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7/28/2019 FINAL Mergers and Acquisitions (Law)[1]
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
INDEX
SR. No. Topic Page No.
1. Introduction to Corporate Restructuring and Mergers and Acquisition
2. Legal Aspects of Mergers & Acquisition
3. Section 391-396 as per Companies Act 1956
4. Competition Act, 2002
5. SEBI Takeover Code
6. Stock Exchange Bye-laws
7 Accounting Policies
8. Cross Border Acquisition(CBA) with reference to RBI and FEMA
9. Case Study on Addidas – Reebok Merger
10. Case Study on L&T Cement and L&T Demerger
11. Case Study on Mahindra and Mahindra‟s acquisition of Ssangyong
13. Conclusion
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
INTRODUCTION
CORPORATE RESTRUCTURING
Corporate restructuring is a term used to denote a company's reorganisation at the top corporate
level. This can also include legal status, ownership, operational, and financial restructuring to
improve profitability and provide better organisation for the present and/or prepared for market
changes. Any of the following change would qualify as corporate restructuring:
1) By inorganic route
2) Change in capital structure not in ordinary course of business
3) Change in ownership or control over management
Corporate restructuring has come to mean reorganisation prompted by a period of unsatisfactory
performance and declining profits caused by poor management, sudden market changes, or most
recently world financial crisis. Debtors or equity holders (partners/shareholders) may force it. If
it is under debt pressure restructuring usually then includes restructuring of debt as well as
corporate reorganization.
Corporate restructuring is usually a long, drawn out process with probably the majority of the
time involved with planning rather than actually implementing the restructuring decisions. Most
importantly, restructuring a company is an often-difficult operation requiring a no nonsense
approach and a willingness to face financial realities and prioritize difficult decisions.
Corporate restructuring is the process of redesigning one or more aspects of a company. The
process of reorganizing a company may be implemented due to a number of different factors,
such as positioning the company to be more competitive, survive a currently adverse economic
climate, or poise the corporation to move in an entirely new direction.
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
MERGER
The combining of two or more companies, generally by offering the stockholders of one
company securities in the acquiring company in exchange for the surrender of their stock.
Basically, it is referred when two companies become one. This decision is usually mutual
between both firms. The entire merger process is usually kept secret from the general public, and
often from the majority of the employees at the involved companies. Since the majority of
merger attempts do not succeed, and most are kept secret, it is difficult to estimate how many
potential mergers occur in a given year. It is likely that the number is very high, however, given
the amount of successful mergers and the desirability of mergers for many companies.
Examples:
1) Tata Chemicals bought British Salt; a UK based white salt producing company for about
US $ 13 billion. The acquisition gives Tata access to very strong brine supplies and also
access to British Salt‟s facilities as it produces about 800,000 tons of pure white salt
every year.
2) Ranbaxy's sale to Japan's Daiichi for $4.5 billion. Sing brothers sold the company to
Daiichi and since then there is no real good news coming out of Ranbaxy...
Mergers may be of several types, depending on the requirements of the merging entities:
Horizontal Mergers: Also referred to as a „horizontal integration‟, this kind of merger takes
place between entities engaged in competing businesses which are at the same stage of the
industrial process. A horizontal merger takes a company a step closer towards monopoly by
eliminating a competitor and establishing stronger presence in the market. The other benefits of
this form of merger are the advantages of economies of scale and economies of scope.
Example:
Recent cases of horizontal mergers in the international market are those of the European airlines.
The Lufthansa-Swiss International link up and the Air France-KLM merger are cases of horizontal mergers. Horizontal mergers have been the most important and prevalent form of
merger in India. Various studies like those of Been, 1998 and Das, 2000 have revealed that post
1991 or post liberalisation more than 60% of mergers have been of the horizontal type. Recently
there have been many big mergers of this type in India like Birla – L&T merger in the cement
sector. The aviation sector has also space witnessed quite a few such mergers like the Kingfisher
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
airline – Air Deccan merger and the Jet Airways – Air Sahara merger. The Tata Cellular – Birla
AT&T Communications merger was one big horizontal merger in the telecommunication.
Unitech Group, an Indian real estate company &Telenor Group, a telecommunications company.
Telenor owns a controlling majority stake in the company (67.25%), which has been
branded Uninor in the Indian market.
Vertical Mergers: Vertical mergers refer to the combination of two entities at different stages of
the industrial or production process. For example, the merger of a company engaged in the
construction business with a company engaged in production of brick or steel would lead to
vertical integration. Companies stand to gain on account of lower transaction costs and
synchronization of demand and supply. Moreover, vertical integration helps a company move
towards greater independence and self-sufficiency. The downside of a vertical merger involves
large investments in technology in order to compete effectively.
Examples:
Purchase of automobile dealers by manufacturers like Ford and Vauxhall are examples of
vertical mergers. Ford‟s acquisition of Hertz is an example of a vertical merger (Geddes,
2006).
The acquisition of
Tata Motors acquiring Italian design house Trilix Srl
Congeneric Mergers: These are mergers between entities engaged in the same general industry
and somewhat interrelated, but having no common customer-supplier relationship. A company
uses this type of merger in order to use the resulting ability to use the same sales and distribution
channels to reach the customers of both businesses.
Examples:
Novartis AG merged with Alcon Inc., a leader in Eye care and vision
Prudential's acquisition of Bache & Company.
RPower and RNRL
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Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
Conglomerate Mergers: A conglomerate merger is a merger between two entities in unrelated
industries. The principal reason for a conglomerate merger is utilization of financial resources,
enlargement of debt capacity, and increase in the value of outstanding shares by increased
leverage and earnings per share, and by lowering the average cost of capital. A merger with a
diverse business also helps the company to foray into varied businesses without having to incur
large start-up costs normally associated with a new business.
Examples:
In 2005 Procter & Gamble, a consumer goods company, engaged in a merger with Gillette,
which was involved in men personal care market
Cash Merger: In a typical merger, the merged entity combines the assets of the two companies
and grants the shareholders of each original company shares in the new company based on the
relative valuations of the two original companies. However, in the case of a „cash merger‟, also
known as a „cash-out merger‟, the shareholders of one entity receives cash in place of shares in
the merged entity. This is a common practice in cases where the shareholders of one of the
merging entities do not want to be a part of the merged entity.
Examples:
Triangular Merger: A triangular merger is often resorted to for regulatory and tax reasons. As
the name suggests, it is a tripartite arrangement in which the target merges with a subsidiary of the acquirer. Based on which entity is the survivor after such merger, a triangular merger may be
forward (when the target merges into the subsidiary and the subsidiary survives), or reverse
(when the subsidiary merges into the target and the target survives).
Examples:
A merger where an independent company combines with the subsidiary of another
country. For example, a forward triangular merger may occur when Company A merges
with Subsidiary B of Company C. In this forward triangular merger, Company A
becomes a subsidiary of Company C.
Reverse merger: A reverse merger - also called a reverse acquisition or reverse takeover which
allows a private company to go public while avoiding the high costs and lengthy regulations
associated with an initial public offering. To do this, a private company purchases or merges
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Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
with an existing public company, and installs its own management and takes all the necessary
measures to maintain the public listing.
Examples:
Portable digital device-maker Handheld Entertainment did this when it purchased Vika
Corp in 2006, creating the company known as ZVUE.
In 2002 ICICI merged with ICICI bank
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
ACQUISITION
A corporate action in which a company buys most, if not all, of the target company's ownership
stakes in order to assume control of the target firm. Acquisitions are often made as part of a
company's growth strategy whereby it is more beneficial to take over an existing firm's
operations and niche compared to expanding on its own. Acquisitions are often paid in cash, the
acquiring company's stock or a combination of both.
Acquisitions can be either friendly or hostile. Friendly acquisitions occur when the target firm
expresses its agreement to be acquired, whereas hostile acquisitions don't have the same
agreement from the target firm and the acquiring firm needs to actively purchase large stakes of
the target company in order to have a majority stake.
In either case, the acquiring company often offers a premium on the market price of the target
company's shares in order to entice shareholders to sell. For example, News Corp.'s bid to
acquire Dow Jones was equal to a 65% premium over the stock's market price.
.
Mergers vs. Acquisitions
These terms are commonly used interchangeably but in reality, they have slightly differentmeanings. An acquisition refers to the act of one company taking over another company and
clearly becoming the new owner. From a legal point of view, the target company, the company
that is bought, no longer exists. A merger is a joining of two companies that are usually of about
the same size and agree to meld into one large company. In the case of a merger, both company‟s
stocks cease to be traded as the new company chooses a new name and a new stock is issued in
place of the two separate company‟s stock. This view of a merger is unrealistic by real world
standards as it is often the case that one company is actually bought by another while the terms
of the deal that is struck between the two allows for the company that is bought to publicize that
a merger has occurred while the company that is doing the buying backs up this claim. This is
done in order to allow the company that is bought to save face and avoid the negative
connotations that go along with selling out.
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Prof. Ambdekar
Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
TAKEOVER
A corporate action where an acquiring company makes a bid for an acquire is termed as
takeover. If the target company is publicly traded, the acquiring company will make an offer for
the outstanding shares. A welcome takeover is usually referring to a favourable and friendly
takeover. Friendly takeovers generally go smoothly because both companies consider it a
positive situation. In contrast, an unwelcome or hostile takeover can get very horrible.
Takeover is a strategy of acquiring control over the management of another company – either
directly by acquiring shares carrying voting rights or by participating in the management. Where
the shares of the company are closely held by a small number of persons a takeover may be
affected by agreement within the shareholders. However, where the shares of a company are
widely held by the general public, relevant regulatory aspects, including provisions of SEBI
(Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations 1997 need to be borne in minds.
Takeovers may be broadly classified as follows:
Friendly takeover: It is a takeover effected with the consent of the taken over company.
In this case there is an agreement between the managements of the two companies
through negotiations and the takeover bid may be with the consent of majority
shareholders of the target company. It is also known as negotiated takeover.
Examples:
On 3 February 2000, UK-based mobile phone group Vodafone Air Touch
acquired the German telecommunications and engineering group Mannesmann
AG.
Hostile takeover: When an acquirer company does not offer the target company the
proposal to acquire its undertaking but silently and unilaterally pursues efforts to gain
control against the wishes of the existing management, such acts are considered hostile
on the management and thus called hostile takeovers.
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Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
Example:
The Arcelor Mittal deal is an example of hostile takeover, where the LN Mittal
group acquired management control of Arcelor against the wishes of the Arcelor
management.
Bail out takeover: Takeover of a financially weak or a sick company by a profit earning
company to bail out the former is known as bail out takeover. Such takeovers normally
take place in pursuance to a scheme of rehabilitation approved by the financial institution
or the scheduled bank, who have lent money to the sick company. In bail out takeovers,
the financial institution appraises the financially weak company, which is a sick industrial
company, taking into account its financial viability, the requirement of funds for revival
and draws up a rehabilitation package on the principle of protection of interests of
minority shareholders, good management, effective revival and transparency. The
rehabilitation scheme should provide the details of any change in the management and
may provide for the acquisition of shares in the financially weak company as follows:
An outright purchase of shares or
An exchange of shares or
A combination of both
Examples:
Tech Mahindra takeover of Satyam
As part of business strategy, management need to decide whether the firm should grow naturally
(commonly called organic growth) or in the form of going outwards to acquire or merge with
other businesses. This is called inorganic growth which normally takes the form of Mergers and
Acquisitions (M&A) exercise.
With increasing globalization and dispersion of technology, product life-cycles are shortening
and competition is becoming intense, where there is little room for organizations to meet their
growth aspirations through internal development or organic growth. In order to achieve speedy
growth with limited market access, technology, finance and time, corporate worldwide have
preferred to grow inorganically through the route of mergers and acquisitions (M&A).
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LEGAL ASPECTS OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITION
Merger/Demerger is a court approved process which requires compliance of provisions under
sections 391-394 of the Companies Act, 1956. Accordingly, a merger/demerger scheme is
presented to the courts in which, the registered office of the transferor and transferee companies
are situated for their approval. However in the case of listed companies such scheme before
filing with the State High Court, need to the submitted to Stock Exchange where its shares are
listed.
