Final Paper

Running head: RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS AND SOCIAL IDENTITY 1

Facebook: A Study of Religious Affiliations and Social Identity

Danica Gullicksrud

University of Wisconsin- La Crosse

RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS AND SOCIAL IDENTITY 2

Abstract

Social identity is expressed and created through social media constantly. Previous research has

looked at variables on Facebook that have an effect on a user’s social identities communicated

through social media, including religious affiliations. This study furthered past research about

religious affiliations and discussions on Facebook by looking at how open college student

Facebook users are to communicating about their own religious affiliations while using the social

media site. In total, 141 participants completed Likert-type questions. The scales used in the

survey were modified versions of the revised self-disclosure scale and the personal report of

communication apprehension scale. Results revealed that there was a significant positive

relationship between affiliating with a religion on Facebook and revising one’s self-disclosure

about their religious affiliations on Facebook. Results also revealed that there was a significant

positive relationship between affiliating with a religion on Facebook and reporting apprehension

to communicating about religious matters on Facebook.


Facebook: A Study of Religious Affiliations and Social Identity

For years, discussion of religion has been, and to this day still unofficially remains, one

of the most taboo topics in our American society. Yet, religion remains one of the greatest

influences on individuals around the world. As Kenneth Burke (1961) was quoted in Stewart

and Roach’s (1993) article on argumentativeness and religious orientation, “religion has often

been looked upon as a center from which all other forms of human motivation gradually

diverged. It is a unifying principle…with endless varieties and passion deriving from it” (p. 26).

While religion has remained a central unifying principle in our society, social media have also

quickly become a major facet of the daily life of most people. Facebook itself has remained the

dominating social networking site that continues to work itself into the lives of people world-

wide, young and old (Bode, Vraga, Borah, & Shaw, 2013). When we bring a controversial topic

like religion and pair it with the abilities and purposes of these ever-popular social networking

sites, we run into a situation that has the potential to provide researchers with much useful data.

This data would be the result of analyzing how individuals view religion, how, when, and where

they talk about religion, and what their intentions are by discussing religion with others; because

feelings about religion are so varied and unpredictable, reactions to it could be studied in depth.

In a survey conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute, one in every twenty

Americans actually follow one or more religious leaders on Twitter and Facebook (Lisee, 2012).

On the same note, Bobkowski (2008) highlighted a study that confirmed some aspect of religion

was found on 19.9 percent of the web pages he analyzed that were created by teenagers; this

made religion the most talked about subject over all others. With validation from these statistics,

it is easy to see that social networking has become a recognized norm in our society. Social

networking has also become an irreplaceable outlet for people young and old to express


themselves and to communicate with peers (Bobkowski, 2008); religion is certainly not a topic

of communication that can be left out when considering social networking. Cheong (2011)

addressed this trend involving religion and social media, expressing that the Internet has become

a great tool for religious institutions to use, especially because there has been a “purported

decline in interest in church-related activities” (p. 23). This relatively new trend not only

provides advantageous opportunities for the church, but it provided me with an opportunity to

study the relationship between religious affiliation and social identity on social media sites such

as Facebook. At this point, conclusive data seems to be lacking when considering religious

affiliations and social identity through social media. Because religion is such a dominant factor

of our society and of a person’s social identity, it is useful to study if a social networking site

such as Facebook has the ability to affect a person’s social identity(s) when specifically focusing

on the implications of religious affiliations. At the very least, it is useful to study what

relationship exists between religious affiliations on Facebook and the social identities of those

that post about religious affiliations.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to see if and what relationship(s) might exist

between choosing to post about religious affiliations on Facebook and the possible correlation

with users’ social identity. This study ultimately aimed to see how religiously or spiritually-

based actions and affiliations affect the several “selves” (“Social Identity Theory”, 2014, Para.

2), or social identities, that college students reportedly maintain with multiple group

memberships. In finding data and conclusive results to these questions, we can use the findings

to analyze what role religion plays in the life of the participants and what implications that has

on one’s social identity. We can even discover if in college, one is more likely to strongly

affiliate with a religion or if for some reason college students feel like they need to hide those


affiliations in order to maintain favorable and neutral social identities when considering their

other group memberships that could be jeopardized. Finally, we can simply use the results of

this study to bring to light new ideas as to why religion does or does not have significant effects

(positive and/or negative) on the social identities of college students and how those students are

viewed by other students. Overall, this study would open the door for new possible areas of

study based on the reasons why and in what ways religion affects the social identities of college

students.

