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The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement in School-Aged Children

Kristen Hurley

A Project Submitted as a Course RequirementPHED 432

Seminar for Physical Educators and Health EducatorsGardner-Webb University

December 2013

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AbstractThis paper serves to evaluate the relationship between physical activity and academic achievement in school-aged children, as evidenced by research and scholarly articles. This topic is of heightened interest due to increasing amounts of overweight and obese school-aged children, and concerns of the United States falling behind academically in terms of international standards. The main findings of this research paper were that aerobic fitness activities at high intensities for a certain duration and frequency produced the strongest academic results. Research shows that physical activity may improve academic performance through cognition, executive function, intelligence, academic achievement, and classroom behavior. These findings would be of great use to the classroom teacher, the physical educator, and the school administrator.

Keywords: physical activity, physical education, academic achievement, cognition, classroom behavior

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The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement in School-Aged Children

Introduction

A topic of recent interest to educators, schools, and researchers is the concept that

physical activity can have a positive effect not only on personal health and wellness, but on

academic achievement as well. This topic has been studied for nearly a century (for example, a

study was done in 1924 regarding a correlation between physical ability and health, and mental

capabilities), but in recent years has picked up interest with an increase in volume of scientific

studies dedicated to this subject. People in our nation are concerned that our children are falling

behind the rest of the world academically, but are we actually reducing our chances of catching

up by cutting Physical Education?

In many schools across the country right now, Physical Education is being reduced and

even cut due to lack of funding and a heightened demand to have students meet certain academic

standards. For example, the state of California requires a minimum of 100 minutes per week be

spent in Physical Education for elementary school children, and 200 minutes per week in

Physical Education for secondary school students. Not only is this is already a lower standard

than the nationally recommended 150 minutes and 225 minutes respectively, but a study led by

the California Endowment found that less than 50% of school districts in California met this

lowered objective (The California Endowment, 2007). The National Association for Sport and

Physical Education (NASPE), the leading national organization for the publication of standards,

goals, and guidelines for school Physical Education programs, has created benchmarks for

excellence in Physical Education. According to NASPE, a quality Physical Education program

provides, “learning opportunities, appropriate instruction, [and] meaningful and challenging

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content for all children”. Specifically, this is achieved through the 150- and 225-minute per week

guidelines, a developmentally appropriate curriculum provided by trained educators, low

teacher-to-student ratio, and appropriate equipment and facilities. The California study found

that students were falling short on the national recommendation for time in P.E. (elementary

students only received on average 84 minutes of P.E. per week). Not only are American children

not getting enough weekly time in Physical Education, but they are not spending this time being

active. For every 30 minutes in Physical Education class, only 4 were spent doing vigorous

exercise (The California Endowment, 2007). Supporting the basis for a NASPE

recommendation of a low teacher to student ratio around 1:25, the California study also found

that students in large classes of 45 students or more got half as much physical activity as students

in small class sizes, and spent less than 10% of the time being physically active (The California

Endowment, 2007). This shows just how short we are falling from the nationally recommended

standards.

In addition to the students’ opportunity to learn, NASPE also stated that a quality

Physical Education program should provide appropriate instruction, meaningful content, and

student and program assessment. The data clearly shows that we are missing the mark on amount

of time spent in Physical Education (and more specifically amount of time spent being active).

While it is more difficult to obtain objective evidence proving so, it is very likely that we are

falling short on the other three recommendations as well.

Education of children should have high priority, and the increased focus on grades and

standardized testing is not unwarranted. However, many consider physical health to be as

important as mental health, and this area of wellness should not be ignored. Our government has

recommended in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans that children and adolescents get

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at least 60 minutes of physical activity per day (U.S. Department, 2008). The majority of our

students do not even get that much physical activity per week in school (Carlson, 2008). The

problem is that school may be the only place where children will get physical activity, because

many kids go straight home and watch TV or play on the computer. Studies have shown that

obese and overweight children are extremely likely to be obese as adults (one found that children

aged 10-15 years who were obese had an 80% chance of being obese as adults) (Bellows, 2013).