The Courts then require the transferor and transferee companies to comply with the provisions of
the Companies Act relating to calling for shareholders and creditors meeting for passing a
resolution of merger/ demerger and the resultant issue of shares by the transferee company. The
Courts accord their approval to the scheme provided the scheme is not prejudicial to public
interest and the interests of the creditors and stakeholders are not jeopardized.
Regulation of Mergers & Acquisition
Mergers and acquisitions are regulated under various laws in India. The objective of the laws is
to make these deals transparent and protect the interest of all shareholders. They are regulated
through the provisions of:-
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The Companies Act, 1956
The Act lays down the legal procedures for mergers or acquisitions:-
Permission for merger: - Two or more companies can amalgamate only when theamalgamation is permitted under their memorandum of association. Also, the acquiring company
should have the permission in its object clause to carry on the business of the acquired company.
In the absence of these provisions in the memorandum of association, it is necessary to seek the
permission of the shareholders, board of directors and the Company Law Board before affecting
the merger.
Information to the stock exchange: - The acquiring and the acquired companies should inform
the stock exchanges (where they are listed) about the merger. The SEBI does not have any
powers to approve or disapprove an amalgamation or a demerger. This power rests only with the
High Court.
Approval of board of directors: - The board of directors of the individual companies should
approve the draft proposal for amalgamation and authorise the managements of the companies to
further pursue the proposal.
Application in the High Court (Section 391):- An application for approving the draft
amalgamation proposal duly approved by the board of directors of the individual companies
should be made to the High Court.
Shareholders' and creditors' meetings (Section 391(1)):- Upon receipt of the application for
amalgamation or demerger, the High Court may direct both the companies to hold meetings of its
creditors and members in a prescribed manner. However, holding of creditors‟ meetings can be
dispensed with by making a suitable application to the High Court. The High Court will take a
decision on this depending upon:
Reputation of the company,
Reputation of their management or promoters and their financial position,
Track record of defaults in the past,
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Pending litigations for dues payable or otherwise
If not dispensed with the High Court, the individual companies should hold separate meetings of
their shareholders and creditors for approving the amalgamation scheme. At least 75 percent of
shareholders and creditors in separate meeting, voting in person or by proxy, must accord
their approval to the scheme (Section 391(2)).
Explanation: A shareholders‟ meeting – 500 shareholders are present and voting. One of the
shareholders is holding 45,010 shares other 499 are holding 10 shares each totalling to 4990
shares. Thus, the shareholders present and voting are 500 in number and 50,000 in value. This
means that at least 251 members representing 37,500 shares have to approve the resolution. In
other words, even if all the 499 shareholders vote in favour of the resolution but the single
shareholder holding 45,010 shares votes against, the resolution cannot be passed for the want of
requisite majority in value. Other way round, even if the single shareholder having 90% majority
votes in favour but the entire rest vote against, the resolution cannot be passed for want of
requisite majority in number. The resolution can be passed only if this largest shareholder and
250 other shareholders vote in favour.
Disclosure to the creditors and members (Section 393):-
With every notice calling the meeting, a statement needs to be sent setting forth
the details of the arrangement and explaining its effects and in particular stating
any material interests of the directors.
In case the notice is given by way of an advertisement, the advertisement has to
either include the above mentioned statement or include the name and address of
the place where such statement will be available to the creditors or members as
the case may be.
Where default is made in complying with any of the requirements of this section,
the company and every officer of the company who is in default, shall be
punishable with fine which may extend to Rs. 50,000 and for the purpose of this
sub-section any liquidator of the company and any trustee of a deed for securing
the issue of debentures of the company shall be deemed to be an officer of the
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company. Provided that a person shall not be punishable under this sub-section, if
he shows that the default was due to the refusal of any other person, being a
director, managing director, manager or trustee for debenture holders, to supply
the necessary particulars as to his material interests.
Any director, managing director, manager or trustee of debenture holders shall
give notice to the company of matters relating to himself which the company has
to disclose in the statement, if he unable to do so, he is punishable with fine up to
Rs.5,000.
Sanction by the High Court:- After the approval of the shareholders and creditors, on the
petitions of the companies, the High Court will pass an order, sanctioning the amalgamation
scheme after it is satisfied that the scheme is fair and reasonable and all the material facts have been disclosed. The date of the court's hearing will be published in two newspapers, and also, the
regional director of the Company Law Board will be intimated.
Filing of the Court order: - After the Court order, its certified true copies will be filed with the
Registrar of Companies.
Transfer of assets and liabilities: - The assets and liabilities of the acquired company will be
transferred to the acquiring company in accordance with the approved scheme, with effect fromthe specified date.
Payment by cash or securities: - As per the proposal, the acquiring company will exchange
shares and debentures and/or cash for the shares and debentures of the acquired company. These
securities will be listed on the stock exchange.
Cross Border amalgamations and demergers:
One cannot amalgamate or demerge an Indian company into a foreign company but can do vice
versa (provided the law of that country where the transferor company is registered does not
prohibit the same).
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Other important provisions:
1. Section 392 empowers the Court to wind up a company if it is satisfied that the
arrangement sanctioned by it under section 391 is not likely to work.
2. Section 396 talks about the powers of the Central Government to suo moto amalgamate
the companies.
3. Section 396A stipulates that the books and papers of the amalgamating companies shall
not be destroyed or disposed off without prior approval of the Central Government.
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THE COMPETITION ACT, 2002
The Act regulates the various forms of business combinations through Competition
Commission of India. Under the Act, no person or enterprise shall enter into a combination, in
the form of an acquisition, merger or amalgamation, which causes or is likely to cause an
appreciable adverse effect on competition in the relevant market and such a combination shall be
void. All combinations do not call for scrutiny unless the resulting combination exceeds the
threshold limits in terms of assets or turnover as specified by the Competition Commission of
India. The Commission while regulating a 'combination' shall consider the following factors:-
Actual and potential competition through imports;
Degree of countervailing power in the market;
Possibility of the combination to significantly and substantially increase prices or
profits;
Extent of effective competition likely to sustain in a market;
Availability of substitutes before and after the combination;
Section 5 of the Competition Act, 2002 deals with “Combinations” which defines combination
by reference to assets and turnover
(a) exclusively in India and(b) in India and outside India.
For example, an Indian company with turnover of Rs. 3000 crores cannot acquire another Indian
company without prior notification and approval of the Competition Commission. On the other
hand, a foreign company with turnover outside India of more than USD 1.5 billion (or in excess
of Rs. 4500 crores) may acquire a company in India with sales just short of Rs. 1500 crores
without any notification to (or approval of) the Competition Commission being required.
Section 6 of the Competition Act, 2002 states that, no person or enterprise shall enter into a
combination which causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition
within the relevant market in India and such a combination shall be void. Thus, the Competition
Act does not seek to eliminate combinations and only aims to eliminate their harmful effects.
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SEBI TAKEOVER CODE
In order to promote fairness in the capital market and to protect the Interest of small investors,
SEBI has framed regulation, providing for Acquisition of shares and takeover of listed
companies commonly known as “Takeover code".
Takeover of companies is a very popular and well-established strategy for corporate growth. A
takeover Bid implies that an acquirer acquires substantial quantity of shares carrying voting
rights in excess of the limits specified in the SEBI (Substantial acquisition of Shares) Regulation,
1997 in a target listed company either in a direct or indirect manner with a view to gain control
over the management of such a company. Any Individual including the person acting in concert
or company or other legal entity acquiring the shares or voting power or control over a target
company is known as "acquirer" 'person acting in concert' Means Individual or companies or other legal entities acting together for a common purpose of substantial acquisition of shares or
voting rights or gaining control over a target company in pursuance of understanding or
agreement.
Target Company is a listed company whose shares or voting rights are acquired/ being acquired
by an acquirer or whose control is taken over or being taken over by an acquirer.
Based on the limits, the acquirer has to comply with disclosure requirements. He may acquire
shares from the public after making public announcements.
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Making open offer by "Public announcement"
1. Acquisition of 15% or more of shares or voting right:
Acquisition of shares to get her with existing holding would entitle acquires to exercise 15% or
more of voting rights in a target company. He can acquire share after making "Public
announcement".
2. Acquisition by person already holding >15% but 55%:-
Acquisition of shares or voting rights of 5% or more by the person (acquirer/ person acting
concert) Holding more than 15% but less than 55%) of shares or voting rights in a target
company can do after making "Public announcement" This type of acquisition is called creeping
acquisition.
3. Acquisition by person already holding >55% but 75%:-
Acquisition of shares or voting rights of by the person (acquirer/ person acting concert) Holding
more than 15% but less than 55% but less than 75%o of shares or voting rights in a target
company can do after making "Public announcement" This type of acquisition is called as
consolidation of holding.
4. Acquisition of Control:-
Acquisition of control over a target company with acquisition of shares or voting Rights control
may be of right to appoint directly or indirectly majority of directors on the board of Target
Company or to control the management or policy decision. By a person or person acting
Individually or person acting in concern by virtue of their share holding or management rights or
share holder agreements.
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SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 2011
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (“SEBI”) had been mulling over reviewing and
amending the existing SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations,
1997 (“Takeover Code of 1997”) for quite some time now. A Takeover Regulations AdvisoryCommittee was constituted under the chairmanship of Mr. C. Achuthan (“Achuthan
Committee”) in September 2009 to review the Takeover Code of 1997 and give its suggestions.
The Achuthan Committee provided its suggestions in its report which was submitted to SEBI in
July 2010. After taking into account the suggestions of the Achuthan Committee and feedback
from the interest groups and general public on such suggestions, the SEBI finally notified the
SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 2011 (“Takeover Code of
2011”) on 23 September 2011. The Takeover Code of 2011 will be effective f rom 22 October
2011.
The Takeover Code of 2011 adheres to the framework and principles of the Takeover Code of
1997 but the changes it brings about are significant. Some of the most important amendments are
discussed below:
1. Initial threshold limit for triggering of an open offer
Under the Takeover Code of 1997, an acquirer was mandated to make an open offer if he, alone
or through persons acting in concert, were acquiring 15% or more of voting right in the target
company. This threshold of 15% has been increased to 25% under the Takeover Code of 2011.
Therefore, now the strategic investors, including private equity funds and minority foreign
investors, will be able to increase their shareholding in listed companies up to 24.99% and will
have greater say in the management of the company. An acquirer holding 24.99% shares will
have a better chance to block any decision of the company which requires a special resolution to
be passed. The promoters of listed companies with low shareholding will undoubtedly be
concerned about any acquirer misutilising it.
However, at the same time, this will help the listed companies to get more investments without
triggering the open offer requirement as early as 15%, therefore making the process more
attractive and cost effective.
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2. Creeping acquisition
The Takeover Code of 1997 recognised creeping acquisition at two levels – from 15% to 55%
and from 55% to the maximum permissible limit of 75%. Acquirers holding from 15% to 55%
shares were allowed to purchase additional shares or voting rights of up to 5% per financial year
without making a public announcement of an open offer. Acquirers holding from 55% to 75%
shares were required to make such public announcement for any additional purchase of shares.
However, in the latter case, up to 5% additional shares could be purchased without making a
public announcement if the acquisition was made through open market purchase on stock
exchanges or due to buyback of shares by the listed company.
The Takeover Code of 2011 makes the position simpler. Now, any acquirer, holding more 25%
or more but less than the maximum permissible limit, can purchase additional shares or voting
rights of up to 5% every financial year, without requiring to make a public announcement for
open offer. The Takeover Code of 2011 also lays down the manner of determination of the
quantum of acquisition of such additional voting rights.
This would be beneficial for the investors as well as the promoters, and more so for the latter,
who can increase their shareholding in the company without necessarily purchasing shares from
the stock market.
3. Indirect acquisition
The Takeover Code of 2011 clearly lays down a structure to deal with indirect acquisition, an
issue which was not adequately dealt with in the earlier version of the Takeover Code.
Simplistically put, it states that any acquisition of share or control over a company that would
enable a person and persons acting in concert with him to exercise such percentage of voting
rights or control over the company which would have otherwise necessitated a public
announcement for open offer, shall be considered an indirect acquisition of voting rights or control of the company.