Review of Literature

In the next section, a review of existing literature will allow for reflection on what has

already been established about religion affiliations and activity online and how social identity

becomes involved and relevant to this study. The first subsection, titled Facebook, Social

Identity, and Religion, looks at past research and studies regarding Facebook and social identity

and how religion plays a role in those situations. Then, research on social identity is presented

in order to explain what the theory is and how it fits into this specific study and research

questions/hypothesis.

Facebook, Social Identity, & Religion

In January 2014, Facebook had approximately 1.3 billion active users. Of those 1.3

billion, 48 percent of users logged into their profiles daily (“Facebook Statistics”, 2014). Since

its creation, Facebook has become a part of mainstream society; it has existed as an outlet for

people across the world to communicate with friends, family, peers, and even strangers.

Although it is not initially seen as a significant part of life, it can easily be considered just that in

today’s world. As Rand (2009) suggested, Facebook is all about “reflection and confession,

support, and community” (p. 23). However, even more so, Facebook profiles have become the


place for online projections of people that are broadcasted to the millions of Facebook users who

also have their own online profiles. When users put their own name on their own created

profiles, it is established that this profile is a representation of the person that he or she actually

is (Ellis, 2010). Different from everyday life, users on Facebook are able to actively select

which parts of their personal identity that they want to share with other users. In other words, on

Facebook, one quite literally gets to be who he or she wants to be (Ellis, 2010). Because users

have full control over what is shared with their friends, users also get to choose how their social

identity is displayed through their content on Facebook. “Social identity [is the part of] personal

identity — our sense of who we are — that comes from our group memberships and the social

categories to which we belong: our age, sex, race, religion, profession, ethnicity, nationality,

sexual orientation, region, social class, ideological persuasion, political affiliation, mental health,

status, etc.” (Ellis, 2010, p. 38). According to Ellis (2010), social identity has more to do with

“roles and responsibilities” that people hold rather than simply the unique traits that have more to

do with personal identity (p. 37). As a result, people are able to select their broadcasted social

identity(s) through the multitude of groups and causes that they are able to associate themselves

with on their Facebook profiles (Ellis, 2010).

Many studies have been conducted using social identity and Facebook as variables.

Farquhar (2013) studied how identity was misinterpreted through Facebook imagery, such as

uploaded photos and profile pictures, and how Facebook users tend to use this imagery to create

their online identity. Farquhar recognized the trend that people online tend to reveal things about

themselves that put them in “the best light possible” and that they try to “align themselves with

particular groups while trying to avoid identification with other groups” (p. 448-449). This

desire for social acceptance can be seen in more aspects of a person’s online presence than just


their chosen imagery. Grasmuck, Martin, and Zhao (2009) also studied identity on Facebook, but

focused on ethno-racial identity; they also emphasized the phenomenon of Facebook users

exaggerating “parts of their possible selves that are socially desirable” (p. 163). In doing this,

they are able to hide parts of their actual selves that they do not want to broadcast to their friends

or peers (Grasmuck et al., 2009). Religious affiliation is just another factor that can play a role in

the desire for social acceptance; however, detailed research seems to be lacking to explain why

or how religious affiliations specifically affect a Facebook user’s multiple social identities.

Therefore, my research will specifically look at religious affiliations on Facebook to expectantly

find a relationship between posting about religious affiliations and effects on a person’s social

identity.

Additionally, there is even preexisting research involving the topic of religion, how it is

used online, and how it has to do with identity expression. Currently, research exists regarding

the early presence of religious affiliations and religious content online and how religion played a

role in identity construction in a world that is so connected through social media and the internet

(Campbell, 2012). These studies examined ways that people who affiliated with certain religions

were “empowered or constrained” while online (Campbell, 2012, p. 687). However, Campbell

(2012) mentioned that this research focused mainly on the “religious identity construction

amongst youth, new religious movements, and religious minorities” (p. 687). Additionally,

Campbell (2011) expressed the need for more studies involving religious identity formation and

presentation online. With these specific needs for further research on religion and identity, my

study will attempt to broaden this research and add to the findings that already exist.

