined and its effect will be quantified by defining our

selected floor as a ground-contact floorplan in the IESVE software.


35

CHAPTER IV: BASE MODEL

4.1. METODOLOGY

In this section, the base model to be evaluated will be developed. First, a brief climate

description is done and then the base model will be defined following the indicated

procedure:

Definition of model dimensions, thermal zones, and its creation in the IESVE software.

Definition of the basic construction layers for every component of the envelope

Definition of the time schedule, by a daily and weekly profile, for the thermal zones which

will be useful for the implementation of the internal gains

Definition of internal gains (people and lightning).

Definition of air exchanges, which are a progressively reduced infiltration and a

conditional natural ventilation, which will be, activated just when the internal T° is higher

than 26°C.

Definition of the comfort zones for indoor conditions and for the energy calculations.

Finally, after all of these steps, the performance of the base model will be evaluated with

the percentage of comfort hours and with the total boiler load in the year.

4.2. CLIMATE DESCRIPTION

Location: Cuzco (Peru) - Latitude: 13°31’ S

Altitude: 3400 m - Longitude: 71°58’ W

Cuzco is a city located in the southeast part of Peru in the valley formed by the Huatanay

River, which influences the climate of the town.

The psychometric chart reported below shows the annual climatic behavior of Cuzco: the

data “cloud” is large and spreads along the axes directions. As we can see, the values of

dry bulb temperature vary from -3°C to 24°C approximately; the relative humidity is between

the 20% and 100% lines, and the humidity ratio spreads from 2.0 gr/kgda to 9.0 gr/kgda.


36

Figure 23. Climate analysis-psychometric chart

Figure 24. Dry bulb temperature-24h moving average and montly average


37

Figure 25. Relative humidity-24h moving average and monthly average

Figure 26. Global horizontal radiation-24h moving average and monthly average


38

4.3. IESVE MODELLING

4.3.1. Model description:

Our construction is a typical Peruvian rural house in the highlands with an area of 69 m2;

the house is just 1 floor and 2.5m high but has a pitched roof of 1.5m, so the highest point

reaches 4 m. In order to do our model we simplify its shape to do faster the evaluations:

A typical Peruvian rural house in the highlands counts with two bedrooms and a dining-

kitchen room. That is why In order to be evaluated; three different thermal zones are defined:

bedroom1, bedroom2 and living room, zones indicated in the following figure.

The respective volume and areas for every thermal zone are reported in the following table:

VolumeFloor

Area

Ext. Wall

Area

Ext. Opening

Area

m3 m2 m2 m2

Bedroom 1 38.68 11.90 19.88 1.08

Bedroom 2 38.68 11.90 19.88 1.08

Living room 127.4 39.2 50.75 4.26

Total 204.75 63.00 90.50 6.42

Room Type

Figure 27. . Typical Peruvian rural house-3D IESVE model

Figure 28. Defined thermal zones


39

4.3.2. Construction layers:

Our base model represent a typical Peruvian rural house, the base model components are

the following:

Baseline roof: Wavy metallic plate supported by a wooden frame structure.

Baseline floor: Common soil, considering a thickness of 26.5cm.

Baseline wall: Wall made of adobe with a thickness of 30cm.

Baseline window: one layer of 3mm glass window, supported by a 5cm wooden

frame.

Baseline door: Wavy metallic plate supported by a wooden frame structure.

The baseline thermal transmittance share in showed in the next table and in figure 29, the

baseline components are showed from figure 30 to figure 33:

COMPONENT A (m2)U

(W/m2.K)

AxU

(W/K)

Floor 63.00 2.40 151.07

Walls 84.08 1.83 154.28

Windows 4.32 4.96 21.45

Door 2.10 5.88 12.35

Roof 68.54 7.14 489.39

Total 222.04 22.22 828.53

Table 8. Thermal transmittance distribution

Figure 29. Thermal transmittance distribution - percentage


40

Figure 30. Base model - Roof construction layer

Figure 31. Base model - Floor construction layer

Figure 32. Base model - Wall construction layer


41

4.3.3. Time Schedule

First, we have to say that given that this project is a rural house located in Cuzco we have

chosen schedules according to a residential way of living, so we can summarize these

schedules in the following way:

These time schedules will be assigned to the internal gains generated due to the people

presence and lightning, two kind of time schedules were designed one for bedroom 1and 2

and one for the living room.

