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A BRIEF STUDY ON PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PROCESS

ABSTRACT:

Injection molded components are consistently designed to minimize the design and

manufacturing information content of the enterprise system. The resulting designs, however, are

extremely complex and frequently exhibit coupling between multiple qualities attributes.

Axiomatic design principles were applied to the injection molding process to add control

parameters that enable the spatial and dynamic decoupling of multiple quality attributes in the

molded part. There are three major benefits of the process redesign effort. First, closed loop

pressure control has enabled tight coupling between the mass and momentum equations. This

tight coupling allows the direct input and controllability of the melt pressure. Second, the use of

multiple melt actuators provides for the decoupling of melt pressures between different locations

in the mold cavity. Such decoupling can then be used to maintain functional independence of

multiple qualities attributes. Third, the heat equation has been decoupled from the mass and

momentum equations. This allows the mold to be filled under isothermal conditions. Once the

cavities are completely full and attain the desired packing pressure, then the cooling is allowed to

progress.

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CHAPTER-01

1.0 INTRODUCTION:

Injection molding is the most commonly used manufacturing process for the fabrication of plastic parts.

A wide variety of products are manufactured using injection molding, which vary greatly in their size,

complexity, and application. The injection molding process requires the use of an injection molding

machine, raw plastic material, and a mold. The plastic is melted in the injection molding machine and

then injected into the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the final part. The steps in this process are

described in greater detail in the next section.

Fig. 1.1 Injection molding overview

Injection molding is used to produce thin-walled plastic parts for a wide variety of applications,

one of the most common being plastic housings. Plastic housing is a thin-walled enclosure, often

requiring many ribs and bosses on the interior. These housings are used in a variety of products

including household appliances, consumer electronics, power tools, and as automotive

dashboards. Other common thin-walled products include different types of open containers, such

as buckets. Injection molding is also used to produce several everyday items such as

toothbrushes or small plastic toys. Many medical devices, including valves and syringes, are

manufactured using injection molding as well.

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1.1 INJECTION MOLDING-OVERVIEW:

Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from both thermoplastic

and thermosetting plastic materials. Material is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a

mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity. After a product is

designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, molds are made by a mold maker (or

toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the

features of the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of

parts, from the smallest component to entire body panels of cars.

Fig. 1.2 Schematic Diagram of Plastic Injection molding

1.2. PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS:

Utilizes a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mold cavity

Produces a solid or open-ended shape which has conformed to the contour of the mold

Uses thermoplastic or thermo set materials

Produces a parting line, sprue, and gate marks

Ejector pin marks are usually present

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1.3 HISTORY& DEVELOPMENT:

The first man-made plastic was invented in Britain in 1851 by Alexander Parkes. He

publicly demonstrated it at the 1862 International Exhibition in London; calling the material he

produced "Parkesine." Derived from cellulose, Parkesine could be heated, molded, and retain its

shape when cooled. It was, however, expensive to produce, prone to cracking, and highly

flammable.

In 1868, American inventor John Wesley Hyatt developed a plastic material he named

Celluloid, improving on Parkes' invention so that it could be processed into finished form.

Together with his brother Isaiah, Hyatt patented the first injection molding machine in 1872.

This machine was relatively simple compared to machines in use today. It worked like a large

hypodermic needle, using a plunger to inject plastic through a heated cylinder into a mold. The

industry progressed slowly over the years, producing products such as collar stays, buttons, and

hair combs.

The industry expanded rapidly in the 1940s because World War II created a huge demand

for inexpensive, mass-produced products. In 1946, American inventor James Watson Hendry

built the first screw injection machine, which allowed much more precise control over the speed

of injection and the quality of articles produced. This machine also allowed material to be mixed

before injection, so that colored or recycled plastic could be added to virgin material and mixed

thoroughly before being injected. Today screw injection machines account for the vast majority

of all injection machines. In the 1970s, Hendry went on to develop the first gas-assisted injection

molding process, which permitted the production of complex, hollow articles that cooled

quickly. This greatly improved design flexibility as well as the strength and finish of

manufactured parts while reducing production time, cost, weight and waste.