It also states that wherever,
a) the proportionate net asset value of the target company as a percentage of the consolidated
net asset value of the entity or business being acquired;
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b) the proportionate sales turnover of the target company as a percentage of the consolidated
sales turnover of the entity or business being acquired; or
c) the proportionate market capitalisation of the target company as a percentage of the
enterprise value for the entity or business being acquired;
is more than 80% on the basis of the latest audited annual financial statements, such indirect
acquisition shall be regarded as a direct acquisition of the target company and all the obligations
relating to timing, pricing and other compliance requirements for the open offer would be same
as that of a direct acquisition.
4. Voluntary offer
A concept of voluntary offer has been introduced in the Takeover Code of 2011, by which an
acquirer who holds more than 25% but less than the maximum permissible limit, shall be entitled
to voluntarily make a public announcement of an open offer for acquiring additional shares
subject to their aggregate shareholding after completion of the open offer not exceeding the
maximum permissible non-public shareholding. Such voluntary offer would be for acquisition of
at least such number of shares as would entitle the acquirer to exercise an additional 10% of the
total shares of the target company.
This would facilitate the substantial shareholders and promoters to consolidate their shareholding
in a company.
5. Size of the open offer
The Takeover Code of 1997 required an acquirer, obligated to make an open offer, to offer for a
minimum of 20% of the „voting capital of the target company‟ as on „expiration of 15 days after
the closure of the public offer‟. The Takeover Code of 2011 now mandates an acquirer to place
an offer for at least 26% of the „total shares of the target company‟, as on the „10th working day
from the closure of the tendering period‟.
The increase in the size of the open offer from 20% to 26%, along with increase in the initial
threshold from 15% to 25%, creates a unique situation under the Takeover Code of 2011. An
acquirer with 15% shareholding and increasing it by another 20% through an open offer would
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have only got a 35% shareholding in the target company under the Takeover Code of 1997.
However, now an acquirer with a 25% shareholding and increasing it by another 26% through
the open offer under the Takeover Code of 2011, can accrue 51% shareholding and thereby attain
simple majority in the target company.
These well thought out figures clearly shows the intention of the regulator to incentivize
investors acquiring stakes in a company by giving them an opportunity of attaining simple
majority in a company.
6. Important exemptions from the requirement of open offer
Inter-se transfer – The Takeover Code of 1997 used to recognize inter-se transfer of shares
amongst the following groups –
a) Group coming within the definition of group as defined in the Monopolies and
Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969
b) Relatives within the meaning of section 6 of the Companies Act, 1956
c) Qualifying Indian promoters and foreign collaborators who are shareholders, etc.
The categorisations of such groups have been amended in the Takeover Code of 2011 and
transfer between the following qualifying persons has been termed as inter-se transfer:
a) Immediate relatives
b) Promoters, as evidenced by the shareholding pattern filed by the target company not less
than 3 years prior to the proposed acquisition;
c) Acompany, its subsidiaries, its holding company, other subsidiaries of such holding
company, persons holding not less than 50% of the equity shares of such company, etc.
d) Persons acting in concert for not less than 3 years prior to the proposed acquisition, and
disclosed as such pursuant to filings under the listing agreement.
To avail exemption from the requirements of open offer under the Takeover Code of 2011, the
following conditions will have to be fulfilled with respect to an inter-se transfer:
If the shares of the target company are frequently traded – the acquisition price per share
shall not be higher by more than 25% of the volume-weighted average market price for a
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period of 60 trading days preceding the date of issuance of notice for such inter-se
transfer
If the shares of the target company are infrequently traded, the acquisition price shall not
be higher by more than 25% of the price determined by taking into account valuation
parameters including, book value, comparable trading multiples, etc.
Rights issue – The Takeover Code of 2011 continues to provide exemption from the requirement
of open offer to increase in shareholding due to rights issue, but subject to fulfillment of two
conditions:
a) The acquirer cannot renounce its entitlements under such rights issue; and
b) The price at which rights issue is made cannot be higher than the price of the target
company prior to such rights issue.
Scheme of arrangement – The Takeover Code of 1997 had a blanket exemption on the
requirement of making an open offer during acquisition of shares or control through a scheme of
arrangement or reconstruction. However, the Takeover Code of 2011 makes a distinction
between where the target company itself is a transferor or a transferee company in such a scheme
and where the target company itself is not a party to the scheme but is getting affected
nevertheless due to involvement of the parent shareholders of the target company. In the latter
case, exemption from the requirement of making an open offer would only be provided if
a) The cash component is 25% or less of the total consideration paid under the scheme, and
b) Post restructuring, the persons holding the entire voting rights before the scheme will
have to continue to hold 33% or more voting rights of the combined entity.
Buyback of shares – The Takeover Code of 1997 did not provide for any exemption for increase
in voting rights of a shareholder due to buybacks. The Takeover Code of 2011 however provides
for exemption for such increase.
In a situation where the acquirer‟s initial shareholding was less than 25% and exceeded the 25%
threshold, thereby necessitating an open offer, as a consequence of the buyback, The Takeover
Code of 2011 provides a period of 90 days during which the acquirer may dilute his stake below
25% without requiring an open offer.
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Whereas, an acquirer‟s initial shareholding was more than 25% and the increase in shareholding
due to buyback is beyond the permissible creeping acquisition limit of 5% per financial year, the
acquirer can still get an exemption from making an open offer, subject to the following:
a) Such acquirer had not voted in favour of the resolution authorising the buy-back of
securities under section 77A of the Companies Act, 1956;
b) In the case of a shareholder resolution, voting was by way of postal ballot;
c) The increase in voting rights did not result in an acquisition of control by such acquirer
over the target company
In case the above conditions are not fulfilled, the acquirer may, within 90 days from the date of
increase, dilute his stake so that his voting rights fall below the threshold which would require an
open offer.
7. Other important changes
Following are few other important amendments that have been brought about in the Takeover
Code of 2011:
Definition of ‘share’ – The Takeover Code of 1997 excluded „preference shares‟ from the
definition of „shares‟ vide an amendment of 2002. However, this exclusion has been removed in
the Takeover Code of 2011 and therefore now „shares‟ would include, without any restriction,
any security which entitles the holder to voting rights.
Non-compete fees – As per the Takeover Code of 1997, any payment made to the promoters of a
target company up to a maximum limit of 25% of the offer price was exempted from being taken
into account while calculating the offer price. However, as per the Takeover Code of 2011, price
paid for shares of a company shall include any price for the shares / voting rights / control over
the company, whether stated in the agreement or any incidental agreement, and includes „control
premium‟, „non-compete fees‟, etc.
Responsibility of the board of directors and independent directors – The general obligations
of the board of directors of a target company under the Takeover Code of 1997 had given a
discretionary option to the board to send their recommendations on the open offer to the
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shareholders and for the purpose the board could seek the opinion of an independent merchant
banker or a committee of independent directors.
The Takeover Code of 2011, however, makes it mandatory for the board of directors of the target
company to constitute a committee of independent directors (who are entitled to seek external
professional advice on the same) to provide written reasoned recommendations on such open
offer, which the target company is required to publish.
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PROCEDURE INVOLVED IN TAKEOVER
(1) Appointment of Merchant Banks (regulation-13) :-
The acquires shall have to appoint a category I merchant banker who is not associate after
member group of the acquirer or the target company, before making public announcement
(2) Public announcement (regulation-14) ;-
It is an announcement made by the acquirer through a merchant. Banker disclosing his intention
to acquire minimum of 20% of shares/voting rights of then target company from existing shares
holding by means of an open offer. Main object of public announcement is to make aware of an
exit opportunity available the shares holders of the target company.
Public announcement must be made in English and also in a vernacular language daily news
paper circulating in the state where registered office of the target company is situated and the
stock exchange where the share are most frequently traded. An appointment of merchant banker
is mandatory to carry out the process open offer.
Public announcement must contain the offer price, number of shares to be acquired from the
public, identify of acquires purpose, future plans in respect of target company, period with in
which offer would be completed.
(3) Filing letter of offer with SEBI (regulation-18):-
A letter of offer (L.O.) must be filed with SEBI within 14 days from the date of public
announcement. A hard and soft copy of public announcement along with application made in
news paper and filing fee of Rs. 50000/- By way of banks cheque or DD is to be remitted the
acquires has to furnish a due diligence certificate and registration details as per SEBI circular No.
RMB (G-1) series dated 26 June 1997 within 14 days from the public announcement acquires
shall send a copy of the draft L.O. to the target company and all the stock exchange. L.O. must
be dispatched to the shareholder within 21 days from its submission to SEBI. Submission of Lo
with SEBI for a purpose of overseeing whether the disclosures contained therein are adequate
and are in conformity with the takeover regulation. It would facilitate the shares holder to take an
informed decision with regard to the offer. SEBI does not take any responsibility as regards
correctness of any statement, financial soundness of acquirer or PAC or target.
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(4) Minimum offer price (regulation-20) :-
L.O must contain the minimum offer price. While determining minimum offer price, the acquirer
in consultation with merchant banker to take into consideration all parameters listed below:-
(a) Negotiated price between acquires and share holder of target company.
(b) Highest price paid by the acquirer for acquisition of shares by way of allotment in a public or
right or preferential issue during 26 weeks prior to public announcement whichever is higher.
(c) In case shares of target company are frequently traded the average weekly high and low of
the closing price of shares of the target company during 26 weeks.
(d) In case the shares of target company are not frequently traded, fundamentals such as
bookvalue, EPS, return on networth, the industry average are the other parameters needs to be
considered.
(5) Minimum public offer (regulation-21):-
The public offer made by the acquirer to the share holders of the target company shall be for a
minimum of 20% of the voting capital of the company an acquirer has to make an offer for a
minimum of 20% of shares and he cannot make on open offer for less than 20% of share.
(6) Other obligation of the acquirer (regulation-22):-The public announcement shall be made only when the acquirer is able to implement the offer.
During the offer period, the acquirer person acting in concert shall not be entitled to be appointed
on board of Target Company once he deposit 100% of consideration in the escrow account he
may be entitled to be appointed on the board of target company after 21 days of public
announcement
(7) Obligation of the board of target company/merchant banker (regulation-23 & 24):-
After public announcement of offer, the board of directors of the target company, unless
approved by the members at the general board meeting, shall not sell, transfer or dispose of
assets of the company or its subsidiaries or issue or allot any us issued securities
or enter into any material contracts. The merchant banks shall have to send a final report to SEBI
within 45 days from the date of closure of the offer.
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(8) Withdrawal of offer (reguIation-27):-
The Shareholder shall have the option to withdrawal acceptance given by him up to 3 working
days prior to the date of closure of the offer.
An acquirer shall have no option to withdrawal a public offer made except under the following
circumstances.
(1) Statutory approvals required have been refused.
(2) The sole acquirer being a natural person has died.
(3) Such circumstances as in the opinion of the SEBI board merits withdrawal. In the event of
withdrawal of offer the acquirer of the merchant banks shall make a public announcement in the
same news paper in which P.a. of offer was published indicating reasons for withdrawal of offer.
(9) Escrow account (regulation-28):-
The acquires must create an escrow account of 25% of consideration for offer size less than Rs.
100 crore and 10% for the excess consideration above Rs. 100 crores. The Escrow account shall
consist of cash deposited with a scheduled commercial bank.
(10) Competitive bids :-
Competitive bids are an offer made by a person other than the acquirer who has made the first
public announcement. The bid must be equal to the present and proposed share holding of first
acquires. The first acquires can revise his offer pursuant to the competitive bid within 14 days.
Both acquirers can make upward revision in the price and number of shares till 7 days. Before
the closure of the offer, the shares holder shall have option to switch his acceptance between
different offers to enable him to be in a better position to decide as to which of the subsisting
offers is better.
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Stock Exchange Bye – Laws
Provided that when information regarding prohibition of short sellingor fixing of minimum
prices or closure of the market or prohibition offurther dealings is so conveyed as to reach the
Central Governmentin the normal course within twenty-four hours the Governing Board
may prohibit short selling or fix minimum prices or close the market orprohibit further dealings
as aforesaid for any period exceeding threedays without the approval of the Central Government
till such timeas the decision of the Central Government is communicated to the
exchange.