In the same study, it was shown that obesity has not only been linked to an extensive list of

health problems, but also has psychological and emotional problems as well. In most schools

today, children are only getting a small amount of daily physical activity due to the scarcity of

time spent in Physical Education. The state of North Carolina does not even require any specific

amount of time be spent in Physical Education class (North Carolina Department of Public

Instruction, 2013). If there is no state mandate, there is no pressure on schools to dedicate much

time in the class schedule to Physical Education. Schools should not be merely fighting to defend

what little time is spent in Physical Education as of right now, but pushing for even more time,

so that we can meet the national health objective. Also of importance is hiring licensed Physical

and Health education professionals who will plan quality classes filled with physical activity.

If administrators and common core educators are hesitant to see the intrinsic value in

Physical and Health Education, it may pique their interest to find that the fitness activities their

students are doing in gym class may actually help them be more focused in the classroom, be less

disruptive, and earn better grades. This paper will evaluate many different studies and research

conducted related to the link between physical activity and academic achievement.

There are several reasons why this topic is of elevated importance to our country at this

time. Not only are standardized tests and academic expectations for students increasing, but so is

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the prevalence of obesity in the United States. In fact, according to the CDC, over 33% of

American children were overweight or obese in the year 2010 (CDC, 2013). If scientific research

and analysis were to prove that physical activity can lead to improved academic achievement,

our school boards and administrators would have to take notice. We could essentially tackle two

vital problems in our country at the same time- make progress towards reducing childhood

obesity while improving academic performance at the same time. Through a presentation and

analysis of recent research done in this subject area, this paper will serve to consider the data and

determine if a relationship does exist between physical activity and academic achievement, and

then examine the implications that the findings have for our schools.

Health Benefits of Physical Activity

Physical activity has been proven to have many health benefits. Not only is it an effective

way to manage and maintain a healthy weight, but it is shown to reduce high blood pressure in

people with hypertension (CDC, 1999). Physical Activity helps promote healthy bones, muscles,

and joints, while developing lean muscle and reducing body fat (CDC, 1999). Children who are

physically active will have a lower risk of developing health risk factors such as heart disease,

hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, and osteoporosis (US Department of Health and Human Services,

2008). Though these chronic diseases do not usually appear in school-age children, risk factors

for these disease do begin to appear early in life (US Department of Health and Human Services,

2008). Some of these chronic diseases, like Type 2 diabetes, actually are beginning to develop at

a young age now because of childhood obesity. Another added bonus of physical activity is the

mental health benefits. Children who are physically active are less likely to have anxiety and

depression, and will have enhanced mood and feelings of well-being (CDC, 1999).

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As proven by research mentioned earlier (such as the fact that 80% of children who are

obese will be obese as adults), habits formed during childhood will often remain throughout the

lifespan and become very hard to break as adults. If children become accustomed to eating

poorly and living a sedentary lifestyle, then they will most likely live this way as an adult. One

reason why is it so important to get children physically active when they are young is because it

will increase the likelihood of them being physically active when they get older. Schools have

children captive about 8 hours per day, 5 days per week. This is the only time that we can

guarantee that they are physically active, and right now for the most part, this opportunity is

being wasted. The majority of children in our country are not getting the nationally

recommended weekly physical activity rates in school (Carlson, 2008). To make matters worse,

when they are in physical education, they are not spending time being active (The California

Endowment, 2007). If America hopes to reduce obesity rates, we are going to have to start with

school-age children by getting them more physically active and teaching them about health.

Specificity of Physical Activity and How it Effects Academic Performance

Research revealed a very broad spectrum of studies related to physical activity, fitness,

exercise, and school-based active breaks from the classroom setting, and their respective effects

on different measures of academic achievement. The different types of physical activity had

varying effects on measures of academic achievement; some were more effective agents than

others.

For sake of clarity in this paper, physical activity will be defined as, “any bodily

movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure

above resting level” (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008). There are many

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different types of physical activity, such as exercise, participation in sports, fitness-related

activities, weight lifting, and stretching, to name a few. Most of these activities will have a more

concentrated focus on one of the five components of health-related fitness (cardiorespiratory

fitness, body composition, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility).