The plastic injection molding industry has evolved over the years from producing combs and

buttons to producing a vast array of products for many industries including automotive, medical,

aerospace, consumer products, toys, plumbing, packaging, and construction.

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CHAPTER-02

2.0 PROCESS CYCLE:

The process cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 2 minutes,

and consists of the following four stages:

1. Clamping - Prior to the injection of the material into the mold, the two halves of the mold

must first be securely closed by the clamping unit. Each half of the mold is attached to the

injection molding machine and one half is allowed to slide. The hydraulically powered clamping

unit pushes the mold halves together and exerts sufficient force to keep the mold securely closed

while the material is injected. The time required to close and clamp the mold is dependent upon

the machine - larger machines (those with greater clamping forces) will require more time. This

time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine.

2. Injection - The raw plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is fed into the injection

molding machine, and advanced towards the mold by the injection unit. During this process, the

material is melted by heat and pressure. The molten plastic is then injected into the mold very

quickly and the buildup of pressure packs and holds the material. The amount of material that is

injected is referred to as the shot. The injection time is difficult to calculate accurately due to the

complex and changing flow of the molten plastic into the mold. However, the injection time can

be estimated by the shot volume, injection pressure, and injection power.

3. Cooling - The molten plastic that is inside the mold begins to cool as soon as it makes contact

with the interior mold surfaces. As the plastic cools, it will solidify into the shape of the desired

part. However, during cooling some shrinkage of the part may occur. The packing of material in

the injection stage allows additional material to flow into the mold and reduce the amount of

visible shrinkage. The mold can not be opened until the required cooling time has elapsed. The

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cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the plastic and the

maximum wall thickness of the part.

4. Ejection - After sufficient time has passed, the cooled part may be ejected from the mold by

the ejection system, which is attached to the rear half of the mold. When the mold is opened, a

mechanism is used to push the part out of the mold. Force must be applied to eject the part

because during cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the mold. In order to facilitate the ejection

of the part, a mold release agent can be sprayed onto the surfaces of the mold cavity prior to

injection of the material. The time that is required to open the mold and eject the part can be

estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine and should include time for the part to fall free

of the mold. Once the part is ejected, the mold can be clamped shut for the next shot to be

injected.

Fig.2.1 Injection molded part.

After the injection molding cycle, some post processing is typically required. During cooling, the

material in the channels of the mold will solidify attached to the part. This excess material, along

with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the part, typically by using cutters. For

some types of material, such as thermoplastics, the scrap material that results from this trimming

can be recycled by being placed into a plastic grinder, also called regrind machines or

granulators, which regrinds the scrap material into pellets. Due to some degradation of the

material properties, the regrind must be mixed with raw material in the proper regrind ratio to be

reused in the injection molding process.

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2.1 MACHINERY & EQUIPMENT:

Injection molding machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type

plunger, and a heating unit. They are also known as presses, they hold the molds in which the

components are shaped. Presses are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping

force that the machine can exert. This force keeps the mold closed during the injection process.

Tonnage can vary from less than 5 tons to 6000 tons, with the higher figures used in

comparatively few manufacturing operations.

The total clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the part being

molded. This projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 2 to 8 tons for each square

inch of the projected areas. As a rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in2 can be used for most products. If

the plastic material is very stiff, it will require more injection pressure to fill the mold, thus more

clamp tonnage to hold the mold closed. The required force can also be determined by the

material used and the size of the part, larger parts require higher clamping force.

Fig.2.2 Injection Molding Machine.

Injection molding machines have many components and are available in different configurations,

including a horizontal configuration and a vertical configuration. However, regardless of their

design, all injection molding machines utilize a power source, injection unit, mold assembly, and

clamping unit to perform the four stages of the process cycle.

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2.2 POWER REQUIREMENTS:

The power required for this process of injection molding depends on many things and

varies between materials used. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states that the power

requirements depend on "a material's specific gravity, melting point, thermal conductivity, part size, and

molding rate." Below is a table from page 243 of the same reference as previously mentioned which

best illustrates the characteristics relevant to the power required for the most commonly used

materials.