Suspension of Selling-out
(b) If the due dates of delivery and payment fall within a period duringwhich further dealings are
prohibited in any security or securities orthe market continues to be closed in whole or in part as
provided insub-clause (a) the Governing Board shall suspend selling-out inrespect of all existing
contracts in the security or securities inquestion till the market reopens. However the buyer shall
beentitled to enforce delivery. In the event of the security or securities
in question being on the Cleared Securities List the followingadditional provisions shall take
effect namely:
(i) The Governing Board shall during the suspension of selling-outextend the time for payment
from Clearing to Clearing tillsuch time as the market reopens and the liabilities of intermediariesshall continue during the suspension of sellingout.The buying member shall be entitled to
enforce deliveryin any of such Clearings and for that purpose the process of tickets as prescribed
in these Bye-laws and Regulations orsuch other process as the Governing Board may prescribe
shall apply. If the buying member after calling for deliveryfails to take up and pay for such
securities on the due datehe shall be liable to pay a penalty of 2 per cent irrespectiveof any other
liability.
(ii) The Governing Board shall fix the making-up prices for suchsecurity or securities in each
Clearing and the contango forcarrying-over such security or securities from Clearing to
Clearing on the basis of the ruling market rate of interest andthe contango of the previous
Clearing. For the first Clearingthe making-up prices shall be slightly higher than the prices of
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such securities prevailing in the market prior to the suspensionof business. For each subsequent
Clearing the GoverningBoard may reduce the making-up prices as it may deem fit inthe case of
each security but in no case such reduction shallexceed 5 per cent of the previous making-up
prices. Allcontracts remaining unsettled at the end of each Clearing
CLAUSES 40A and 40B OF THE LISTING AGREEMENTS OF THE BSE and NSE
Prior to the issuance of the SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations,
1994, there was no comprehensive piece of legislation that governed the takeover bids. The first
attempt to regulate the takeovers was made by the government by incorporating clause 40 in the
listing agreements of stock exchanges. This clause provided for making a public offer to the
share holders of a company by any person who sought to acquire 25% of the voting rights of the
company. However, in the Indian context, where companies could be controlled (in the past) by
acquiring much less than 25%, the basic purpose of the clause could be and was being defeated
by acquiring shares just below the threshold limit of 25% and still acquiring control over the
company. Hence, the need to lower the limit to 10% was felt accordingly, in 1990, even before
SEBI became a statutory body, the government , in consultation with SEBI, replaced the clause
40 by clauses 40A and 40B. We refer to them as „original 40A‟ and „original 40B‟. The text of
these clauses, as they stood till they amended w.e.f. 1 May 2006 is reproduced in the appendix
15. The gist of the provisions of theses clauses was as follows:
ORIGINAL CLAUSE 40A
a) When any person acquires or agrees to acquire the shares in the company and when the
total nominal value of such shares, together with the shares already held by him exceeds
or shall exceed 5 % of the total voting capital of the company, the acquirer as also the
company should notify the stock exchange of such acquisition within two days.
b) Any person holding shares less than 10 % of the nominal value of shares in a company,
shall not acquire any shares, when together with the shares already held carry 10% or
more of the voting rights unless he notifies the stock exchange and fulfills the conditions
specified in the clause 40B.
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ORIGINAL CLAUSE 40B
Clause 40B mainly stipulated that in case of an acquisition of shares exceeding 10% of the
voting capital of the company as above, the person so acquiring the shares shall make open offer
to acquire at least 20% shares from the public through an open offer. It also contained various
other provisions relating to open offer.
Since these clauses have been substantially amended, we are not discussing them in detail.
There were two difficulties in using these clauses for effective regulation of substantial
acquisitions and takeover. They were
a) These clauses did not have a statutory force behind them. They were of a contractual
nature, the listing agreement being a contract between a company and a stock exchange.
Hence they could be enforced upon an acquirer only if an acquirer was a listed company.
If the acquirer was other than a listed company, the stock exchange could not do
anything. Even in case of the acquirer company, strictly speaking any breach of clauses
40A and 40B made by an acquirer company, it was not a breach of its agreement with the
stock exchange, but it was a breach of the agreement of the target company with the stock
exchange which the acquirer company was not yet a privy.
b) The only remedy for non compliance with these clauses was de-listing the shares of the
target company. However this was contrary to the very object of the investor protection
for which it was met.
Therefore after acquiring statutory powers pursuant to the enactment of the SEBI act in 1992,
SEBI came out with the SEBI regulations (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) in
1994.
When SEBI issued these regulations it retained the basic framework of the clauses 40A and 40B,
though it made a substantial departure from them by dropping „change in control management‟
unaccompanied by substantial acquisition of shares beyond threshold limit as a ground to trigger
an open offer (this has been restored under regulation 12 of the 1997 regulations now in force).
SEBI also incorporated in 1994 regulations number of other provisions such as negotiated and
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open market acquisition rules, rules relating to competitive bids, revision of offer, withdrawal of
offer, etc.
Subsequent to the issuance of the takeover regulations of 1994, the original clauses 40A and 40B
continued to exist in the listing agreements. Though the Justice Bhagwati committee rightly
recommended that they had now become redundant and hence be replaced by more appropriate
ones, it was in May 2006 that the new clauses 40A and 40B were made effective. These clauses,
which we shall call as „new 40A‟ and „new 40B‟ have been reproduced in appendix 16. The gist
of the provisions is as follows:
NEW CLAUSE 40A
A. All listed companies, other than those mentioned hereunder, will be required to ensure the
minimum level of public shareholding at 25% of the total number of issued shares of a class
or kind for the purpose of continuous listing[sub-clause(i)]:
i. Companies which, at the time of initial listing, had offered to public less than 25% but
not less than 10% of the total number of issued shares of a class or kind, in terms of rule
19(2)(b) of Securities Contract (Regulation) Rules 1957 (SCRR) or companies desiring
to list their shares by making an initial public offering(IPO) of less than 25% but at least
10% in terms of rule 19(2)(b) of SCRR.
ii. Companies which have reached or which would in future reach, irrespective of the
percentage of their shares with the public at the time of initial listing, a size of 2 crore or
more in terms of number of listed shares and Rs1000 crore or more in terms of the
market capitalization.[sub-clause (iii)].
The companies at (i) and (ii) above will be required to maintain the minimum level of public
shareholding at 10% at the total number of issued shares of a class or kind for the purpose of
continuous listing.
The term “ public shareholding” for the purpose of the continuous listing, comprises of shares
held by entities other than promoters and promoter group and shares held by custodians against
which depository receipts are issued overseas. The term „promoter‟ and „promoter group‟ shall
have the same meaning as in assigned to them under the SEBE (DIP) Guidelines, 2000.
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Companies exempted from minimum 10% shareholding
Minimum level of maintaining 10% of public shareholding is not applicable to:
(a) Government Company as defined u/s 617 of the Companies Act;
(b) Company in respect of which reference is or has been made to the BIFR and such reference is
pending;
(c) Company in respect of which any rehabilitation scheme is sanctioned by the BIFR/NCL and
is pending full implementation or any appeal is pending regarding such reference or scheme
before the Appellate Authority for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction or National Company
Law Appellate Tribunal;
(d ) Infrastructure company as defined in clause 1.2.1( xv) of the SEBI (DIP) Guidelines, 2000
B) Those companies which are non-complaint with the aforesaid clause, as on 1st may, 2006, will
have to become complaint by increasing the public shareholding to 25% or 10% as the case may
be within a period, not exceeding one year, as granted by Specified Stock Exchange (SSE).
However, the SSE may, after shareholding and genuineness of the reasons submitted by the
company, grant extension of time for a period not exceeding two years from the said date. [sub-
clause (iv)]
Specified Stock Exchange may, on an application made by the company and after satisfying
itself about the adequacy of steps taken by the company to increase its public shareholding and
genuineness of the reasons submitted by the company for not reaching the minimum level of
public shareholding and after recording reasons in writing, extend the time for compliance with
the requirement of minimum level of public shareholding by a further period not exceeding one
year.)
C) Similarly, in respect of those companies which may subsequently become non-compliant on
account of supervening extraordinary events such as compliance with directions of court,tribunal regulatory or statutory authority, compliance with the SEBI ( Substantial Acquisition
and takeover) Regulations, 1997, reorganization of capital by way of scheme of agreement, etc.,
the SSE may grant a period of not exceeding one year, to become complaint, after examining and
satisfying about the circumstances of the case.
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This could be further extended by the SSE by a period not exceeding one year, shareholding and
genuineness of the reasons submitted by the company (provision to sub-clause vii)
D) Where the public shareholding in the company, in respect of any clause or kind of shares has
reduced below the stipulated minimum, the company shall not further dilute the same except on
account of supervening extraordinary events (sub clause v)
If the public shareholding falls below 25% or 10% limit, as the case may be, the company shall
not dilute its public shareholding with the prior approval of SSE, except for supervening
extraordinary events, including, but not limited to events specified as under:
a) Issuance or transfer of shares in compliance with directions of a regulatory or statutory
authority or court or tribunal;
b) Issuance or transfer of shares in compliance with the SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of
Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 1997;
c) Re-organization of capital by way of a scheme of arrangement; and
d) Issuance or transfer of shares under a restructuring plan approved in compliance with the
Corporate Debt Restructuring System laid down by the Reserve Bank of India.
E) A company shall not, except on account of supervening extraordinary events, issue shares to
promoters or entities belonging to the promoter group or make any offer for buy-back of its
shares or buy its shares for making sponsored issuance of the depositary receipts, etc. If it results
into reducing the public shareholding below the stipulated minimum level (sub clause vi).
F) Nothing contained in sub causes (i) to (vii) shall apply to the government companies (as
defined under section 617 of the companies act, 1956), infrastructure companies Guidelines,
2000 and referred to the Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction ( BIFR ).
G) The company shall, upon its public shareholding reducing below the stipulated minimum
level, immediately take steps to increase the same above the stipulated minimum by any of the
following methods:
Public issue through prospectus
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Offer for sale of shares held by the promoters through prospectus
Sale of the shares held by the promoters in the secondary market
Any other method without adversely affecting the interest of the minority shareholders.
H) If a company fails to comply with Clause 40A, its shares shall be liable to be delisted in terms
of the Delisting Guidelines/Regulations, prescribed by SEBI and the company shall be liable for
penal actions under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 and the Securities and
Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.
New Clause 40B: (Takeover Offer):
New clause 40B simply says that it is a condition for a continued listing that whenever a
takeover offer is made or if there is a change in the management of the company, the person who
secures the control of the management and of the company whose shares have been acquired
shall comply with the relevant provisions of the SEBI (Substantial Acquisition of Shares and
Takeover) Regulations, 1997.
Summary of Above:
1. The first attempt to regulate the takeover was made by the government by incorporating
clause 40 in the listing agreements of the stock exchanges. Thereafter in 1990 even
before SEBI became the statutory body, the government in consultation with SEBI,
replaced the clause 40 by clause 40A and 40B.
2. The old clauses 40A stipulated that any person holding shares less than 10% of the
nominal value shares already held shall carry 10% or more of the voting rights unless he
has notified the stock exchange and full fills the conditions specified in Clause 40B.
3. The old clause 40B mainly stipulated that in case of an acquisition of shares exceeding
10% of the voting capital of any company as above, the person so acquiring the sharesshall make an open offer to acquire atleast 20% shares from the public. It also contained
various other provisions relating to open offer.
4. The new clause 40A stipulates that all listed companies other than those which (i) at the
time of the initial listing, had offered to public less than 25 but not less than 10% of the
total issued shares or (ii) have reached or in future reach, irrespective of the percentage of
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their shares with public at the time of initial listing , a size of 2 crores or more in terms of
number of the listed shares and Rs 1000 crore or more in terms of the market
capitalization; will be required to ensure a minimum level of public shareholding at 25%
of the total number of issued shares of a class or kind for the purpose of continuous
listing. The clause then stipulates the rules relating to the time within which and manners
in which non-compliant companies as on May 2006, as also companies subsequently
becoming non-compliant have to become compliant.