Among the journal articles related to physical activity and academic performance, there

were a range of activities performed that were considered “physical activity”. A study conducted

by Rasberry et al on “The association between school-based physical activity, including physical

education, and academic performance” analyzed 43 articles with 50 unique studies related to the

topic of this paper. With a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic

performance, the majority (50.5%) found a positive association, 48% were not significant, and

1.5% were negative (Rasberry, 2011). The authors of this study offered some suggestions for

why there may have been such a high percentage with no association, such as the fact that many

of the studies had small sample sizes. Another important point, which we will examine in more

depth later, is that many of the studies measured a broad range of academic achievement factors

in order to determine which were related to physical activity and which were not. Therefore,

some of the factors would have an association but many would not, leading to the 48%. Lastly,

the variability of context in which the physical activity took place (type of physical activity,

duration, intensity) had an effect its association with academic achievement.

In this section of the paper, the different types, duration, and intensity of physical activity

will be examined, and determine which ones had the most beneficial effects on academic

performance in general. Subsequently, specific measures of academic achievement will be

analyzed to see which recognize the greatest improvement from physical activity. In general, the

most effective type of physical activity linked to academic performance was fitness-related. In

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fact, the authors of “Exercise and Children’s Intelligence, Cognition, and Academic

Achievement” recognized this in the summary of their findings from research to related studies.

According to them, “Exercise interventions are complex. Exercise training is defined as a

procedure designed to enhance a specific dimension of physical fitness; thus some interventions

may be aimed at promoting individual changes in cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength,

muscular endurance, or muscular flexibility… interventions [that] were designed specifically to

promote cardiorespiratory physical fitness, [are] seen by some researchers as the “gold standard”

to gauge impact of exercise interventions on cognitive functioning” (Tomporowski, 2008).

Greater benefits were also seen for greater intensity of activity, as well as longer duration. It is

logical to assume that greater benefits would be recognized for more time and effort put in, if any

related benefits do exist.

The majority of studies examined found positive effects on academic achievement related

to aerobic exercise. An analysis of three different studies related to this topic found that aerobic

exercise had a large effect on four different types of mental processing (Tomporowski, 2008). A

2004 intervention study involving a 6 month aerobic walking program revealed changes in the

anterior cingulate cortex which is involved in controlling behavior, and enhanced reaction times

in decision-making tasks (Tomporowski, 2008). In a another study that analyzed the relationship

between fitness and academic achievement, body mass index (BMI) was negatively related to

both reading and math test scores, while aerobic fitness, as measured by the Progressive Aerobic

Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), was positively related (R= .23 for math, .16 for

reading) (Hillman, 2008). This data can be referenced below in Figure 1. No such correlation

was found for either muscular strength or flexibility, reinforcing the idea that aerobic fitness has

the greatest link to academic achievement improvements. Both reading comprehension and

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performing math calculations have been linked to

use of the prefrontal cortex and posterior

cingulate cortex (pictured to the right in Figure

1) of the intraparietal sulcus (Hillman, 2008).

According to other research, fitness has also been

found to activate the frontoparietal region of the

brain (Colcombe, 2004; Marks, 2007). Therefore,

it is logical to infer that there may be a link

between physical activity and enhanced academic achievement.

Another study conducted by Hillman assessed how fitness related to reaction time and

accuracy on a flanker task. The Eriksen Flanker task is used to measure an individual’s

interference control, which is the ability to ignore task-irrelevant information. This task involves

distinguishing between central (target) and peripheral (non-target/flanker) letters presented in an

array (Example: SSHSS; the “S” characters are flankers, and the “H” is the target letter). The

array of letters will be flashed upon a screen, and subjects must type in the target letter. When the

array of letters is congruent (ex: HHHHH) reaction times are lower and accuracy is much higher,

than when they are incongruent, such as in the example above. In this study, a sample of 48

preadolescent students was divided into two groups based on their fitness level, as assessed by

the PACER test. Students were put in either a “high-fit” or “low-fit” group. The high-fit group

had greater accuracy, and also had a lower median reaction time (though this factor did not vary

enough between groups to be considered significant). Because interference control is one

measure of executive control (an indicator of cognition that will be discussed in more depth

later), this is further evidence that aerobic fitness specifically is very likely linked to academic