Some existing research specifically studies what factors have an effect on a person and

how those factors help people identify with a certain group or how they encourage others to act


in certain ways. Farrow and Yuan (2011) studied what it took to build a strong connection with

alumni through Facebook and found that in order to increase their volunteerism and charitable

giving, “feelings of camaraderie, empathy, and support in the online spaces” were what helped

alumni to identify with the cause at hand (p. 448). Bode et al. (2013) wanted to find out what

exactly motivated people to express their political views on social networking sites. While both

of these studies provide a basis for finding reasons that a Facebook user may be more inclined to

identify or associate with a certain cause, they unfortunately do not address situations that

involve religious affiliations. Other research and data on the basis of social media, identity, and

religion included how “young people manage the opportunity for expression” online (Weinstein,

2014, p. 210), findings about the use of social networks by college students (Pempek,

Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009), reasons why older, religious individuals do not affiliate

themselves with religion while online (Keating, 2010), how the everyday use of internet by the

Naqsabani religious community in Indonesia affected their community construction (Alimi,

2012), and how self-expression and self-promotion are present via Facebook and LinkedIn (Van

Dijck, 2013), to mention a few. From this long list of research, there is no evidence of specific

research that relates specifically to the affects of religiously or spiritually-based activity and

affiliations on identity formation through the use of Facebook as a social networking site.

In a world where much of the social media activity resides on Facebook alone, there is no

notable or specific research that addresses the effects on social identity when individuals affiliate

with a religion on Facebook. This type of research is especially scarce when considering the

college-aged population in particular. Van Dijck (2013) discussed performing the self on

Facebook and LinkedIn, stating that there is a need for “the more precise ways that users do

present themselves for specific groups of others” to be researched and “more fully explored and


documented” (p. 200). The study at will attempt to do just that— find ways in which college

students present their religious affiliations (or lack thereof) to the Facebook world and in what

ways those affiliations may affect their other multiple social identities. Bouvier (2012) studied

how people who use Facebook select their certain identity categories for how they choose to

present themselves to others, while she also highlighted the need for research in order to

“understand how users present themselves to communicate about themselves” in online social

media environments (p. 37). This need for more research will be addressed through the

questions that are asked of college students in my modified survey about how college student

Facebook users self-disclose about their religious affiliations and to what extent college student

Facebook users may be apprehensive to communicate about their religious affiliations on

Facebook.

Social Identity Theory

Because this study focuses specifically on the social identities of Facebook users, the

social identity theory helps to guide and ground the research. Social identity theory is referred to

as a “social psychological analysis of the role of self-conception in group membership, group

processes, and intergroup relations (Hogg, 2006, p. 111). In other words, Hogg (2006) explained

that it is a theory that allows us to analyze how we create our own identities based on the

different group memberships that we prize and acknowledge in our own lives. Social identity

theory, established by Tajfel and Turner in 1979, suggests that individual people have not one

“personal self”, but that they actually have “several selves” that they maintain through different

social circles or group memberships (“Social Identity Theory”, 2014, Para. 1-2). These several

selves are considered social identities, which are an “individual’s self-concept derived from

perceived membership of social groups” (“Social Identity Theory”, Para 2). “It is an individual-


based perception of what defines ‘us’ associated with any internalized group membership,”

(“Social Identity Theory”, Para. 2). Essentially, this means that once we are categorized into

different groups and we identify with those groups, we try to let other out-groups know that we

are part of those certain in-groups. We are particularly likely to actively demonstrate or prove

that we are a part of this in-group if that in-group is especially important to how we define

ourselves (“Social Identity Theory”).

Social identity as a performance was one major idea proposed through research.

Campbell (2012) mentioned his own ideas guided by Goffman’s research, stating that “identity

online becomes an act of performance, in which individuals select, assemble, and present their

senses of self through a variety of resources available to them” (p. 687). This idea that our

identity online is essentially a performance remains true for Facebook users who utilize the site

as a channel to express their identities through these referenced “performances”. Social identity

theory became an appropriate theory to test for this study, as it is concerned with these

performances that individuals put on in order to create their different social identities, as

proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1986). Mullikin (2006) stated that “in any analysis of identity, it

is important to look at how it is formed. Identity emphasizes either internal or external

information sources that impact an individual’s belief about who they are or what they should

be” (p. 186). As one of these information sources, Facebook and all it has to offer its users likely

impacts individuals’ perceptions of who they are or what they should be. For that reason, my

study asked for the perspectives of college students on their own social identities and how those

identities are or have been affected by their own religious affiliations via Facebook. In doing

this, data may help to explain why and how identity is formed and affected. Also, in tying back

into the religious focus of this study, religion has been purposefully chosen as the in-group of


focus because it is one of the most notable group memberships that is often very strongly

involved with self-definition in our global society (Stewart & Roach, 1993).