Daily: Bedrooms 1 and 2: 21:00 – 7:00 – on

Living room : 7:00 – 21:00 – on

Weekly: Monday – Friday – on

Saturday – Sunday – on

Annual: Continuously on

4.3.3.1. Daily profiles:

In addition, given that we have different thermal zones, for weekdays we defined different

time schedules according to the kind of use along the day.

Figure 33. Base model - Window construction layer


42

Bedroom 1 and 2:

Living room:

Figure 34. Bedroom 1 and 2 - Daily profile

Figure 35. Living room - Daily profile


43

4.3.3.2. Weekly profile:

A constant day profile was considered for both spaces.

Bedroom 1 and 2:

Living room:

Figure 36. Bedroom 1 and 2 - Weekly profile

Figure 37. Living room - Weekly profile


44

4.3.4. Thermal layers

4.3.4.1. Internal gains

People

Density: It can be referred to “ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016” Table 6.2.2.1 for

estimating occupant density for different room type.

But in this case it will be referred considering the average number of people for family

in the Peruvian rural zones, which is five, 2 parents and 3 children.

For Sensible and latent heat: We refer to “1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook”

Table 3 for estimating sensible and latent gains for people in every thermal zone,

seated at theater was considered for thermal zones bedroom 1 and 2 and seated,

very light work for the living room.

The summary table for our choices is as follows:

Area Occupany Sensible Latent

m2 m2/p W/p W/p

Bedrooms 11.9 4 - 6 72 33

Living room 39.2 8 78 49

Room Type

Figure 38. Rates of heat gains - ASHRAE fundamental handbook

Table 9. Sensible and latent heat gains for people


45

Light

We refer to “ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007” for estimating lighting heat gains for each

room type.

The values are in W/ft2, so changing the units, selecting spaces similar to ours and

summarizing them, the following table is presented:

Figure 39. Power densities by space - ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007

W/m2

Kitchen 12.92

Corridor 5.382

Patio 5.382

Toilet 5.382

Room TypeFluorescent

lighting

Table 10. Selected values


46

As we can see, the average lighting values for normal spaces are around 10, in our

case for a typical Peruvian house, we will consider just 5w/m2, due to its precarious

condition and also by taking this value we will be conservative in the design.

4.3.4.2. Air exchanges

First of all, we have to say that ventilation has two main aims the first one is to try to keep

the inside temperature between the comfort limits, the second one is try to keep a good

indoor air quality.

In order to achieve this we could refer to “ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016” Table 6.2.2.1, but

given that no mechanical devices will be implemented, no auxiliary ventilation will be

considered, and so this code requirement will not be followed.

What will be implemented is a progressively reduced infiltration, given that it will be

considered that in every insulation step the infiltrations will be reduced. In addition, a

conditional ventilation will be implemented when the inside temperature will be higher than

26°C, representing in this way the fact that people open the fenestrations when this value is

reached, all of this is indicated in the following table:

Steps Description Infiltration Cond. Ventilation

Step 0 Baseline 1.0 ach 0.25 ach

Insulation optimization

Step 1 Roof 0.5 ach 0.25 ach

Step 2 Roof + Floor 0.5 ach 0.25 ach

Step 3 Roof + Floor + Wall 0.35 ach 0.25 ach

Step 4 Roof + Floor + Wall + Window 0.25 ach 0.25 ach

Table 11. Air exchanges considered


47

4.3.5. Thermal comfort zones definitions

It is of paramount importance to make a correct definition of the thermal comfort zones,

given that the boundaries defined by the thermal zones are the base to quantify the

parameters to be evaluated.

It is important to indicate that thermal zones are not a stablished range of temperatures on

the contrary they individualize the requirement for every particular building. As a matter of

fact a thermal comfort zone definition require a process because it depends on several

issues such as season comfort, global warming trends and the age of the people that

occupied the building [35].

In this study, the parameters to be evaluated are the comfort hours and the energy loads.

Between the codes used to define the thermal comfort zones one the most used or maybe

the most important is the ISO 17772-1, according to this code, thermal comfort zones can

be defined depending if the building will be mechanically cooled, PMV method, or non-

mechanically cooled, the adaptive method.