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performance. Finally, Castelli’s evaluation of relationship between aerobic fitness (as measured

by the PACER) and academic achievement (as assessed by the Illinois State Achievement test),

found a positive association between fitness level and total achievement score (r=.48), math

score (r=.49), and reading score (r=.45) (Donnelly, 2008). In reference to cardiorespiratory

fitness, Castelli said, “the current study present[s] new evidence that specific components of

physical fitness are globally associated with academic performance during maturation” (Castelli,

2007, p. 248).

A series of studies focused on school-based physical activity found different results for

academic achievement based on time spent being active. One study found an increase in

frequency of PE class from two days a week to five was linked with higher math, reading, and

writing scores (Rasberry, 2011). A recess-based physical activity study found all positive

associations between more physical activity at recess and positive classroom behaviors

(Rasberry, 2011).

A 2007 study by Davis evaluated the effect of a 10-15 week aerobic exercise intervention

on executive function. This study involved a sample of overweight 7-11 year olds, and randomly

assigned the children to one of three groups: a control group, 20-minute exercise group, or 40-

minute exercise group (Tomporowski, 2008). The two latter groups participated in aerobic

exercises designed to get heart rate up above 150 bpm. These two groups would participate in

this program 5 days per week after school. The study utilized a Cognitive Assessment System

(CAS) to evaluate 4 measures of executive function: Planning (involving cognitive control,

intentionality, and self-regulation), Attention (focused, selective cognitive activity),

Simultaneous (spatial and logical processing), and Successive (processing sequential

information) (Tomporowski, 2008). In this study, no differences at all were found in the CAS

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scales between the 20-minute exercise group and the control group. However, a significant

improvement was found on the Planning measure of executive control (Effect Size= .30) for the

40-minute group in comparison to the control group. The results from this study suggest that a

certain duration of physical activity may be required in order to recognize mental health benefits.

Another study found similar results for specific groups and populations, and may

corroborate the evidence supporting the idea that duration of physical activity will improve

academics. A longitudinal study focused on time spent in Physical Education and standardized

test scores utilized a sample of 5,316 Kindergarten students in hundreds of schools across

various counties (Carlson, 2008). The study utilized a standardized test administered across five

time points, and teacher-reported time spent in Physical Education class, to examine a

relationship between PE and academic achievement through a prospective cohort design.

Teacher-reported time spent in PE was divided into three groups: low (10-35 minutes per week),

medium (36-69 min/week), and high (70-300 min/week). Teachers most commonly reported that

students had PE 1-2 times per week, for 16-30 min for kindergarten through first grade, and 31-

60 min for third through fifth grade (Carlson, 2008). Girls in the low PE group had the lowest

Item Response Theory (IRT) scale scores for math and reading, and the kindergarten and first

grade girls specifically had significantly lower scores. Fifth grade girls in the top two PE groups

had significantly higher reading scores. There were no significant differences found between any

of the groups of boys, which may be because males tend to be more physically active and

involved in sports on their own, regardless of the time they spend in PE class. This study may not

have found more significant results across the board for the different PE groups because time in

PE was self-reported by teachers (which is not the most accurate way of gathering data) and

because there was no indication of actual time spent being active in PE. Just because the students

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spend half an hour in PE class does not mean they spent half an hour in moderate to vigorous

physical activity, as noted earlier. This leads us another important factor for effectiveness of

physical activity intervention for noticeable academic improvements: intensity.

The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans states that, “youth can achieve

substantial health benefits by doing moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity for

periods of time that add up to 60 minutes or more each day” (emphasis added) (US Department

of Health and Human Services, 2008). In addition to improving physical wellbeing, participating

in moderate to vigorous physical activity is more likely to produce brain-enhancing effects than

low-intensity exercise. A study performed this year by Amadeu Martins found that moderate-

intensity exercise facilitates working memory (Martins, 2013). Not only did the exercise improve

performance on an auditory serial addition task, but also decreased reaction time in a Sternberg

recognition task. Another study examined the associations between physical activity levels and

academic achievement among 9th grade students in Sweden. Physical activity was measured

through the use of accelerometers, and data was divided into light, moderate, and intense

physical activity levels. Software was used to analyze the relationship between physical activity

and academic achievement. Similar to another study, this one only found significant relationships

among females; however, physical activity was only significantly related to physical activity in

girls when it was vigorous (Kwak, 2009).