Hypothesis and Research Question

This study broadened the existing communication studies research on social identity

through social media by further exploring Facebook specifically using the social identity theory

as the theory to be tested. Even more, this study narrowed in on religiously and spiritually-based

affiliations exclusively rather than on all group affiliations, and it focused on college students;

limiting the results to this population allowed for data that are specific to college students and

reveal findings that will reflect the college-aged population overall. As Ellis (2010) talked about

Facebook and the construction of identity, she stated that “Facebook is an extension of language,

and as we participate in it, it participates in the 'dynamic, ongoing social process'" of personal

and social identity as a communicative creation (p. 40-41). Overall, this study contributed to the

area of communication studies in that it provided data to explain the social processes involved

with contributing religious affiliations to positive and negative impacts on a college student’s

social identity(s) maintained through Facebook. Because social networking has become such a

large and influential part of communication between young people, Bobkowski (2008) suggested

that “it is worthwhile to examine the extent to which young people identify themselves as being

religious in their social networking profiles, as well as the forces that motivate such self-

representation choices” (p. 3).

In assessing the literature review, readers can see that there have been a large number of

studies done on the use of social media and how religion plays a role in the social media world.

There is even research on how social media plays a role with identity formation and presentation

of that identity (Ellis, 2010; Farquhar, 2013; Grasmuck et al., 2009; Van Dijck, 2013). However,


this particular study analyzed how religion and social identity work together for college students

on Facebook exclusively. As Mullikin (2006) discussed religious and spiritual identity, he

suggested that “in contemporary society where technology prevails, one cannot ignore its impact

on identity formation” (p. 186). Mullikin’s suggestion is the motivation for this study, as it will

aim to identify what relationship exists between religiously or spiritually-based actions and

social identities on Facebook, while it will also begin to look at how those actions may influence

the social identities of college students who use Facebook. To begin, this study assumes that

some sort of relationship does exist between the religious or spiritually-based actions of college

students on Facebook and their social identities maintained through Facebook. Based on the

research provided in the literature review regarding religion and social identity (Bobkowski,

2008; Bouvier, 2012; Campbell, 2012; Mullikin, 2006; Pempek et al., 2009), there is plenty of

evidence to support the assumption made. Therefore, a hypothesis will be formally proposed to

express this assumption before a research question is asked:

H: There is a relationship between the college students’ religiously or spiritually-based

activity on Facebook and their social identities maintained through Facebook.

Bode et al.’s (2013) study on political social networking focused on what motivates

people to express themselves politically on social networking sites; this study at hand also

intends to look for these reasons in a social networking setting, but rather aims to study situations

that involve religious affiliations or actions/behaviors on Facebook. As this specific research

topic has yet to be explored in depth, the research question that guides this study looks to find

what relationship exists between social identity and participating in religiously or spiritually-

based actions or expressions on Facebook; these actions or expressions may include affiliating

with a religion, discussing religious matters, or even referencing religious ideas.


RQ: What is the relationship between a Facebook user’s social identity and their

religiously or spiritually-based actions on Facebook?

Method

This study used a quantitative approach to research. Because religion is a traditionally

controversial topic that some prefer to keep private, confidential surveys were distributed to

ensure this privacy. Additionally, a quantitative method allowed for numerical data, which could

output results that allowed me to make reasonable inferences based on accurate numbers and

statistics. The self-administered surveys that were distributed were used to ultimately test how

religious affiliations on Facebook and the social identities of the subjects relate. As Keyton

(2011) suggested in her chapter on surveys and questionnaires, surveys should be used with the

intent to come to conclusions that can be generalized to the greater public. As this was also my

goal, the surveys were designed with the intention of using the results to make inferences about

the population in general in regards to how religious affiliations on Facebook relate to a person’s

social identities.

Subjects

The population of interest was the overall population of college students in the United

States. I had aimed to survey approximately 150 college students from Midwestern universities

through snowball sampling on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter; the final results

included data from 141 subjects. In order to recruit these subjects, I used a combination of non-

probability sampling methods to draw in responses, as this is the most convenient method to find

subjects in a limited amount of time (Keyton, 2011). College is a time of drastic development as

an adult, and that certainly does not limit religious and spiritual development. Therefore, the

sample chosen could provide some valuable results through this study about college students and


how they feel about affiliating with religions on Facebook. One hundred forty-one individuals

took part in this survey. All of the subjects were 18 years or older and were all college students.