In addition, both methods have four categories, showed in figure 40, which correspond to

the level of expectation by the users:

[36]

Despite of the fact that the adaptive method defined in ISO 17772-1 is a good method to be

implemented, in this study, the method implemented to evaluate indoor conditions will be

Table 12. Fanger and adaptive model - levels of expectation


48

the one defined for ASHRAE 55 given that has a broader range of applicability having its

temperatures limits from 10 to 33.5°C.

Also for the energy calculations for mechanically heated/cooled buildings, EN 15251 will

be the one used.

4.3.5.1. For indoor conditions

For indoor conditions, the parameter to be evaluated will be the percentage of comfort hours

in a year, because our model just work on passive strategies it is a building without

mechanical cooling. Therefore, for this case, as stated above, the method to be implemented

will be the one defined in section 5.4 of ASHRAE 55: Adaptability method for non-

conditioned spaces.

The procedure will be the following:

Prevailing mean outdoor air temperature Tpma (out) calculation by the following

formula:

𝑇𝑝𝑚𝑎 (𝑜𝑢𝑡) = (1 − 𝛼)[𝑡𝑒(𝑑 − 1) + 𝛼𝑡𝑒(𝑑 − 2) + 𝛼2𝑡𝑒(𝑑 − 3) + 𝛼3𝑡𝑒(𝑑 − 4)+. ..

Alpha value setting, since alpha can be considered equal to:

- 0.8 (slower responding/heavy mass)

- 0.6 (faster responding/low mass building)

α could arrive to 0.9 for climates in which synoptic-scale (day to day) temperature

dynamics are relative minor, in our case considering the house characteristics and

the climate characteristics, the taken value will 0.7.

After defining the alpha value this will give us a Tpma value which will change

continuously due to the fact that this value depends on the values gotten from the

last seven days, this continuously changing Tpma will be used to define the upper

and lower limit for the acceptable operative temperature by using the following

formulas:

- Upper 80% acceptability limit (°C) = 0.31 Tpma (out) + 21.3 - Lower 80% acceptability limit (°C) = 0.31 Tpma (out) + 14.3


49

Finally, it is important to indicate that this limits are for the indoor operative

temperature (°C), as it is indicated in figure 40.

[37]

4.3.5.2. For energy calculations

In order to get the energy needs with IESVE software mechanically systems has to be

activated in the software options, that is why in order to be consistent with this the thermal

zone has to be defined for mechanically heated/cooled buildings. So in order to implement

this the EN 15251 Code will be considered by using the following table.

[38]

For this design considering category II, the limits defined will be from 20 to 26°C.

Figure 40. Acceptable operative temperature ranges for naturally conditioned spaces

Table 13. Recommended desing values for indoor temperature


50

4.3.6. Results:

The values gotten from the base model are the beginning step and will be the point of

comparison for the following strategies implemented in the next chapter.

Figure 41. Hours distribution for thermal zone

Figure 42. Yearly boiler Load


51

CHAPTER V: MODEL OPTIMIZATION

5.1. DEFINITION OF STRATEGIES

The strategies were selected from several options developed for well-known institutions in

Peru; these are the German-Peruvian cooperation, Department of housing, construction and

sanitation, national rural housing program and the National University of Engineering to

mention some of them.

The strategies were selected taking into consideration mainly their thermal and physical

characteristics and thinking on how they could interact together, in other words, how some

characteristics could enhance or be detrimental for the characteristics of the other elements

of the envelope.

The construction feasibility is already ensure due to the fact that they use mainly local

products, more than that some of them are already used, even though in an empirical way,

by the locals.

5.1.1. Roofs:

Four roofs were selected to be evaluated. The first one has 6cm of straw insulation layer

(0.06W/m.k) which help us with the insulation as well as with the price, while on the other

hand has a plywood layer which give us a better finishing but increase the price, all in all this

roof has an average cost and an average thermal transmittance.

The second option is the cheapest one due to the fact that consist just on putting a cover of

jute or any kind of burlap fabric below the wooden frame structure. This second option is

interesting because shows how a small detail or apparently not meaningful component of a

layer can decrease significantly the final thermal transmittance, from 7.14 to 2.97. This roof

has a low cost and a considerable thermal transmittance.