In summary, the studies examined most frequently found the greatest positive relations to

academic achievement for aerobic fitness, for longer durations of time, and higher intensity of

effort put into the physical activity. At this time, even with great strides in scientific research and

technological advancements, the human brain remains a great enigma. None of the research

examined explains exactly how or why aerobic fitness exercises are more beneficial to the brain

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than other types of exercises, though there are several potential hypotheses. First of all, aerobic

exercise raises heart rate, which increases blood flow to the brain. The brain craves blood flow,

and a certain percentage of blood flow is always directed to the brain whether at rest or during

exercise. However, because exercise increases total cardiac output, this means that the brain will

receive a higher total amount of blood during exercise (Powers, 2012, p. 225). This means more

oxygen to the brain, which allows for cognition. When the brain is starved for oxygen, it does not

function properly (when cut off long enough from oxygen it will die). Therefore, it makes sense

that greater amounts of oxygen could improve brain function. Other types of exercise that focus

on other components of health-related fitness, such as flexibility and muscular strength, focus on

improving muscle health and function, but do not require an elevation in heart rate. Therefore, if

increased blood-flow leading to increased oxygen levels did improve brain function, stretching

exercises and weight-lifting would have no impact on this outcome. Another reason aerobic

exercise could improve academic achievement is because it is hard for people (especially

children) to sit still for extended periods of time. They will get restless and fidgety, which will

cause their mind to wander. The body craves physical activity because it is good for your health,

and the human body is designed to move. Children who are forced to sit perfectly still in a

classroom for extended periods of time will look forward to an opportunity to get up, move, and

play.

The fact that increases in duration and intensity of physical activity are more positively

related to improved academic performance is also logical. Just as longer time spent exercising

will bring about greater health benefits, so should it bring about greater academic benefits if the

association already exists. If the higher oxygen levels are in fact one of the reasons why aerobic

fitness activities improve cognition, then it follows that the more the oxygen levels rise (as

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higher-intensity exercise would cause) and the longer the oxygen levels are elevated for

(duration of exercise), the greater the mental benefits.

Physical Activity Effects Specific Aspects of Academic Performance

Physical activity has shown to improve a wide range of academic factors, from improved

classroom behavior to enhanced executive control. From the different studies related to physical

activity and academic achievement, a score of academic measures were examined, including

behavior, focus and attention, memory, cognition, brain function, executive control, intelligence,

and general academic achievement. Each of these factors will be reviewed for how much studies

suggest it to be affected by physical activity.

The first measure of academic achievement that we will examine is one of the most basic.

It is very-science based, and probably involves the least amount of variables. This factor is brain

function. First of all, exercise increases the production of neurotrophins, which are a family of

proteins responsible for keeping neurons alive (Tomporowski, 2008). Neurotrophins regulate the

survival, growth, and differentiation of neurons during development. Though neuron growth and

differentiation continues throughout life, this process is extremely important for school-aged

children, who are growing at a rapid pace and forming countless new neurons and nervous

system pathways as they age and develop. In addition to the production of neurotrophins,

exercise also stimulates synaptogenesis, a crucial factor in the formation of nervous system

pathways (Tomporowski, 2008). Synaptogenesis is the formation of a synapse, which is the

communication point between two neurons. Without the synapse, there would be no

communication through the nervous system, because the neuronal signal would stop at the very

first neuron.

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Neurons are one of the most important building blocks of brain function, because they

form the basis of all communication and connections between different parts of the brain, as well

as linking brain function to the rest of the body. Neurons are responsible for transporting

information through the brain as well as forming memories. Without neurons, learning would be

impossible. Therefore, if exercising increases the amount of proteins responsible for keeping

neurons alive and healthy, it is certainly logical to assume that exercise would promote brain

health and function.