Ages of subjects ranged from 18 to 38 years old. Approximately 79% of subjects were female,

19% were male, and .7% chose the “other” option. Nearly 91% of participants reported as being

White/Caucasian, 3.5% as other, 2.8% as Asian, less than one percent reported as being African

American, and less than one percent reported as being Hispanic. Subjects were asked questions

regarding their affiliations with religion on Facebook and their patterns of discussing religious

matters on Facebook. They were then asked questions regarding self-disclosure about religious

matters on Facebook and about communication apprehension on Facebook when considering

religious matters.

Measurement

Subjects completed a survey, as seen in the appendix, which was divided into four main

sections. The first section presented demographic questions. The second section included

questions regarding the participants’ own religious affiliations and whether or not they openly

affiliate with and/or discuss religion on Facebook. In the third section, a modification of

Wheeless and Grotz’s revised self-disclosure scale (Wheeless, 1978) was included in order to

test whether participants were likely to self-disclose about religious affiliations on Facebook. In

the fourth section, a modification of McCroskey’s personal report of communication

apprehension (McCroskey, 1982) was included to test whether participants report feeling

apprehensive while communicating on Facebook about religious matters. In using these scales

together in one survey, findings could potentially be found that support the notion that there is in

fact a relationship between social identity communicated through Facebook and openly

affiliating with a religion on Facebook. The survey could then also help to describe what kind of


relationship exists, as revising one’s self disclosure and being apprehensive to communicate

about religious affiliations strongly indicates that there are potential threats to one’s social

identity by revealing and discussing a person’s religious affiliations on Facebook.

Revised Self-Disclosure Scale (RSDS). The revised self-disclosure scale is used to

measure self-disclosure between two individuals or between an individual and a certain audience

(Graham, 2011). Its intention is to measure whether an individual is likely to revise their self-

disclosure when communicating with that certain individual or audience. I used a modified

version of RSDS to see if participants were likely to revise their self-disclosure on personal

religious affiliations or beliefs while communicating to a Facebook audience. If revised self-

disclosure was found, it could be assumed that the subject chose to revise their discussion of

their religious beliefs in order to keep it from affecting how other Facebook users view them as a

person. The modified scale had a high reliability, reporting an alpha of .79. The original scale

consisted of 31 questions, all of which used a seven-point Likert-type scale with answers that

ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree (Graham, 2013). The modified scale only used

12 of the 31 questions, as not all questions pertained to the topic at hand. Three of the 12

questions required reverse-coding. The questions focused on the participants’ comfortableness

with discussing religious matters while communicating on Facebook, whether posts about

religious matters tend to be positive or negative, how often they post about their religious

affiliations, and how honest they tend to be when discussing religious matters on Facebook.

Refer to the Appendix for a complete copy of the survey distributed.

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24). The personal report

of communication apprehension is a Likert-type scale with 24 questions that “[assess]

individuals’ communication apprehension across 4 contexts: public, small group, meeting, and


dyadic or interpersonal encounters” (Beatty, 2011, p. 292). I used a modified version of the

PRCA-24 to assess whether participants of this study are apprehensive while talking about their

religious affiliations and religious matters on Facebook; this modified survey included 15 of the

24 questions. Eight of the 15 questions required reverse-coding. The reliability of the modified

version of the survey had an alpha of .80, suggesting a high reliability for this study. The

questions involved topics surrounding the participants’ comfortableness with participating in

discussions involving religious matters on Facebook, the participants’ liking or disliking of such

conversations, how the participant feels while engaging in discussions regarding religious

matters, and surrounding the participants fear, or lack thereof, of posting and discussing their

religious affiliations and beliefs on Facebook.

Procedure

Once the IRB approved this study, surveys were distributed electronically via EagleApps

email to 1000 students at the University of Wisconsin- La Crosse. Qualtrics, an online database

for creating survey worked to create the survey and provide a link to students in the email

requesting their participation. The link to this survey was also distributed through Facebook in

order to gather more results from any person who chose to participate. As Keyton (2011)

suggested, online survey sites are advantageous in that they are easy to use and design

specialized surveys with features that benefit all types of questions. In order to ensure accurate

results that were representative of my population, approximately 150 surveys were needed to be

collected. The participants were informed of their rights as a participant, including that their

participation was completely voluntary. They were told ahead of time that the survey asks

questions regarding religious affiliations online and that it would take approximately fifteen

minutes to complete the survey. As surveys were completed by participants, responses were


received directly from Qualtrics. After the results were compiled, different statistical tests were

conducted using SPSS 19.0 in order to describe the findings and make conclusions.