The third option is more expensive due to the fact that a wool layer and a totora layer are

included and accommodate inside the wooden frame structure. This roof has a high cost

and a low thermal transmittance.

The final option is based in the previous one having the same firsts layers and including a

totora insulation layer supported by a burlap fabric layer, the characteristic to be mentioned

in this case is the fact that this option reduce considerable the space to be heated, reducing

considerably the energy needs. Simulations will indicate if this characteristic as well as its

low thermal transmittance compensate the construction costs.


52

Roof Description U value Cost S/.

Baseline:

Wavy metallic plate supported by a wooden frame

structure.

7.14 0.00

Roof 1

Straw insulation-roof:

baseline case plus 6cm of totora as insulation supported

by plywood.

0.74 3100.53

Roof 2

Burlap fabric roof:

baseline case plus burlap fabric cover in the roof

bottom.

2.97 1340.13

Roof 3

Wool and totora insulation-roof:

baseline case plus 6cm of sheep wool and 10cm of totora

as insulation supported by a burlap fabric.

0.36 4251.20

Roof 4

Wool and totora insulation-burlap fabric roof:

Previous case plus 5cm of totora as insulation supported

by a burlap fabric horizontanly placed as ceiling.

0.26 5375.12

Table 14. Selected roof strategies description

Figure 43. Roof 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution


53





54

5.1.2. Floors:

Four floors were selected to be evaluated all of them have a bed stone layer of 10cm which

was decided to be used due to the fact that this layer would avoid the water raise by

permeability.

The first option has also a wooden frame structure to generate a cavity that will increase

thermal resistance; finally, it has a wooden board to give a better finishing.

The next option is based in the previous one but in this case, a mud mortar of 5cm will be

included in order to reduce the thermal transmittance.

The final two options consider also the mud mortar in order to reduce the thermal

transmittance, but does not consider the wooden frame structure and board as finishing,

reducing in this way the price but keeping reasonable thermal transmittance.

The simulations will indicate if just the thermal transmittance is the factor to take into account

in the floor evaluation or some other characteristic could make a floor more effective than a

well-insulated floor.

Floor Description U value Cost S/.

Baseline:

Common soil, considering a thickness of 26.5cm2.40 0.00

Floor 1

Anti-humidity floor with wooden board finish 1:

Stone bed of 10cm with a wooden frame of 5cm and a

wooden board finish which generates a cavity.

1.60 6554.72

Floor 2

Anti-humidity floor with wooden board finish 2:

Same layers than in the previous case plus 5cm of mud

mortar as insulation located above the stone bed.

1.45 6821.44

Floor 3

Anti-humidity floor with polished mud finish 1:

Same stone bed layer than in the previous cases, but this

time there is no a wooden frame, and the insulation

layer above the stone bed change from 5cm to 10cm and

is improved mixing the mud mortar with straw.

1.99 1173.16

Floor 3.1

Anti-humidity floor with polished mud finish 2:

Same layers than in the previous case, but the mud

mortar layer changes from 5cm to 10cm.

1.36 2078.94

Table 15. Selected floor strategies description


55

Figure 47. Floor 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution




56

5.1.3. Walls:

Three walls were selected to be evaluated all of them have a mud and straw mortar layer of

2.5cm as finishing in order to protect the totora insulation layer and increase its durability.

The wall thermal transmittance improvement generated by the three options lies mainly in

the thermal insulation given by the totora layers. Every option increase gradually the totora

thickness having 5cm for the first option, 10cm for the second option and 20cm for the last

option.

From the beginning, we can see that the thermal transmittance is not reduced proportionally

to the increase of the totora thickness while on the other hand the costs does increase

proportionally to the totora thickness.

Simulations will indicate if these thermal transmittance reductions compensate the

construction costs in every case.



57

Wall Description U value Cost S/.

Baseline:

Wall made of adobe with a thickness of 30cm.1.83 0.00

Wall 1

Wall insulated with 5cm of totora:

Baseline plus 5cm of totora insulation and 2.5cm of mud

and straw mortar as finishing.

0.70 2412.39

Wall 2


Baseline plus 10cm of totora insulation and 2.5cm of

mud and straw mortar as finishing.

0.44 4562.64

Wall 3


Baseline plus 20cm of totora insulation and 2.5cm of

mud and straw mortar as finishing.