Soshanna Vayanman, who works in the Department of Neurosurgery and Physiological

Science and Brain Injury Research Center at UCLA, suggests evolutionary origins as an

explanation for why exercise and physical health may have an impact on cognitive function.

Throughout evolution, humans have been active and dependent upon physical abilities to

survive. Therefore, she posits, it makes sense that mental growth and cognition would grow

simultaneously and interdependently with physical activity and metabolism (Vayanman, 2006).

She draws upon the current state of our health, and the fact that only recently in evolutionary

history has technology allowed for sedentary lifestyles to develop, and only recently has there

been an explosion in metabolic disorders caused by poor health. Vayanman’s argument that

physical activity improves cognition is based on her defense of energy metabolism being a

crucial part of brain development. Exercise raises hippocampal levels of Brain Derived

Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family mentioned above as being

vital to neuronal survival, growth, and differentiation. Not only is this important for all the

related reasons of neuron health mentioned above, but the Hippocampus is a region of the brain

directly involved in in learning and memory (Vayanman, 2006). BDNF also plays an important

role in synaptic activity and cognitive plasticity later in life. Animal studies have revealed

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important new information about BDNF. Low levels of the protein prevent Long-Term

Potentiation (simultaneous firing of two neurons that improves their communication for an

extended period of time), making it difficult to perform spatial memory tasks (Vayanman, 2006).

Mutations in the BDNF gene have also been linked to learning disabilities.

BDNF is not only important for brain function, however; it is crucial in the maintenance

and regulation of metabolism as well. This is evidenced by the fact that dysfunction of energy

metabolism, as seen in obese, hyperglycemic, and diabetic individuals, is associated with low

levels of BDNF (Vayanman, 2006). The protein has been found to regulate eating behavior and

energy balance. The fact that a specific protein has so many direct effects on both metabolism

and brain function should hint at the close relationship between physical activity and cognitive

health.

Another link in the chain of the exercise-brain health connection is insulin. Insulin

function (which is influenced by diet and physical activity) not only influences food intake and

therefore physical health, but plays a role in autonomic function (Vayanman, 2006). The

principal site where insulin binds to its receptor is the Hypothalamus, one of them main centers

for autonomic control. Even more interesting is the fact that insulin receptors are highly

concentrated in areas of learning and memory (Vayanman, 2006). Insulin resistance has even

been implicated in a heightened risk of Alzheimer’s and general cognitive dysfunction

(Vayanman, 2006). Both Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Insulin are evidences of a close

link between exercise and cognition.

Another academic achievement factor examined in many studies in its relation to physical

activity was executive control. Briefly mentioned earlier, executive function is mental processing

“involved in planning and selecting strategies that organize goal-directed actions”

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(Tomporowski, 2008). Executive function includes the sub-processes of scheduling, response

inhibition, planning, and working memory. Characteristics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder (ADHD) and Autism such as lack of behavioral control, attention, and judgment are

expressions of poor executive function (Tomporowski, 2008). Colcombe and Kramer analyzed

the effect of aerobic exercise on four types of mental processing: executive function, controlled

processing, visuospatial processing, and speeded processing (Tomporowski, 2008). Overall,

there was a fairly strong relationship between physical activity and mental processing in general

(Effect Size= .47) By far, the greatest effect was on executive function (ES=.68), followed by

controlled processing

(ES= .46) (Tomporowski,

2008). See Figure 2, to the

right. Neuroimaging research

has also revealed

improvements in executive

function related to physical

activity. The Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) in the limbic system connects to various parts of

the brain involved in sensory, motor, emotional, and cognitive information. According to

Hillman, “research indicates that physical activity exerts a substantial influence on the ACC and

the concomitant executive processes that it mediates” (Hillman, 2008, p. 62). Neuroimages (see

Figure 3 to left) of aerobically trained and untrained individuals revealed a lowered activation in

the ACC of the fit individuals, associated with less behavioral conflict during a task involving

executive control (Hillman, 2008). The trained individuals also had higher activation than the

untrained individuals of the dorsal prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain, which help with