Data Analysis

In order to analyze all of the data that were collected through the surveys, statistical

procedures were used. These statistical tests were completed using SPSS 19.0, a statistical

software program that allows for easy calculations of various statistics. Only correlation statistics

were conducted for both the hypothesis and research question in order to find if and what

relationship exists between religious affiliations online and an individual’s social identity. For

the hypothesis, a correlation test confirmed if there was a correlation between the subjects’

religious affiliations and their self-disclosure/communication apprehension. This allowed me to

see if a relationship did exist between religious affiliation and the social identities of the subjects.

For the research question, multiple correlation tests were conducted to see the relationships that

did or did not exist between the subjects’ level of religious affiliation and their self-

disclosure/communication apprehension results. The results of these tests are reported in the

following section.

Results

Data concerning religious affiliations on Facebook, self-disclosure about religious

matters on Facebook, and communication apprehension regarding religious matters on Facebook

were collected through 141 surveys and analyzed through SPSS 19.0. After collecting and

analyzing data, results were generated in response to the hypothesis and research question posed

by the current study.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis predicted that there was a relationship between college students’ religious


or spiritually-based activity on Facebook and their social identities maintained through

Facebook. Results of a Pearson correlation test confirmed this hypothesis; when testing the

relationship between the subjects’ reported religious affiliation levels (M = 10.31, SD = 3.62, N=

139) and the subjects’ reported revised self-disclosure (M = 46.55, SD = 9.55, N = 134), a

substantial (r = .71, p < .01) correlation was found. Another Pearson correlation test was

conducted between the subjects’ reported religious affiliation levels (M = 10.31, SD = 3.62, N =

139) and the subjects’ reported communication apprehension (M = 63.78, SD = 13.49, N = 128);

this test resulted in a moderate (r = .57, p < .01) correlation.

Research Question

The research question asked what relationship exists between a Facebook user’s social

identity and his or her religiously or spiritually-based actions on Facebook. In addition to the

results reported above, other correlation tests were conducted to see what can be said about the

relationship that exists between the two variables (religious affiliation and social identity). A

Pearson correlation test was conducted between the subjects’ reported revised self-disclosure (M

= 46.55, SD = 9.55, N = 134) and their reported level of considering themselves religious people

(M = 9.75, SD = 5.52, N = 137); a low or slight relationship was found (r = .349, p < .01). This

same test was conducted again, but the subjects’ level of considering themselves religious people

was tested against the subject’ reported communication apprehension; no relationship or

correlation was found. Finally, a Pearson correlation test was also conducted between the

subjects’ reported level of religious affiliation (M = 10.31, SD = 3.62, N = 139) and the subject’s

reported level of considering themselves religious people (M = 9.75, SD = 5.52, N = 137); a

moderate correlation (r = .46) was found.


Discussion

The objective of this study was to analyze the religiously or spiritually-based activity of

college student Facebook users in comparison to how those users believe their religious

affiliations affect how they disclose about religious matters on Facebook and whether they are

apprehensive to communicate about their religious affiliations. Through application of the social

identity theory, the results of this study could be used to come to some conclusions about the

subjects and the college student population in general. Several conclusions could be made using

the information provided by the surveys.

The hypothesis stated that there is in fact a relationship between college students’

religious affiliations on Facebook and their social identities maintained through Facebook.

Through the results of this study, an obvious relationship existed. Those who considered

themselves religious or affiliated with a religion also reported having some revised self-

disclosure and communication apprehension when it came to communicating about religious

matters on Facebook. Therefore, a relationship between the two variables is legitimate. This

finding validated the relationships that various studies mentioned in the literature review found

as well. Primarily, the hypothesis supported Mullikin’s (2006) idea that technology has an

obvious impact on identity formation, specifically when also considering the religious part of

one’s social identity. The hypothesis also extends assumptions made by Bobkowski (2008) that

undergrad, or college, students manage their disclosure about religious matters on Facebook.

Because the hypothesis could be validated through this study, the research question then became

the focus of this study.