Regulation 55A of SEBI (Depositories and Participants) Regulations, 1996
For the information of companies, Regulation 55A of SEBI (Depositories and Participants)
Regulations, 1996 states:
1. Every issuer shall submit audit report on a quarterly basis starting from September 30,
2003 to the concerned stock exchanges audited from a qualified chartered accountant or a
practicing company secretary, for the purposes of reconciliation of the total issued
capital, listed capital and capital held by depositories in dematerialized form , the details
of changes in share capital during the quarter and the in-principle approval obtained by
the issuer from all stock exchanges where it is listed in respect of such further issued
capital.
2. The audit report under sub-regulation (1) shall also give the updated status of the register
of members of the issuer and confirm that security have been dematerialized as per
requests within 21 days from the date of receipt of request from the issuer and where the
dematerialization has not been effected within the said stipulated period, the report shall
disclose the reasons for such delay.
3. The issuer shall immediately bring to the notice of depositories and the stock exchanges,
any difference observed in its issue, listed, and the capital held by depositories.
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ACCOUNTING POLICIES When a company just acquires another company but does not amalgamate that company with
itself, the shares purchased from the promoters and other shareholders are known as „investment‟
in the acquirer company‟s books and are accounted at the cost at which they were acquired. In
the target company‟s books no adjustment is required at all. However, in case of an
amalgamation, the books of accounts and balance sheets of two (or more) companies are
required to be combined. Similarly, in case of a demerger, books of account and balance sheet of
the demerged company are required to e split into two or more. This complicates the matter.
Hence with regard to amalgamations, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) has
issued Accounting Standards 14 (AS 14) which classifies different types of amalgamations and
stipulates different accounting methods applicable to these respective types of amalgamations.
With regards to Demergers, the ICAI has not prescribed any Accounting Standards as yet. But
ironically, the accounting norms for (tax neutral) demergers are stipulated in the Income tax Act,
1961.
ACCOUNTING STANDARD 14
Accounting Standard 14 issued by ICAI came into effect in respect of accounting periods
commencing on or after 1
st
April 1995. This is a mandatory standard required to be followed by all the companies. This standard however does not deal with those cases where a company
merely acquires the shares of the target company, either for cash or by the issue of the acquirers
company‟s shares or partly for both. The reason for this is that in such an acquisit ion the target
company continues to exist whereas AS14 deals with those cases where the amalgamating
companies cease to exist.
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CLASSIFICATION OF AMALGAMATIONS
Amalgamation by way of merger: In order to classify by the way of merger, the amalgamations
has to satisfy these conditions:
1) All the assets and liabilities of the transferor company must become the assets and
liabilities of the transferee company
2) Shareholders holding not less than 90% of the face value of the equity shares of the
transferor company (other than the equity shares already held therein, immediately before
the amalgamation by the transferee company or its subsidiaries or their nominees)
become the equity shareholder of the transferee company by virtue of the amalgamation.
3) The consideration for amalgamation received by those equity shareholders of the
transferor company who agree to become the shareholders of the transferee company is
discharged by the transferee company wholly by the issue of equity shares in the
transferee company, except that cash may be paid in respect of fractional shares.
4) The business of the transferor company is intended to be carried on, after the
amalgamation, by the transferee company.
5) No adjustments is intended to be made in the book value of the assets and liabilities of
the transferor company when they are incorporated in the financial statements of the
transferee company except to ensure the uniformity of accounting policies.
Amalgamation by way of purchase: Accordingly, an amalgamation in which any one or more
of the above condition is not satisfied, the same is considered as amalgamation by way of
purchase.
METHODS OF ACCOUNTING FOR AMALGAMATIONS
Accounting method applicable to amalgamate by way of merger is called ‘pooling of interest
method’. Under this method following norms, are required to be adhered to:
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1) Assets, Liabilities and reserves of the transferor company must be recorded in the
transferee company‟s books at their existing carrying amounts and in the same form as at
the time of amalgamation.
2) Even the reserves under various heads in the transferor company‟s books must be
accounted under the same heads in the transferee company‟s books.
3) The difference between the amount recorded as the share capital issued and the amount of
share capital of the transferor company must be adjusted in reserves.
Accounting method applicable to amalgamation by way of purchase is called as ‘purchase’
method.
1) Assets and liabilities of the transferor company can be accounted in the transferee
company‟s books at either their book values or at their fair values
2) With regard to the reserves of the transferor company (capital or revenue) the transferee
company should not include them in its books. Only exception to this is the statutory
reserves such as debentures redemption reserves, which have to be shown in the
transferee company‟s books under the same account heads and at the same values as
appearing in the transferors books of accounts
On the other hand any excess of the consideration over the value of the net assets of the
transferor company must be recognised in the „goodwill‟; whereas if the amount of the
consideration is lower than the value of the net assets acquired, the difference must be
treated as capital reserves.
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CROSS BORDER MERGERS & ACQUISTIONS WITH REFERENCE TO FERA
& FEMA
The corporate sector all over the world is restructuring its operations through different types of
consolidation strategies like mergers and acquisitions in order to face challenges posed by the
new pattern of globalisation, which has led to the greater integration of national and international
markets. One of the striking features of the present wave of mergers and acquisitions is the
presence of a large number of cross-border deals. Earlier, foreign firms were satisfying their
market expansion strategy through the setting up of wholly owned subsidiaries in overseas
markets till 2005, which has now become a „second best option‟ since it involves much time and
effort that may not suit to the changed global scenario, where the watchword i s „plaction‟, that is
plan and action together1. Thus getting into cross-border mergers and acquisitions became the
„first- best option‟ to the leaders and others depended on the „follow-the-leader‟ strategy.
It is important to note that the most crucial reason for the rapid growth of M&As has been that of increasing competition and advanced technology, it has become difficult for companies and other
businesses to go forward and it has compelled them to join hands with other parties. In such
circumstances, cross border transactions have emerged as good strategy. Cross border M&As are
one of the fastest ways of investing abroad and gaining access to companies that are acquired
abroad by way of market share.
The concept of M&As gained popularity in India, after the government introduced the new
economic policy in 1991, thereby paving the way for economic reforms and opening up a whole
lot of challenges both in the domestic and international spheres.
Having said that, it is stated that the Indian legal system regulates and governs various aspects of
a cross border M&A transaction by a set of laws, most importantly the Companies Act, 1956; the
Foreign Investment Policy of the government of India along with press notes and clarificatory
circulars issued by the Department of Investment Policy and Promotion; Foreign Exchange
Management Act, 1999 (“FEMA”) and regulations made there under, including circulars and
notifications issued by the RBI from time to time (hereinafter together referred to as the “ FEMA
laws”); the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 and regulations made thereunder
(hereinafter together referred to as “SEBI laws”); the Income Tax Act, 1961 and the
Competition Act, 2002 etc.
The Driving Force: Shareholder Value Creation
What is the true motivation for cross-border mergers and acquisitions? The answer is the
traditional one: to build shareholder value.
In many of the developed country markets today the growth potential for earnings in the
traditional business lines of the firm is limited. Competition is fierce, margins are under
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continual pressure. Senior Management of the firm cannot ignore these pressures. Indeed they
must continually undertake activities to promote brand, decrease inventory investments, increase
customer focus and satisfaction, streamline supply chains, and manage all other drivers of value
in global business. Nevertheless, they must also look outward to build value. In contrast to the
fighting and scraping for market shares and profits in traditional domestic markets, the global
marketplace offers greater growth potential –greater “bang for the buck”. Why are the mergers
and takeover s happening at such a rapid pace” The history of the world, my sweet, is who gets
eaten and who gets to eat.”
Cross Border Mergers and Acquisition Drivers: There are a variety of drivers and motivating
factors at play in the M& A world.
1. Expansion is one of the primary reasons to cross the borders as the national limits fail to
provide growth opportunities. Becoming larger, and then reaping the benefits of size in
competition and negotiation.
2. Gaining market power and dominance i.e. to gain monopoly. The Company which has been
acquired by the acquirer is always a Company which is trembling financially but had something
to offer to the acquiring Company.
3. Achieving synergies in local/global operation and across industries and gaining access to
strategic proprietor assets are other major reasons for Cross Border merger and acquisition.
INBOUND CROSS BORDER M&AS IN INDIA AND THE FEMA LAWS
When we talk about inbound cross border M&As in India, we essentially mean foreign
investment in India. As stated earlier, foreign investment in India, i.e. investment in India by a
“person resident outside India”, (hereinafter to be interchangeably used with “non resident”) is
governed by FEMA 20.
The term “ person resident outside India” is defined as meaning “a person who is not resident in
India” under Section 2 (w) of FEMA. Therefore, for understanding the meaning of the term
“ person resident outside India” it is necessary to understand the meaning of the term „ person‟
and “ person resident in India”. „Person‟ is defined under Section 2 (u) of FEMA as:
(a) an individual,
(b) a Hindu undivided family,
(c) a company,
(d) a firm,
(e) an association of persons or a body of individuals, whether incorporated or not,
(f) every artificial juridical person, not falling within any of the preceding sub-clauses, and
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(g) any agency, office or branch owned or controlled by such person.”
Section 2 (v) of FEMA defines “ person resident in India” as meaning:
“(i) a person residing in India for more than 182 days during the course of the preceding
financial year but does not include -
(A) a person who has gone out of India or who stays outside India, in either case -
(a) for or on taking up employment outside India, or
(b) for carrying on outside India a business or vocation outside India, or
(c) for any other purpose, in such circumstances as would indicate his intention to stay outside
India for anuncertain period;
(B) a person who has come to or stays in India, in either case, otherwise than -
(a) for or on taking up employment in India, or
(b) for carrying on in India a business or vocation in India, or
(c) for any other purpose, in such circumstances as would indicate his intention to stay in Indiafor anuncertain period;
(ii) any person or body corporate registered or incorporated in India,
(iii) an office, branch or agency in India owned or controlled by a person resident outside India,
(iv) an office, branch or agency outside India owned or controlled by a person resident in India.”
. i.e. Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Security by a Person Resident Outside
India) Regulations, 2000.
Under FEMA 20, general permission has been granted to any non-resident to purchase shares or convertible debentures of an Indian company under Foreign Direct Investment Scheme, subject
to the terms and conditions specified in Schedule 1 thereto. However citizens of Bangladesh,
Pakistan or Sri Lanka resident outside India and entities in Bangladesh or Pakistan are not
permitted to purchase shares or debentures issued by Indian companies or any other Indian
security without the prior approval of the RBI.
Further, persons resident outside India are permitted to purchase shares or convertible debentures
offered on a rights basis by an Indian company which satisfies the conditions restated
hereinbelow:
(i) The offer on right basis does not result in increase in the percentage of foreign equity
already approved, or permissible under the Foreign Direct Investment Scheme in terms of
FEMA 20;
(ii) The existing shares or debentures against which shares or debentures are issued by the
company on right basis were acquired and are held by the person resident outside India in
accordance with FEMA 20;
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(iii) The offer on right basis to the persons resident outside India is at a price which is not
lower than that at which the offer is made to resident shareholders;
The rights shares so acquired shall be subject to the same conditions regarding repatriation as
applicable to original shares. Further, under FEMA 20, an Indian company has been permitted to
issue shares to its employees or employees of its joint venture / subsidiary abroad, who are non-
resident, either directly or through a trust.
Under Regulation 7 of FEMA 20, once a scheme of merger, demerger or amalgamation has been
approved by the court, the transferee company (whether the survivor or a new company) is
permitted to issue shares to the shareholders of the transferor company who are persons resident
outside India, subject to the condition that the percentage of non-resident holdings in the
company does not exceed the limits for which approval has been granted by the RBI or the
prescribed sectorial ceiling under the foreign direct investment policy set under the FEMA laws.
If the new share allotment exceeds such limits, the company will have to obtain the prior approval of the FIPB and the RBI before issuing shares to the non-residents]
General permission has also been granted for transfer of shares / convertible debentures by a
non-resident as follows:
(i) Non-residents other than non-resident Indians (“NRIs”) or Overseas Corporate Bodies
(“OCBs”) may transfer shares / convertible debentures to any non-resident, provided that
the transferee should have obtained permission of the Central Government, if he had any
previous venture or tie-up in India through investment in any manner or a technical
collaboration or trademark agreement in the same or allied field in which the Indian
company whose shares are being transferred is engaged;(ii) NRIs or OCBs are permitted to transfer by way of sale, any shares or convertible
debentures of Indian companies to other NRIs or OCBs only;
(iii) Non-residents are permitted to transfer shares / debentures of any Indian company to a
resident by way of gift.