0.25 8863.13

Table 16. Selected wall strategies description

Figure 51. Wall 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution


58




59

5.1.4. Windows:

Three windows were selected to be evaluated, the first one has a manually operable cover

that has the schedule defined for the bedroom thermal zone, it means that it will open from

7am to 9pm and closed on the other hours.

The second option does not have a cover but includes a second glass layer, which as we

can see has a meaningful effect in the thermal transmittance reduction, changing it from

4.96 to 1.47.

Finally, the third option contains both elements a cover and a second glass layer, reducing

the even more the thermal transmittance but on the other hand increasing also the price.

Simulations will give us a clearer idea of the windows effects and if these thermal

transmittance reductions compensate the construction costs in every case.

Window Description U value Cost S/.

Baseline:

1 layer of 3mm glass window. 4.96 0.00

Window 1 Simple window with totora cover:

Baseline plus a manually operable cover of 2cm of wood

and 6cm of totora.4.96-0.75 124.60

Window 2 double window:

Baseline plus another layer of 3mm glass window. 1.47 347.49

Window 3 double window with totora cover:

previous case plus the same manually operable cover of

the first case.1.47-0.53 782.27

Table 17. Selected window strategies description


60

Figure 54. Window 1 detail and thermal transmittance distribution




61

5.2. INSULATION OPTIMIZATION:

Our strategies will be simulated in seven steps adding in every one of them a strategy to be

evaluated, the order of the strategies to be evaluated is the following: Roof, floor, walls,

windows, doors, ground-contact floorplan correction and thermal bridge reduction.

The aim of this procedure is to have a progressively evolution of the optimization and in this

way to see how the best options change in every step.

In addition, we will be able to see which strategies work better together or in the contrary

result detrimental.

To select the best combination of strategies the following procedure will be followed:

It will be defined the energy consumption (Boiler load) and the price of the strategy

and will be represented in a graphic.

The first group of simulations will be the roofs, then the combination of roofs and

floors, then the walls will be added and finally the windows, having in the end 144

combinations.

In every step, the best combination of strategies will be the one that lies in the Pareto

optimal surface and has the lowest energy consumption.

Finally, the best combination selected for every step will be showed in terms of the

final thermal transmittance share of the selected strategies and the saved energy

respect to the base case.

Therefore, in the end combining all the strategies together it will be ensured that the best

combination will be selected. as opposite if just the ones that give the best results working

alone are combined is highly probable that the best options could be missed, due to the fact

that thermal performance just not depend on the individual performance of their components

or on some characteristic of the stratigraphy of a component.

Thermal performance depend also in the interaction of the components, due to the fact the

size, stratigraphy, shape, position, thickness, thermal mass, finishing, in summary

everything, of a component can enhance or be detrimental for the performance of other

component of the envelope.

Finally yet importantly, also the improvements in infiltration will be taken into account

because in the implementation of every component it will be considered that the linear

contacts between the elements will be sealed, this infiltration reduction in every step will be

considered in the evaluations as showed in the following chart:


62

5.2.1. Roof strategies selection – Step 1

Seeing the list of selected strategies to be evaluated it can be considered that the last two

will be the ones that will give the smaller energy needs, also the fact that the last one reduce

considerable the volume to be heated can generate a considerable difference between this

one and the third one, this has to be verify with the simulations. Simulations will also show

if the energy savings compensate the costs.

List of defined strategies to be evaluated:

Roof Description U value Cost S/.

Roof 1 Straw insulation-roof: 0.74 3100.53

Roof 2 Burlap fabric roof: 2.97 1340.13

Roof 3 Wool and totora insulation-roof: 0.36 4251.20

Roof 4 Wool and totora insulation-burlap fabric roof: 0.26 5375.12

Roof Description Infiltration

Step 0 Baseline 1.0 ach

Step 1 Roof 0.5 ach

Step 2 Roof + Floor 0.5 ach

Step 3 Roof + Floor + Wall 0.35 ach

Step 4 Roof + Floor + Wall + Window 0.25 ach

Table 18. Considered air infiltrations

Table 19. Selected roof strategies


63

Results:

Figure 57. Step 1 (roofs) energy-cost results

Figure 58. Step 1 yearly boiler loads


64

Results description:

The fourth roof is the one with better performance but given that this analysis also consider

the cost the second roof will be considered the best option in this step due to the high

difference in price with the fourth roof.