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inhibitory functioning (the ability to

ignore task-irrelevant stimuli). In an

intervention study (mentioned earlier)

with a sample of overweight 7-11 year

olds, the children in the 40-min exercise

group scored significantly higher than

those in the control group on the Planning

scale of the CAS, one measure of

executive function. Lastly, a study by

Charles Hillman revealed that aerobically

fit children had better interference control, another subcategory of executive control. Forty-eight

preadolescent children were placed into a high- or low- fit group based on their performance on a

PACER test, and then did a flanker task. The higher-fit children had greater accuracy compared

to the low-fit group. (Hillman, 2009, “Aerobic Fitness and Cognitive Development”). In a

similar study by Hillman, children were given a flanker task before and after an acute bout of

walking on a treadmill. The children were more accurate on the flanker task after walking on the

treadmill for incongruent trials (where not all letters are the same) (Hillman, 2009, “Acute

Treadmill Walking”). Incongruent trials require the subject to be able to distinguish between

target and flanker letters, and ignore the flankers (irrelevant stimuli). The fact that the students

improved accuracy on incongruent trials after walking suggests that the exercise enhanced their

inhibitory control, a measure of executive control.

Another measure of potential for academic achievement is Intelligence. This measure,

however, was not commonly used in many studies. One measure of intelligence was used in a 6-

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week intervention study. Students were assigned to either an isometric exercise program or an

“activity control program”. The exercise group did various calisthenics and sprints, while the

control group recorded the times of the other group. Before and after the exercise intervention

students took a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Compared to the control group, the

exercise group had improved IQ scores after the intervention (Tomporowski, 2008).

Another area that was analyzed in consideration to how it is impacted by physical activity

is academic achievement. Though this was the general term used in the title of this paper to refer

to any factor that would improve a child’s performance in school, in this section academic

achievement will be in reference to more specific measures of classroom achievement. Though

this whole paper refers to how physical activity affects academic achievement, as evidenced by

many different measures (such as brain function and cognition, executive control, memory,

focus, and attention) this section will specifically be referencing measures of achievement that

would be used in a classroom setting, such as standardized testing scores, non-standardized

testing, and teacher-assigned grades.

In an intervention study called Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC), 90

minutes per week of physical activity was worked into a regular classroom setting. The goal of

designers of the study was to implement a, “low-cost, minimal intervention model” that

increased physical activity in the classroom Donnelly, 2009, p. 337). The schools in this study

provided on average 60 minutes of Physical Education per week, so the goal of PAAC was to

spend 90 minutes per week being active in the classroom in order to reach the nationally

recommended goal of 150 minutes per week of physical activity in schools. The PAAC was

implemented for three years. Teachers were instructed on how to deliver physically active

academic lessons. The teachers gave feedback that the physically active lessons were practical,

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and many said that they would continue to do it after the study concluded (Donnelly, 2009). The

primary goal of the study was actually to lower BMI, but a secondary outcome of the study

revealed promising results in relation to the topic of this paper. Reading, math, spelling, and

composite scores significantly improved for children in the PAAC study, while scores actually

were slightly lower for the control group (see Figure 4 below).

In another very similar study to the one above that integrated physical activity into the

classroom setting, students in the intervention scored significantly higher on the math portion of

the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test compared to the control group (Kibbe, 2011).

Though all ethnic groups improved significantly on this portion, Hispanic children in particular

showed the greatest difference (20 points higher for the physical activity group) (Kibbe, 2011).

The study mentioned earlier where improvement was shown for executive control after walking

on a treadmill also showed improvement on a reading comprehension task (Hillman, 2009,

“Acute Treadmill Walking”).

Figure 4

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In a study on the relation between fitness level and academic achievement in 3rd and 5th

grade students, Castelli found that students at high fitness level (measured by the PACER) had

higher math, reading, and total achievement scores than students at low fitness level (Castelli,

2007). For this information, see Table 1 below.

In addition to these findings, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in

their Youth Risk Behavior Survey the relationship between academics and various health risk

factors. Among many other unhealthy behaviors, physical activity was related to academic

grades. Though the majority of students admitted to not getting the recommended 60 minutes of

physical activity daily, students who earn mostly A’s in school were physically inactive on fewer

days than those who earned D’s and F’s. This information is displayed in Figure 5 below.