FEMA 20 further stipulates that any transfer of security by a resident to a non-resident would
require the prior approval of the RBI. For the transfer of existing shares/convertible debentures
of an Indian company by a resident to a non- resident by way of sale, the transferor will have to
obtain the approval of the Central Government before applying to the RBI. In such cases, the
RBI may permit the transfer subject to such terms and conditions, including the price at which
the sale may be made.
For the purpose of FEMA 20, investment in India by a non-resident has been divided into the
following 5 categories and the regulations applicable have been specified in respective schedules
as under:
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(i) Investment under the Foreign Direct Investment Scheme (“the FDI Scheme”).
(ii) Investment by Foreign Institutional Investors (“FIIs”) under the Portfolio Investment
Scheme (“the Portfolio Investment Scheme”).
(iii) Investment by NRIs/OCBs under the Portfolio Investment Scheme.
(iv) Purchase and sale of shares by NRIs/OCBs on non-repatriation basis.
(v) Purchase and sale of securities other than shares or convertible debentures of an Indian
company by non-residents.
The following are the prominent features of the schemes listed above:
I. FDI Scheme
Under the FDI Scheme, a non resident or a foreign entity, whether incorporated or not, may
purchase shares or convertible debentures of an Indian company. Any Indian company which is
not engaged in the activity of manufacture of items listed in Annexure A to the FDI Scheme has been permitted to issue shares to a non resident up to the extent specified in Annexure B to the
FDI Scheme, on a repatriation basis, provided that:
(i) The issuer company does not require an industrial licence;
(ii) The shares are not being issued for acquiring existing shares of another Indian company;
(iii) If the non resident to whom the shares are being issued proposes to be a collaborator, he
should have obtained the Central Government‟s approval if he had any previous
investment/collaboration/tie-up in India in the same or allied field in which the Indian
company issuing the shares is engaged.
Further, a trading company incorporated in India may issue shares or convertible debentures tothe extent of 51% of its capital, to persons resident outside India subject to the condition that
remittance of dividend to the shareholders outside India is made only after the company has
secured registration as an export/trading/star trading /super trading house from the Directorate
General of Foreign Trade, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, New Delhi.
It also prescribes a ceiling of 10% of the total paid-up equity capital or 10% of the paid-up value
of each series of convertible debentures, and provides that the total holdings of all FIIs/sub-
accounts of FIIs put together shall not exceed 24% of paid-up equity capital or paid up value of
each series of convertible debentures. A registered FII is also permitted to purchase
shares/convertible debentures of an Indian company through private placement/arrangement,
subject to the prescribed ceilings.
RBI may also permit a domestic asset management company or a portfolio manager registered
with SEBI as FIIs for managing the sub-account to make investment under the Portfolio
Investment Scheme on behalf of non-residents who are foreign citizens and bodies corporate
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registered outside India, provided such investment is made out of funds raised or collected or
brought from outside India through normal banking channel. Such investment is restricted to 5%
of the equity capital or 5% of the paid-up value of each series of convertible debentures within
the overall ceiling of 24% or 40% as applicable for FIIs for the purpose of the Portfolio
Investment Scheme.
The designated branch of an authorised dealer is authorised to allow remittance of net sale
proceeds (after payment of taxes) or to credit the net amount of sale proceeds of shares /
convertible debentures to the foreign currency account or a non-resident rupee account of the
registered FII concerned.
III. Investment by NRIs/OCBs under the Portfolio Scheme
Under Schedule 3, a NRI/OCB is permitted to purchase/sell shares and/or convertible debentures
of an Indian company, through a registered broker on a recognised stock exchange, subject to the
following conditions:
(i) The NRI/OCB designates a branch of an authorised dealer for routing his/its transactions
relating to purchase and sale of shares/ convertible debentures under the Portfolio
Investment Scheme, and routes all such transactions only through the branch so
designated;
(ii) The paid-up value of shares of an Indian company, purchased by each NRI/OCB both on
repatriation and on non-repatriation basis, does not exceed 5% of the paid-up value of
shares issued by the company concerned;
(iii) The paid-up value of each series of convertible debentures purchased by each NRI/OCB
both on repatriation and non-repatriation basis does not exceed 5% of the paid-up value
of each series of convertible debentures issued by the company concerned;(iv) The aggregate paid-up value of shares of any company purchased by all NRIs and OCBs
does not exceed 10% of the paid up capital of the company and in the case of purchase of
convertible debentures the aggregate paid-up value of each series of debentures
purchased by all NRIs and OCBs does not exceed 10% of the paid-up value of each series
of convertible debentures;
(v) The NRI/OCB takes delivery of the shares purchased and gives delivery of shares sold;
(vi) Payment for purchase of shares and/or debentures is made by inward remittance in
foreign exchange through normal banking channels or out of funds held in NRE/FCNR
account maintained in India if the shares are purchased on repatriation basis and by
inward remittance or out of funds held in NRE/FCNR/NRO/NRNR/NRSR account of the
NRI/OCB concerned maintained in India where the shares/debentures are purchased on
non-repatriation basis;
(vi) The OCB informs the designated branch of the authorised dealer immediately on the
holding/interest of NRIs in the OCB becoming less than 60%.
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Examples
Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd. bought a 64% stake in India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories
Ltd., for $4 billion
Paris food services giant Sodexo SA closed on its $100 million acquisition of Radhakrishna Hospitality Services
Pvt. Ltd., based in Bangalore
NTT DoCoMo Inc. acquired a 26% stake in mobile operator Tata Teleservices Ltd. for $2.66 billion from the Tata Group
REGULATION OF OUTBOUND CROSS BORDER M&A TRANSACTIONS UNDER
FEMA LAWS
As stated, any outbound cross border M&A involving an Indian company, i.e. foreign investment
by an Indian company in a foreign company is governed by FEMA and FEMA 19. There are
only certain special circumstances under which an Indian company is permitted to make aninvestment in a foreign company. An Indian party is not permitted to make any direct investment
in a foreign entity engaged in real estate business or banking business without the prior approval
of RBI.
There are several routes available to an Indian company which intends to invest in a foreign
company, some of which are described herein below:
I. Direct Investment in a Joint Venture/Wholly Owned Subsidiary
RBI has been continuously relaxing the provisions relating to direct investment in a joint venture
or a wholly owned subsidiary. Owing to these relaxations the percentage of investment by Indian
companies in joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries abroad has been continuously rising.
General conditions to be fulfilled for making an investment
An Indian company is permitted to make a direct investment in a joint venture or a wholly
owned subsidiary outside India, without seeking the prior approval of RBI subject to the
following conditions being fulfilled:
(i) The total financial commitment of the Indian party will be capped at USD 50 Million or its
equivalent in a block of 3 financial years including the year in which the investment is
made, except investment in a Joint Venture/Wholly Owned Subsidiary in Nepal andBhutan.
(ii) In respect of direct investment in Nepal or Bhutan, in Indian rupees the total financial
commitment shall not exceed Indian Rupees 1,200 Million in a block of 3 financial years
including the year in which the investment is made;
(iii) The direct investment is made in a foreign entity engaged in the same core activity carried
on by the Indian company;
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(iv) The Indian company is not on the RBI‟s caution list or under investigation by the
Enforcement Directorate.
(v) The Indian company routes all the transactions relating to the investment in the joint
venture or the wholly owned subsidiary through only one branch of an authorized dealer
to be designated by it. However the Indian company is permitted to designate different
branches of authorized dealer for onward transmission to the RBI.
(vi) The Indian company files the prescribed Form ODA to the designated branch of the
authorised dealer for onward transmission to the RBI.
Sources for investment
The Regulations also prescribe that any direct investment (as discussed above) must be made
only from the following sources like EFFC account, Drawal of foreign exchange and ADR/GDR
proceeds etc
An Indian Party is also eligible to extend a loan or a guarantee to or on behalf of the JointVenture/ Wholly Owned Subsidiary abroad, within the permissible financial commitment, if the
Indian Party has made investment by way of contribution to the equity capital of the Joint
Venture.
Under Regulation 10, RBI is required to allot a unique identification number for each Joint
Venture/Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India and the Indian party is in turn required to quote
such number in all its communications and reports to the Reserve Bank and the authorised
dealer.
II. Investment in a foreign company by ADR/GDR share swap or exchangeAn Indian company can also invest in a foreign company which is engaged in the same core
activity in exchange of ADRs/GDRs issued to the foreign company in accordance with the
ADR/GDR Scheme for the shares so acquired provided that the following conditions are
satisfied:
(i) The Indian company has already made an ADR/GDR issue and that such ADRs/GDRs are
currently listed on a stock exchange outside India.
(ii) The investment by the Indian company does not exceed the higher of an amount equivalent
to USD 100 Million or an amount equivalent to 10 times the export earnings of the Indian
company during the preceding financial year.
(iii) At least 80% of the average turnover of the Indian Party in the previous 3 financial years is
from the activities/sectors included in Schedule or the Indian Party has an annual average
export earnings of at least Indian Rupees1,000 Million in the previous 3 financial years
from the activities/sectors included in Schedule 1 to FEMA 19;
(iv) The ADR/GDR issue is backed by a fresh issue of underlying equity shares by the Indian
company.
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(v) The total holding in the Indian company by non-resident holders does not exceed the
prescribed sectoral cap.
(vi) The valuation of the shares of the foreign company is done in the following manner:
a. If the shares of the foreign company are not listed, then as per the
recommendation of an investment banker, or
b. If the shares of the foreign company are listed then as per the formula prescribed
therein.
Within 30 days from the date of issue of ADRs/GDRs in exchange of acquisition of shares of the
foreign company, the Indian company is required to submit a report in Form ODG with RBI.
III. RBI approval in special cases
In the event that the Indian company does not satisfy the eligibility conditions under Regulations
6, 7 and 8, as stated hereinabove, it may make an application to RBI for special approval. Such
application for direct investment in Joint Venture/Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India, or byway of exchange for shares of a foreign company, is to be made in Form ODI, or in Form ODB,
respectively. In considering the application, the RBI may take into account the following factors:
(i) Prima facie viability of the joint venture/wholly owned subsidiary abroad.
(ii) Contribution to external trade and other related benefits.
(iii) Financial position and business track record of the Indian company and the foreign
company; and
(iv) Expertise and experience of the foreign company in the same or related line of activity of
the joint venture or the wholly owned subsidiary abroad.
IV. Direct investment by capitalization: As per Regulation 11, an Indian Party is also entitled to make direct investment outside India by
way of capitalisation in full or part of the amount due to the Indian Party from the foreign entity
as follows:-
(i) Payment for export of plant, machinery, equipment and other goods/software to the
foreign entity;
(ii) Fees, royalties, commissions or other entitlements of the Indian party due from the
foreign entity for the supply of technical know-how, consultancy, managerial or other
services, however where the export proceeds have remained unrealised beyond a period
of 6 months from the date of export, such proceeds cannot be capitalised without the prior
permission of RBI.
An Indian Party exporting goods/software/plant and machinery from India towards equity
contribution in a Joint Venture or Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India is required to declare
it on Form GR or SDF or SOFTEX, as the case may be, by super scribing the same as “ Exports
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against equity participation in the JV/WOS abroad”, and also quoting identification number, if
already allotted by RBI.
An Indian Party capitalising exports under Regulation 10 is required to submit to RBI copy/ies of
the share certificate/s or any document issued by the Joint Venture or Wholly Owned Subsidiary
outside India to the satisfaction of RBI evidencing the investment from the Indian Party together
with the duplicate of Form GR / SDF / SOFTEX through the branch of an authorised dealer
designated by it, within 6 months from the date of export, or any further time as permitted by it.
V. Transfer by way of sale of shares of a JV/WOS
No Indian party is entitled to sell any share or security held by it in a Joint Venture or Wholly
Owned Subsidiary outside India, to any person, except as otherwise provided in FEMA laws or
with the permission of RBI.
VI. Pledge of Shares of Joint Ventures and Wholly Owned Subsidiaries
Further, FEMA 19 permits an Indian party to transfer, by way of pledge, shares held in a Joint
Venture or Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India as a security for availing of fund based or
non-fund based facilities for itself or for the Joint Venture or Wholly Owned Subsidiary from an
authorised dealer or a public financial institution in India.