Despite of the fact that second roof has the highest U value it gave better results than the

first and third roof, it can be explained considering that this low U value allows a higher

heat transmittance and this in the end resulted positive by allowing energy gains during the

hours of daylight.

5.2.2. Roof-floor strategies selection – Step 2

Seeing the list of selected strategies to be evaluated it can be expected that the energy

needs, boiler loads, will be higher for the floors with a high thermal transmittance and lower

for the ones with a smaller thermal transmittance, another important issue is to see how

floors will interact with roofs.


Floor Description U value Cost S/.

Floor 1 Anti-humidity floor with wooden board finish 1: 1.60 6554.72

Floor 2 Anti-humidity floor with wooden board finish 2: 1.45 6821.44

Floor 3 Anti-humidity floor with polished mud finish 1: 1.99 1173.16

Floor 4 Anti-humidity floor with polished mud finish 2: 1.36 2078.94

Figure 59. Step 1 area and thermal transmittance distribution - percentage

Table 20. Selected floor strategies


65

Results:

Floor 1.36

Floor 1.45 Floor 1.60

Floor 1.99

Figure 60. Step 2 (roofs-floors) energy-cost results



66


The base model floor has a U value equal to 2.4, in step 1 it generates that roof 2 (the with

the highest thermal transmittance) has a better performance than roof 1 and 3.

However in this step it can be seen that a lower floor thermal transmittance, do generate

lower energy loads but the issue to point out is that it also generate that the performance

goes in accordance with the roof thermal transmittance.

In fact as we can see for the third option (floor U: 1.99W/m.k), the trend seen in step 1

remain, however progressively this change until option 4 (floor U: 1.36W/m.k) where we

can see how energy loads are lower as lower are the roof thermal transmittance.

5.2.3. Roof-floor-wall strategies selection – Step 3

Seeing the list of selected strategies to be evaluated it can be expected that the energy

needs (boiler loads), will be higher for the walls with a high thermal transmittance and lower

for the ones with a smaller thermal transmittance. As we can see from table 21, the reduction

on thermal transmittance is not proportional to the increase of insulation and also it implies

that is not proportional to the increase of price. However, in the end the simulations will

indicate if the energy savings are proportional or compensate the expenses.



67


Results:

Wall Description U value Cost S/.

Wall 1 Wall insulated with 5cm of totora: 0.70 2412.39



Wall 0.70

Wall 0.44

Wall 0.25

Figure 63. Step 2 (roofs-floors-wall) energy-cost results

Table 21. Selected wall strategies


68


First, here we can see how the trend founded in the second step remains, but with a variation

in the proportion of energy needs between the combinations with roof 2.97 and all the others.

On the other hand, the other three options depicts approximately the same energy needs

with a small advantage for roof 0.36 over roof 0.26, which is interesting. Finally, from these

results, it can be seen how the differences in energy needs between wall 0.70 and wall 0.44

is higher than the differences between wall 0.44 and wall 0.25. Which correspond to the

differences in thermal transmittance.




69

5.2.4. Roof-floor-wall-window strategies selection – Step 4

Seeing the list of selected strategies to be evaluated it can be expected that, as well as in

all the other cases, the energy needs, boiler loads, will be higher for the walls with a high

thermal transmittance and lower for the ones with a smaller thermal transmittance. If this

assumption is correct the third option, double glass with a manually operable cover will be

the most effective in terms of energy savings. However there is an important detail here due

to the fact that windows also help us with solar gains, in this sense while at night it is

necessary to have a smaller thermal transmittance during the day it is better to have a higher

thermal transmittance in order to increase the solar gains, due to this maybe option 1 will be

the best in the end.


Results:


Window 1 Simple window with totora cover: 4.96-0.75 124.60

Window 2 double window: 1.47 347.49

Window 3 double window with totora cover: 1.47-0.53 782.27

Figure 66. Step 4 (roofs-floors-walls-windows) energy-cost results

Window 0.53

Window 1.47

Window 0.75

Table 22. Selected window strategies


70


First, here we can see how the trend founded in the third step remains and this time without

any variation. Second it can be seen that the assumptions considered were correct since

the first option shows the lower energy needs allowing the solar gains along the day and

having a low thermal transmittance at night. Finally, what is a surprise is to see how the third

option has the higher energy needs, it is especially surprising when it is compared to the

second option because the third option has an insulating cover implemented at nights, so

supposedly this should have a better performance than the second one, but it is not.