The research question asked what relationship exists between a Facebook user’s social

identity and affiliating with a religion on Facebook. Subjects who affiliated with a religion on


Facebook tended to revise their self-disclosure when it came to communicating about religious

matters over Facebook. Furthermore, those subjects who affiliated with a religion on Facebook

tended to be apprehensive in communicating about religious matters on Facebook. This finding

supports Tajfel and Turner’s (1986) concept, stemming from their social identity theory, of

seeking positive self-esteem from different social groups once we identify with them. Because

not all users on Facebook strongly affiliate with a religion, it makes sense that college Facebook

users were more likely to revise their self-disclosure about their own affiliations and that they

were more likely to be apprehensive to talking about it on Facebook; because their overall

Facebook social group members likely all do not have all the same beliefs, the results suggest

that Facebook would not serve as a place to find this positive self-esteem. This finding

simultaneously supports Grasmuck et al.’s (2009) research that suggested that Facebook users

tend to “hide or de-emphasize the part of their selves they regard as socially undesirable” (p.

163). Because those who affiliated with a religion reported revising their self-disclosure about

religious matters and being apprehensive to communicate about religious matters on Facebook,

we can safely assume for the demographic represented in this study that something about

Facebook and/or the different social circles that exist on the social media site threaten that

positive self-esteem that the religious/religiously affiliated subjects seek. It also suggests that by

revising or editing their self-disclosure about their religious affiliations, the subjects may

perceive strong religious beliefs as something that is socially undesirable. In general, self-

disclosure about those religious affiliations tends to be revised, or censored, over Facebook for

those who are affiliated with a religion. Also, communication apprehension toward religious

matters or discussions increases for those subjects that affiliate with a religion on Facebook.

These findings pose the question of what it means to be religious (or not) in today’s


society and how that affects how people are seen by others, especially through social media. The

findings also highlight the result found in this study that suggests that if a subject affiliates with a

religion on Facebook, it does not necessarily mean that the subjects consider themselves

religious. The results of the correlation test found only a moderate correlation between subjects

considering themselves “religious” and subjects affiliating with a religion on Facebook.

Additionally, being a religious person while also reporting having revised self-disclosure and

communication apprehension on Facebook about religious matters did not have a significant

correlation. These findings combined suggest that only when affiliating with a religion on

Facebook do subjects more often tend to be apprehensive to communicate about religious

matters and revise their self-disclosure about it.

Limitations

Despite the successes of this study, it did have some limitations. To begin, the group of

subjects was composed of 91% Caucasian participants; a more diverse pool of subjects would

have served as a better representative sample of all college students in the U.S. Additionally, the

group of subjects was composed of 79% female participants. This result lessens the study’s

relevance to male college students, as the study does not accurately represent both sexes. A third

limitation was the survey scales that were used for this study. Because a pre-existing survey

specific to social identity could not be found, surveys surrounding revised self-disclosure and

communication apprehension were selected for the study. If a similar study were conducted, it

would be worthwhile to create a scale that pertains more closely to the topic at hand along with

the social identity theory that was applied to this topic. A fourth limitation was the overall depth

that was found through the results; the data that were received were not as specific as initially

planned. While assumptions could be made based on the responses from the subjects, it would


be worthwhile to conduct a qualitative study concerning this same topic to dig deeper and obtain

more specific results.

Future Research

Future research on the topic of social identity and religious affiliations on Facebook is

suggested in order to come to more concrete and universal themes. Additionally, based on the

findings in this study, some questions surface that would serve as future research questions.

Because there was not a significant correlation in the responses to the question of being a

religious person versus affiliating with a religion on Facebook, a new study could analyze how

our society responds to the word “religious”. Based on this study, it can be said that those who

affiliated with a religion on Facebook did not necessarily consider themselves religious. Because

of this, it leads to the question of why this is. Do we look at those who are “religious” in a

certain way? Are we afraid of being labeled as “religious”? A study that focuses on this

phenomenon would be valuable. A qualitative study may be especially valuable, as it would

provide opportunity for close discussion with interviewees who are likely to give a more

reflective response.

Future research may also fare well by conducting a similar study on pools of subjects

aged younger and older than college students tend to be. It would be worthwhile to find these

results and compare them to this particular study. Additional studies and findings may help the

general public to understand more clearly the implications that sharing things online have for

individuals, based on age. It would also help to support or cancel out the notion that age has

anything to do with how much one might share about their religion over social media such as

Facebook.

Through this study’s findings and through the discussion, thoughts and future research


options highlight the gray area of research that still can be done to understand why Facebook

users communicate the way they do over social media and how they perceive these

communicative scenarios to affect how they are seen and perceived by others. This study also

goes even further to suggest that maybe religion itself and how it is viewed in our society is the

factor that keeps most people from sharing too much and too often about their religious

affiliations.