VII. Obligations of the Indian Party
Under Regulation 15, an Indian party which has acquired foreign security by way of directinvestment in accordance with FEMA 19, is obliged to:
(i) Receive share certificates or any other document as an evidence of investment in the
foreign entity to the satisfaction of RBI within 6 months, or such further period as RBI
may permit, from the date of effecting remittance or the date on which the amount to be
capitalised became due to the Indian party or the date on which the amount due was
allowed to be capitalised;
(ii) Repatriate to India, all dues receivable from the foreign entity, like dividend, royalty,
technical fees etc., within 60 days of its falling due, or such further period as RBI may
permit;
(iii) Submit to RBI every year within 60 days from the date of expiry of the statutory period
as prescribed by the respective laws of the host country for finalisation of the audited accounts of
the Joint Venture/Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India or such further period as may be
allowed by Reserve Bank, an annual performance report in Form APR in respect of each Joint
Venture or Wholly Owned Subsidiary outside India set up or acquired by the Indian party and
other reports or documents as may be stipulated by RBI
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Examples:
Tata Steel acquired UK based Corus for $8 billion
Tata Motors & Jaguar-Land Rover
M&M have acquired a 70% controlling stake in SsangYong, the South Korean auto maker for
US $ 463 million in 2011
Trend of M&A deals in India
No. of deals Amount (USD million)
Deals April-September2009
April-September2010
April-September2009
April-September2010
Inbound 23 14 9129.30 8116.78
Outbound 27 59 527.81 20769.88
Domestic 36 68 2175.24 23786.66Source: Assocham Research Bureau
As per the sector wise the major mergers and acquisitions occurred in telecom, metal & mining and
energy sector. During the first six months of FY ‘11, telecom sector topped the list with 31.51 per cent
share of the total valuation of M&A deals that took place in India, followed by metal & mining sector
accounted for 24.08 per cent, energy sector accounted for 23.59 per cent while pharmaceutical and
BFSI sector accounted for 7.11 per cent and 5.28 per cent respectively.
There were 8 inbound, outbound and domestic M&A deals took place in telecom sector during April-September 2010, valuing to USD 16.60 billion, representing 31.51 per cent share in total valuation of the M&A deals that occurred during the period.
Other sectors like IT & ITES, steel, consumer non durable, cement, real estate, hospitality, media & entertainment, consumer durable and healthcare and aviation witnessed 92 M&A deals for an amounttotaling to USD 4.44 billion, contributing only 8.43 per cent share in total M&A deals.
Among the major outbound deals during April-September 2010 was India’s telecom major Bharti Airtelcompleted a deal to buy Kuwait-based Zain Telecom's African business for USD 10,700 million.
The other major outbound M&A deal occurred in the BFSI sector, India’s Hinduja Group acquired
Luxembourg-based KBL European Private Bankers SA for USD 1690 million (USD 1.69 billion) toexpand its wealth-management business in Europe.
In other outbound deal took in metal & mining sector Adani Enterprises, India’s largest importer of
coal, bought coal mine assets in Queensland from Australia's coal-to-liquids company Linc Energy forUSD 2720 million. India’s Vedanta Resources Plc's acquired London based Anglo American Zinc forUSD 1338 million.
The next major merger and acquisition outbound deal recorded in energy sector, India’s RelianceIndustries Ltd (RIL) picked up a 45 per cent stake in Texas, US-based Pioneer Natural Resources Co.for USD 1320 million.
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Case Study on Mahindra and Mahindra’s acquisition of Ssangyong
On November 23, 2010 Ssangyong Motor Company & Mahindra& Mahindra announced the
signing of a definitive agreement in Seoul. This was followed by “ approval of revised corporate
rehabilitation plan by creditors in January and finally the completion of acquisition in march
2011.
Total cost of acquisition of US$ 463 million with US$ 378 million in new stocks and US$ 85
million in corporate bonds
M&M have acquired a 70% controlling stake in SsangYong, the South Korean auto maker for
US $ 463 million.
The Definitive Agreement
The definitive agreement contains information related to securing outside investment, the
establishment of principal management, repayment of rehabilitation claims to protect the
interests of creditors, such as creditors and shareholders, and establishing a foothold for SYMC
normalization.
The total cost of acquisition is US$ 463 million with US$ 378 million in new stock and US$ 85
million in corporate bonds. Mahindra will acquire a 70% stake,
The definitive agreement also encapsulates terms and conditions related to the process of
acquiring new stock and corporate bonds, down payment and deposit guidelines, repayment of
rehabilitation claims, employment guarantees, and other covenants. M&M has already deposited
10 percent of the final purchasing price per terms of the definitive agreement, with the remaining
balance to be deposited three days prior to SYMC‟s stakeholder meeting. SYMC will update its
corporate rehabilitation plan to include reference to repaying liabilities with cash-in from the
deal, and will be required to receive approval from creditors and the court on the updated plan.
After completing all the acquisition procedures and the repayment of rehabilitation claims, the
corporate rehabilitation process is likely to be finished by March, 2011.
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About Ssang Yong
SsangYong Motor Company was a part of the SsangYong Group, a multibillion dollar
conglomerate in South Korea. The group was broken apart because of the problems during the
South East Asian Crisis of 1997.
SsangYong Motor Company initially became a part of Daewoo in 1998 and is now controlled by
the Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC). The group‟s product portfolio comprises
of a luxury sedan, four sport utility vehicles and a multipurpose vehicle.
Advantage Mahindra
M & M will be able to strongly utilise the strong R & D capabilities of SsangYong. The fact that
they have not been very good since 2003 in developing new models because of poor
management is a problem. The fact that Mahindra is planning to launch 3-5 models in the next
couple of years shows that they mean BUSINESS! They aim to improve on this by improving
the entire management of the organization.
One of the biggest gains for them would be the 98 countries strong dealer network of SsangYong
which would help them to market M & M as well as SsangYong models in an amazing manner.
SsangYong also has an edge in premium segment vehicles and this could help Mahindra to
expand its profile into this particular segment.
Mahindra therefore aims to combine its strength in sourcing and marketing with SsangYong‟s
strong capabilities in technology.
Performance
Mahindra has been performing fantastically over the last couple of quarters which has increased
its liquid assets massively. Therefore it would be easily able to fund the acquisition with its
internal accruals.
Even SsangYong has been making operating profits since the beginning of 2010 and has even
decreased costs as well as its workforce.
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CASE STUDY OF REEBOK-ADDIDAS MERGER
Introduction
On August 03, 2005, Adidas-Salomon AG (Adidas), Germany's largest sporting goods maker
announced acquisition of the US-based Reebok International Limited (Reebok) for $3.8 billion.
The share prices of both the companies recorded an increase on the day of the announcement of
the deal.
The share price of Adidas increased by 7.4% from €147.52 on August 02, 2005 to €158.45 on
August 03, 2005 on the Frankfurt stock exchange, while Reebok's share price at the New York
Stock Exchange rose to $57.14 on August 03, 2005, an increase of 30% over the August 02,
2005 share price of $43.95. The deal would result in the union of two cutthroat competitors
through a "friendly takeover".
Adidas and Reebok claimed that the merger was decided upon because of the realization that
their individual (company) goals would be best accomplished by joining instead of competing.
Nike International Inc. (Nike) was the common competitor for both Reebok and Adidas.
Analysts said that the merging companies were alike in many ways. Both the companies had a
reputation of using cutting-edge technologies to produce innovative products and both had
eminent brand ambassadors from the sports and entertainment worlds.
Thus, the merger would help spreading the global appeal of the brands in places where they had
not made a mark as individual brands. However, some analysts had doubts about the success of
the merger of the companies.
They cited that the merger would not generate much synergy because the individual brand
identities would be maintained even after the merger.
Analysts also doubted the effectiveness of the merger, as a strategy to beat Nike. They felt that
the combined entity would have to work really hard to further expand its market share in the US
market and globally.
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The story of Adidas dates back to the year 1920 when Adolf Dassler (Adi) produced a handmade
shoe fitted with black spikes. On July 01, 1924, Adi and his brother Rudolf Dassler (Rudolf)
started a company under the name "Dassler Brothers OHG".
In the year 1927, the company enhanced its capacity by taking on a new factory on lease. The
company's shoes made their debut at the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1930, the brothers
purchased the factory and named it "Dassler Brothers Sports Shoe Factory." The company
introduced tennis shoes in 1931. In the year 1935, the turnover of the company exceeded 400,000
Reichsmark .3 In 1938, a second production facility was bought in Herzogenaurach, Germany. In
1948, the brothers decided to part ways. By August 18, 1949, Adidas was registered as a
company -'Adi' from Adolf and 'Das' from Dassler. Adi registered the "Three Stripes"4 as his
official logo. Rudolf set up another sporting goods company named Puma.
In 1956, Adi's son Horst Dassler (Horst) promoted Adidas strongly during the Olympic Games at
Melbourne. He also signed a licensing agreement with the Norwegian Shoe factory, located in
Gjovik, Norway.
In 1959, Horst was assigned the job of establishing production facilities in France. A factory in
Schweinfeld, Germany was started in the same year. In 1960, Adidas was the dominant brand at
the Olympic Games held in Rome; 75% of the track and field athletes used Adidas shoes. Adidas
stepped into the production of apparel and balls (soccer balls, basketball balls) in 1961and started
manufacturing track suits in 1962.
The company launched its first jogging shoe called, "Achille" in 1968. The "Trefoil Logo" was
introduced in 1972. The essential feature of the logo was three leaves representing the Olympic
spirit, joining the three continental plates...
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The Sporting Goods Industry
Mergers and Acquisitions (M&As) had become quite common in the sporting goods industry
during the late 1990s and the early 2000s. Adidas acquired the Salomon Group for $1.4 billion in
1997. Nike acquired Converse in 2003 for $305 million, while Reebok acquired The Hockey
Company in 2004 for $330 million. These mergers were prompted by the increasing competition
and growth in the industry.
The US market is the largest market for sporting goods. Experts estimate that the US sporting
goods market will grow at a rate of approximately 8.9% between 2004 and 2008 to reach a value
of $51 billion, forming 47.6% of the world market. It is estimated that 33% of the athletic
footwear purchased by the US consumers is used for sports and fitness activities and bought on
the basis of price, comfortability and fashion. In 2004, 40% of the consumers of sports apparel
lay in the age group 12-24. T-shirts and running shoes were considered as the top selected
categories. In 2004, sports apparel retail sales in the US were worth $38.8 billion - compared
with $37 billion in 2003. Athletic footwear retail sales were $16.4 billion in 2004, compared with
$15.9 billion in 2003...
The Merger
According to the merger deal, Adidas would buy all the outstanding shares of Reebok at $59 per
share in cash. This price represented a premium of 34.2%, as per the closing share price of
$43.95 on August 02, 2005. Adidas proposed to fund the purchase through an arrangement of
debt and equity. The deal price was equal to the latest twelve month sales of Reebok and 11.7
times its EBITDA . Some analysts felt that the deal was priced too high. As Uwe Weinrich, an
analyst at HVB Group remarked, "The price Adidas will pay for Reebok is ambitious." He added
that acquisitions in the sporting goods industry rarely brought in good returns...
The Synergies
Both the companies claimed that their missions were complementary. As Fireman remarked,
"Adidas is a perfect partner for Reebok.
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Reebok's mission is to enroll global youth inclining towards the music-and-lifestyle image that it
promotes through sports, music and technology.
This complements Adidas's mission to be the leading sports brand in the world, with a focus on
performance and international presence"...
Integration Issues
Adidas said the companies would grow as a combined entity but would retain separate
management. The companies also ruled out any workforce reductions.
The new entity would continue to have separate headquarters and their individual sales forces.
The companies would also keep most of the distribution centers independent and would have
separate advertising programs for their brands. Hainer said, "The brands will be kept separate
because each brand has a lot of value and it would be stupid to bring them together.
The companies would continue selling products under respective brand names and labels."
Adidas declared that the deal would involve investment in both Adidas and Reebok. These
investments would guide the companies towards effective consolidation.