71

5.2.5. Door insulation strategy – Step 5

As we can see in figure 68 the thermal mass participation for the door is much higher than

its area participation due to this door is an element to be improved, in the next step an

insulated door will be implemented in order to manage this issue.


List of combinations to be evaluated: door 0.54

Results:

Figure 69. Step 5 Door insulation combinations-energy cost results

Table 24. Step 5 Door insulation combinations

Combinations Strategies

Combinaton 1 Roof 0.74 + Floor 1.36+ Wall 0.70 + Window 0.75 + Door 0.54








Door 1 Simple door with 5cm of totora cover inside and ofside 0.54 352.68

Table 23. Selected door strategy


72


Due to the thermal mass participation for the door indicated in figure 68 it had been expected

that its improvement generated a higher impact in the energy loads.

In any case despite of the fact that door improvement doesn’t generate high energy savings,

it is worth it to be applied since the implementation costs are not high neither.




73

5.2.6. Ground-contact floorplan correction – Step 6

In this point it is important to indicate that IESVE allow us to take into account the floor-soil

interaction, getting in this way a more realistic and accurate evaluation.

This option is available for floors in contact with soil, and can be done by two methods the

EN-ISO 13370 and the F-factor; in this case, the first one will be used.

To carry out these evaluations the seven best combinations from the previous step will be

evaluated.

List of combinations to be evaluated:

Results:









Table 25. Step 6 ground-contact floorplan correction combinations

Figure 72. Step 6 ground-contact floorplan correction combinations-energy cost results


74


First of all the results show us how important was to correct the floor thermal transmittance

because as we can see the differences in energy loads are high, arriving to have a best

option that expend less than half energy than the best option found in the previous step.

Second in this step it can be seen how a good insulated floor enhance the effect on the

insulation of other components, making it bigger the differences in energy savings.




75

5.3. THERMAL BRIDGE REDUCTION:

5.3.1. Thermal bridge reduction – Step 7

In this point it is important to indicate that IESVE also allow us to take into account a possible

underground insulation, this kind of insulation is useful because block the thermal bridge

between our floor border and the external soil. Also this step is applied because as we can

see in figure 74 floor still has a thermal transmittance participation higher than its area

participation. To carry out these evaluations the seven best combinations from the previous

step will be evaluated.

List of combinations to be evaluated:

Results:









Table 26. Step 7 Thermal bridge reduction combinations

Figure 75. Step 7 Thermal bridge reduction combinations - energy cost results


76


An external thermal underground insulation generates substantial energy savings, arriving

to have a best option that expend less than half energy than the best option found in the

previous step.

The increment in cost is considerable but because of the energy savings generated,

considering the slope showed in the graphic and given that the cost of energy in Peru is

0.533 S./Kwh, they can be recovered in approximately 4 years.




77

Figure 79. Ground-contact floorplan insulation detail


78

5.4. INVESMENT – ENERGY COST EVALUATION:

The Following figure shows the sums of the cost of implementation of the strategies and of

the energy for 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 years, as we can see with time higher values of

investment in strategies is convenient, given that the lowest total cost value moves towards

the left in every case.

Going more in detail the study shows that the implementation costs are not recovered for

the first case which is the line that represents 1 year of energy cost, which implies that in

economic terms it will be better do not implement any strategy for this case.

However, since the second year we can see that the cost of implementation can be

recovered which are encouraging results.

As stated before in the long run highest investment depict higher savings, but more than

that a well insulated house will generate a better quality of life, better physical and mental

health, to say just some of the advantages of these implementations.

Overall, economic factor should not be the only one to take into account when it comes down

to invest in house thermal performance improvement.

Figure 80. Investment – energy cost evaluation


79

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FIGHTING PERUVIAN ENERGY POVERTY IN A TYPICAL PERUVIAN ... · POLITECNICO DI MILANO School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering MASTER’S IN BUILDING AND