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Appendix

Religious Affiliations on Facebook

I am conducting a survey to examine religious affiliations on Facebook. Protecting your

confidentiality is important to me. To ensure your confidentiality, do not include your name

anywhere on the survey. By completing this survey, you are giving me your consent to include

your answers in my results and to include those results in future publications or presentations.

Results of this study will be available in December 2014. You may withdraw from this study

without consequence at any time. For a copy of the results, you may contact me or my faculty

advisor Mike Tollefson at 4211 Centennial Hall and (608) 785-6710. If you have any questions,

feel free to contact me. Thank you for your time and participation. Questions regarding the

protection of human subjects may be addressed to the UW-La Crosse Institutional Review Board

for the Protection of Human Subjects, (608-785-8124 or [email protected]).

Sincerely, Research Advisor

Mike Tollefson

4211 Centennial Hall

Danica Gullicksrud La Crosse, WI, 54601

[email protected] 608-785-6710

(608) 738-5420 [email protected]

Directions: Please answer the following questions by marking the most accurate answer.

1.) What is your age?

________

mailto:[email protected]


2.) Are you currently a college or post-secondary education student?

Yes No

3.) What is your sex?

A) Male B) Female C) Prefer not to answer

4.) What is your ethnicity?

A) Black/African American B) White/Caucasian C) Hispanic

D) Asian/Pacific Islander E) Native American F) Other

5.) Do you have a Facebook account?

Yes No

Directions: Please answer each question as it pertains to you by selecting (1) Strongly Disagree,

(2) Disagree, (3) Not Sure, (4) Agree, or (5) Strongly Agree.

1.) I consider myself a religious and/or spiritual person.

(1) Strongly Disagree (2) Disagree (3) Not Sure (4) Agree (5) Strongly Agree

2.) I identify with a certain religion or spiritual group.


3.) I openly affiliate with a religion or spiritual group on my Facebook and/or my Facebook

account.



4.) I have openly discussed religious or spiritual matters on Facebook.


5.) I have voluntarily commented on other Facebook users’ comments/posts/shares/etc. about

religious or spiritual matters.


6.) I do not consider myself a religious and/or spiritual person.


7.) I do not identify with a religion and/or spiritual group.


Directions: Please mark the following statements to reflect how you communicate with others on

Facebook about communication. Indicate the degree to which the following statements reflect

how you communicate with this person by marking whether you (7) strongly agree, (6) agree,

(5) moderately agree, (4) are undecided, (3) moderately disagree, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly

disagree.

1. When I express my personal feelings about my and others’ religious/spir itual beliefs or

affiliations on Facebook, I am always aware of what I am doing and saying. 2. When I reveal my feelings about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on

Facebook, I consciously intend to do so.

3. When I am disclosing about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook, I am consciously aware of what I am revealing

4. I often talk about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations while on Facebook. 5. I often discuss my feelings about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on while

Facebook.

6. I usually disclose positive things about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

7. I normally reveal “bad” feelings I have about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.


8. I normally “express” my good feelings about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

9. I usually disclose negative things about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

10. I cannot reveal my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook when I want to because I do not know myself thoroughly enough.

11. My disclosures about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook are completely

accurate reflections of what I really believe. 12. I am always honest in my disclosures about religious/spiritua l beliefs or affiliations on

Facebook.

Directions: This instrument is composed of 24 statements concerning your feelings about

communication with other people on Facebook about religious affiliations. Please indicate in the

space provided the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you (1)

strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree with each

statement.

1. I dislike participating in group discussions about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations

on Facebook. 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in group discussions about

religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook. 3. I like to get involved in group discussions about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations

on Facebook.

4. Engaging in group discussion about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook with new people makes me tense and nervous.

5. I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

6. I am afraid to express myself on Facebook about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations.

7. Communicating on Facebook about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations usually makes me uncomfortable.

8. I am very relaxed when answering questions about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

9. While participating in a conversation about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on

Facebook with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous. 10. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations on Facebook about religious/spiritual

beliefs or affiliations on Facebook. 11. Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations about religious/spiritual beliefs

or affiliations on Facebook.

12. Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

13. While conversing with a new acquaintance about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations while on Facebook, I feel very relaxed.


14. I’m afraid to speak up in conversations on Facebook about religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations.

15. I have no fear of posting about my religious/spiritual beliefs or affiliations on Facebook.

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