The Track Ahead
Analysts had varied opinions about the deal. Some analysts felt that Adidas could beat Nike to
become the industry leader. Al Ries said that, "The biggest benefit is that it removes a
competitor. Now, all they need to do is to focus all their efforts on competing with Nike."
However, a few analysts opined that it was impossible to dislodge Nike from its No. 1 position.
Nike was a preferred brand because of its fashion status, colors, and combinations. Although
Adidas was perceived to have good quality products that offered comfort and Reebok was perceived as a 'cool' brand, Nike was perceived as having both 'hipness' and quality...
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Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
CASE STUDY ON DEMERGER OF L&T Cement from L&T
A Bitter Corporate Feud
In October 2002, Larsen & Toubro Ltd. (L&T), a leading Indian business group, announced
plans to spin off (demerge) its cement unit into a separate company. According to L&T sources,
the company had been considering the demerger since late-2000. There was sufficient reason for
demerger because though the cement division generated 26% of the group's revenues, it
consumed over 75% of its total investments.
As per the demerger plan, called the Structural Demerger, it was ruled that L&T along with
financial institutions (FIs) would hold 76% in the new cement company, while the remaining
24% would be distributed among the existing shareholders of L&T. L&T would later sell 6% of
its share to the FIs, retain the control in the company for the following 4 or 5 years and
subsequently, sell half of the 70% stake to a strategic partner. However, the reason for the
demerger was not as simple as it was stated. Analysts had a different version of the L&T
demerger story. According to them, though L&T had been seriously considering the demerger
plan for years, the reason behind this sudden rush to do so was something else.
L&T reportedly was trying to protect itself from a possible takeover by Grasim Industries Ltd.
(Grasim), flagship company of the Aditya Birla Group,3 a leading Indian business conglomerate.
Since late-2001, Grasim had acquired over 15% stake in L&T and had also made an open offer
to L&T shareholders to further increase its stake.
Grasim's stake in the cement business would come down to 3.75%, if L&T's demerger plan went
through. Since Grasim had spent over Rs 10 billion4 in acquiring its L&T stake, it was not ready
to let go off the latter's cement business (one of its own core businesses).
Grasim charged that L&T, through the demerger plan, was trying to retain control of the business
division with itself, without focusing on overall shareholders' interests. Grasim claimed that
under L&T's demerger plan, L&T shareholders would only get a 24% stake in the new cement
company, as a result of which individual shareholders would not have much control over the new
cement company.
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Hence, Grasim proposed a vertical demerger plan for L&T in November 2002. Under this plan,
all L&T shareholders were to get a stake in the new cement company, in the existing proportion
of their respective stakes. In addition, it proposed that the cement company be listed on various
stock exchanges.
Grasim also obtained a court stay over L&T's demerger plans. At the same time, Grasim began
negotiating with the FIs to attain their support for its vertical demerger plan. Obviously L&T did
not agree to this plan which further aggravated the situation. The dispute, which dated back to
September 2001 when Grasim first bought a stake in L&T, soon became one of the most bitterly
fought battles in India's corporate history. Media reports extensively covered the frequent
allegations and counter-allegations made by both the parties. The vertical demerger issue
generated much interest, as most disputes always do. Market watchers and analysts expected the
drama to intensify further in the near future.
Background Note
GRASIM
The Aditya Birla Group, well established in the manufacture of man-made fibers, was
incorporated in August 1947 (Grasim was formerly known as Grasim Rayon). Since then, the
company had been operating in viscose staple fiber 5(VSF), cement, sponge iron, chemicals and
textile businesses.
Beginning of the War: Exit Reliance, Enter Grasim
Grasim reportedly had ambitious intentions of becoming India's largest cement company and
getting a stake in L&T was perhaps one of the easiest ways it could move closer to this goal
(Refer Exhibit I for a comparative look at the two companies).
This seemed possible for, in the intensely competitive Indian cement industry, consolidation (in
the form of mergers and acquisitions) had become a norm. According to industry observers,
Grasim realized that by building up a stake in L&T, it stood gain substantially. Thus, when an
opportunity came its way in November 2001, Grasim was more than eager to grab it.
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The Reliance Group (Reliance), which held 3.92% in L&T in September 2001, had increased its
stake to 10.05% by November 2001, by acquiring over 15.8 million shares from the market.
Reliance sold this entire stake to Grasim at Rs 306.60 per share, at a premium of 47% over the
prevailing market price of Rs 208.50...
The Open Offer
Meanwhile in May 2002, Grasim further acquired a stake of 2.84% in L&T from the open
market, taking its overall holding to 12.89%. These shares were purchased at prices ranging
between Rs 175 to Rs 180.
Justifying the above move, Grasim's President and Chief Financial Officer, D D Rathi, said that
since the company had surplus cash with no immediate investment plans, increasing the stake in
L&T seemed to be a good opportunity.
He added that the decline in the value of L&T stock since September 2001 had also induced
Grasim into buying L&T shares. Industry observers however commented that there was a lot
more behind Grasim's move than the strategic investment angle.
They alleged that Grasim was trying to make a 'backdoor entry' to take control in L&T...
A Tug of War
Grasim came out with an alternate vertical demerger plan in November 2002. According to this
plan, the cement unit was to be demerged into a separate entity which would be listed on the
stock exchanges.
All L&T shareholders including the Aditya Birla Group would get shares in the new company.
However, L&T, as a company, would not hold anything. Reportedly, the relationship between
the board members of Grasim and L&T also became increasingly hostile. L&T and Grasim
nominees on the L&T board were resorting to 'mutual fault finding.'
While other directors blamed Grasim for insider trading, Grasim nominees blamed the other
board members for the 'below par performance of L&T in 2002 (the company had reported a
profit of Rs 188.9 million for the quarter ended June 2002, as compared to Rs 651 million for the
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same period in 2001)...
A Twist in the Tale - CDC Steps in
In December 2002, L&T announced that it was considering the proposal made by
Commonwealth Development Corporation (CDC), a UK based company, to invest in its cement
business.
Under this proposal, CDC was to subscribe to optionally convertible debentures of L&T's
demerged cement business and with an option to convert the debentures into 6.8% equity stake
by December 2004. If CDC decided to hold on to the debentures, it could redeem them in three
equal installments between 2004 and 2007. According to a clause in CDC's proposal, CDC
would convert the debentures into equity only when the share price of the demerged cement
company reached a specific price, called the strike price. The strike price was fixed as Rs 158 per
share. Another clause in CDC's proposal stated that L&T required the approval of CDC if it
wanted to come out with an initial public offering (IPO) for the cement business...
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REASONS FOR FAILURE OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
Though the M&As basically aim at enhancing the shareholders value or wealth, the results of
several empirical studies reveal that M&As consistently benefit the target company's
shareholders but not the acquirer company shareholders. A majority of corporate mergers fail.
Failure occurs on average, in every sense, acquiring firm stock prices likely to reduce when
mergers are announced; many acquired companies sold off; and profitability of the acquired
company is lower after the merger relative to comparable non-merged firms. Consulting firms
have also estimated that from one half to two thirds of M&As do not come up to the expectations
of those transacting them, and many resulted in divestitures. Statistics show that roughly half of
acquisitions are not successful. M&As fails quite often and fails to create value or wealth for
shareholders of the acquirers. A definite answer as to why mergers fail to generate value for acquiring shareholders cannot be provided because mergers fail for a host of reasons. Some of
the important reasons for failures of mergers are discussed below:
1. Excessive premium
In a competitive bidding situation, a company may tend to pay more. Often highest bidder is one
who overestimates value out of ignorance. Though he emerges as the winner, he happens to be in
a way the unfortunate winner. This is called winners curse hypothesis. When the acquirer fails to
achieve the synergies required compensating the price, the M&As fails. More you pay for a
company, the harder you will have to work to make it worthwhile for your shareholders. When
the price paid is too much, how well the deal may be executed, the deal may not create value.
2. Size Issues
A mismatch in the size between acquirer and target has been found to lead to poor acquisition
performance. Many acquisitions fail either because of 'acquisition indigestion' through buying
too big targets or failed to give the smaller acquisitions the time and attention it required.
3. Poor Cultural Fits
Cultural fit between an acquirer and a target is one of the most neglected areas of analysis prior
to the closing of a deal. However, cultural due diligence is every bit as important as careful
financial analysis. Without it, the chances are great that M&As will quickly amount to
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misunderstanding, confusion and conflict. Cultural due diligence involve steps like determining
the importance of culture, assessing the culture of both target and acquirer. It is useful to know
the target management behavior with respect to dimensions such as centralized versus
decentralized decision making, speed in decision making, time horizon for decisions, level of
team work, management of conflict, risk orientation, openness to change, etc. It is necessary to
assess the cultural fit between the acquirer and target based on cultural profile. Potential sources
of clash must be managed. It is necessary to identify the impact of cultural gap, and develop and
execute strategies to use the information in the cultural profile to assess the impact that the
differences have.
4. Poor Organization Fit
Organizational fit is described as "the match between administrative practices, cultural practices
and personnel characteristics of the target and acquirer. It influences the ease with which two
organizations can be integrated during implementation. Mismatch of organation fit leads to
failure of mergers.
5. Poor Strategic Fit
A Merger will yield the desired result only if there is strategic fit between the merging
companies. Mergers with strategic fit can improve profitability through reduction in overheads,
effective utilization of facilities, the ability to raise funds at a lower cost, and deployment of
surplus cash for expanding business with higher returns. But many a time lack of strategic fit
between two merging companies especially lack of synergies results in merger failure. Strategic
fit can also include the business philosophies of the two entities (return on investment v/s market
share), the time frame for achieving these goals (short-term v/s long term) and the way in which
assets are utilized. For example, P&G – Gillette merger in consumer goods industry is a unique
case of acquisition by an innovative company to expand its product line by acquiring another
innovative company, which was, described analysts as a perfect merger.
6. Faulty evaluation
At times acquirers do not carry out the detailed diligence of the target company. They make a
wrong assessment of the benefits from the acquisition and land up paying a higher price.
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7. Ego Clash
Ego clash between the top management and subsequently lack of coordination may lead to
collapse of company after merger. The problem is more prominent in cases of mergers between
equals.
8. Limited Focus
If merging companies have entirely different products, markets systems and cultures, the merger
is doomed to failure. Added to that as core competencies are weakened and the focus gets
blurred the fallout on bourses can be dangerous. Purely financially motivated mergers such as tax
driven mergers on the advice of accountant can be hit by adverse business consequences. The
Tatas for example, sold their soaps business to Hindustan Lever.
9. Failure to Get an Objective Evaluation of the Target Company' Condition
Risk of failure will be minimized if there is a detailed evaluation of the target company's
business conditions carried out by the professionals in the line of business. Detailed examination
of the manufacturing facilities, product design features, rejection rates, and distribution systems,
profile of key people and productivity of the workers is done. Acquirer should not be carried
away by the state of the art physical facilities like a good head quarters building, guest house on
a beach, plenty of land for expansion, etc.
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Rizvi Institutes of Management Studies
CONCLUSION
M&As have become very popular over the years especially during the last two decades owing to
rapid changes that have taken place in the business environment. Business firms now have to
face increased competition not only from firms within the country but also from international
business giants thanks to globalization, liberalization, technological changes, etc. Generally the
objective of M&As is wealth maximization of shareholders by seeking gains in terms of synergy,
economies of scale, better financial and marketing advantages, diversification and reduced
earnings volatility, improved inventory management, increase in domestic market share and also
to capture fast growing international markets abroad. But astonishingly, though the number and
value of M&As are growing rapidly, the results of the studies on the impact of mergers on the
performance from the acquirers' shareholders perspective have been highly disappointing. In this paper an attempt has been made to draw the results of only some of the earlier studies while
analyzing the causes of failure of majority of the mergers. Making the mergers work successfully
is not that easy as here we are not only just putting the two organizations together but also
integrating people of two organizations with different cultures, attitudes and mindsets.
Meticulous pre-merger planning including conducting proper due diligence, effective
communication during the integration, committed and competent leadership, speed with which
the integration plan is integrated all this pave for the success of M&As. While making the
merger deals, it is necessary not only to make analysis of the financial aspects of the acquiring
firm but also the cultural and people issues of both the concerns for proper post-acquisition
integration.
Thank you