Table 1

Figure 5

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The last measure of academic performance that evaluated in studies of the relationship

between physical activity and academic achievement was classroom behavior. This was one

variable that seemed to have a very strong link to academic achievement, as evidenced by many

studies. For example, on study found that children who are healthy and physically active are less

likely to be absent. According to The Whole Child, absenteeism has found to be related to health

risk factors such as asthma, poor diet, lack of sleep, and being overweight (The Whole Child,

2012). This organization states that, “health-related absenteeism can be reversed by increasing

access to services and increasing physical activity” (2012, p. 4).

One academic journal analyzed many different studies which examined a relationship

between physical activity and classroom behavior. This journal cited a handful of studies that

found evidence of physical activity breaks in the classroom improving student behavior, such as

higher time-on-task, decreased fidgeting, and improved concentration (Donnelly, 2011). Another

study, called “Ten Years of TAKE 10”, was based on an intervention program that implemented

physical activity in an elementary school classroom setting. This study utilized a “systematic

observation instrument developed and field tested, with observers for inter-observer reliability”

to inspect an actual experimental classroom taking part in Take 10 as objectively as possible

(Kibbe, 2011). This system utilized time recording at four different levels- content, leader,

structure, and engagement. Content was categorized as either managerial or academic. The

leader was either the teacher or the student. Structure refers to how the students were grouped for

instruction (class, group, or individual). Finally, engagement explains how each child was

participating at any given moment (listening, working, waiting, transitioning, off-task, stretching,

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checking heart rate, low exercise, and moderate exercise). The results of these systematic

objective observations of Take 10 schools found that students spent 20% less time off-task after

their physical activity breaks than before (Kibbe, 2011). A study that analyzed the effects of

recess found that students who had recess were less fidgety, less listless, more focused, and more

on-task than their peer who did not have recess (Rasberry, 2011).

In summary, a wide range of scholarly studies found a link between physical activity and

various indicators of academic achievement. These factors ranged from cognition and brain

function to classroom behavior. Many of these factors were very scientific and research-based,

while others were more practical and observation-based. However you look at these different

measures of academic achievement and their relative importance, it is clear that physical activity

can have many positive beneficial effects on academic achievement.

Conclusion

To summarize the most important themes from this research paper, it was found that

aerobic exercise is the most effective means of bringing about academic improvements, and this

type of physical activity saw greater results with increased frequency, longer duration, and

higher intensity. A range of academic performance indicators were analyzed, and concrete

evidence supports the idea that cognition, executive function, intelligence, academic

achievement, and behavior can be improved through participation in physical activity.

Based on this information, the national recommendations for 150 minutes per week of

Physical Education for elementary school children, and 225 minutes per week of Physical

Education in secondary schools should be upheld. Any additional physical activity in the

classroom, or through extracurricular activities would also be beneficial. In opposition to the

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current trend of administrators inclined toward reducing time in Physical Education, evidence

suggests that more time should be devoted to it. It is possible for students to have Physical

Education every day if time is devoted to developing a schedule. This would certainly help

recognize improvements in health of the students, and based on the research of this paper would

hopefully help improve academic performance as well. Part of the success of improving these

two factors would depend upon the Physical Education program. If the physical Education

program is led by a highly-trained individual who is devoted to getting children as active as

possible and improving fitness, then it is likely that personal health and academic achievement

would improve.

These findings have great implications for schools. Classroom teachers should try to

implement physical activity in their lessons if they want to see improvements in classroom

behavior, and potentially improve test scores. Physical Education teachers should try to keep

students as active as possible from the beginning to end of their class, and include as much

moderate- to vigorous aerobic activity as possible. Administrators need to seriously reconsider

the amount of time devoted to Physical Education. If administrators and classroom teachers saw

that physical activity not only helped improve health but academic performance, they should be

more inclined to accommodate Physical Education and not allow it to be devalued. The positive

relationship between physical activity and academic achievement may be a crucial part of

simultaneously improving national health and raising America’s academic standard to

international prowess.

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