Material Specific Gravity Melting Point (°F)

Epoxy 1.12 to 1.24 248

Phenolic 1.34 to 1.95 248

Nylon 1.01 to 1.15 381 to 509

Polyethylene 0.91 to 0.965 230 to 243

Polystyrene 1.04 to 1.07 338

Table 1 Power Requirements.

2.3 INJECTION UNIT:

The injection unit is responsible for both heating and injecting the material into the mold.

The first part of this unit is the hopper, a large container into which the raw plastic is poured. The

hopper has an open bottom, which allows the material to feed into the barrel. The barrel contains

the mechanism for heating and injecting the material into the mold. This mechanism is usually a

ram injector or a reciprocating screw. A ram injector forces the material forward through a

heated section with a ram or plunger that is usually hydraulically powered. Today, the more

common technique is the use of a reciprocating screw. A reciprocating screw moves the material

forward by both rotating and sliding axially, being powered by either a hydraulic or electric

motor.

The material enters the grooves of the screw from the hopper and is advanced towards the

mold as the screw rotates. While it is advanced, the material is melted by pressure, friction, and

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additional heaters that surround the reciprocating screw. The molten plastic is then injected very

quickly into the mold through the nozzle at the end of the barrel by the buildup of pressure and

the forward action of the screw. This increasing pressure allows the material to be packed and

forcibly held in the mold. Once the material has solidified inside the mold, the screw can retract

and fill with more material for the next shot.

Fig.2.3 Injection molding machine - Injection unit.

2.4 CLAMPING UNIT:

Prior to the injection of the molten plastic into the mold, the two halves of the mold must

first be securely closed by the clamping unit. When the mold is attached to the injection molding

machine, each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the mold, called the

mold cavity, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the nozzle of the injection unit.

The rear half of the mold, called the mold core, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides

along the tie bars. The hydraulically powered clamping motor actuates clamping bars that push

the moveable platen towards the stationary platen and exert sufficient force to keep the mold

securely closed while the material is injected and subsequently cools. After the required cooling

time, the mold is then opened by the clamping motor. An ejection system, which is attached to

the rear half of the mold, is actuated by the ejector bar and pushes the solidified part out of the

open cavity.

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Fig.2.4 Injection molding machine - Clamping unit.

2.5 LUBRICATION AND COOLING:

Obviously, the mold must be cooled in order for the production to take place. Because of

the heat capacity, inexpensiveness, and availability of water, water is used as the primary cooling

agent. To cool the mold, water can be channeled through the mold to account for quick cooling

times. Usually a colder mold is more efficient because this allows for faster cycle times.

However, this is not always true because crystalline materials require the opposite: a warmer

mold and lengthier cycle time.

2.6 MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS:

Injection molding machines are typically characterized by the tonnage of the clamp force

they provide. The required clamp force is determined by the projected area of the parts in the

mold and the pressure with which the material is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a

larger clamping force. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require

higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine

specifications, such as shot capacity, clamp stroke, minimum mold thickness, and platen size.

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Injection molded parts can vary greatly in size and therefore require these measures to cover a

very large range. As a result, injection molding machines are designed to each accommodate a

small range of this larger spectrum of values. Sample specifications are shown below for three

different models (Babyplast, Powerline, and Maxima) of injection molding machine that are

manufactured by Cincinnati Milacron.

  Babyplast Powerline Maxima

Clamp force (ton) 6.6 330 4400

Shot capacity (oz.) 0.13 - 0.50 8 - 34 413 - 1054

Clamp stroke (in.) 4.33 23.6 133.8

Min. mold thickness (in.) 1.18 7.9 31.5

Platen size (in.) 2.95 x 2.95 40.55 x 40.55 122.0 x 106.3

Table 2 Machine Specifications.

Fig.2.5 Injection molding machine.

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2.7 TOOLING:

The injection molding process uses molds, typically made of steel or aluminum, as the

custom tooling. The mold has many components, but can be split into two halves. Each half is

attached inside the injection molding machine and the rear half is allowed to slide so that the

mold can be opened and closed along the mold's parting line. The two main components of the

mold are the mold core and the mold cavity. When the mold is closed, the space between the

mold core and the mold cavity forms the part cavity, that will be filled with molten plastic to

create the desired part. Multiple-cavity molds are sometimes used, in which the two mold halves

form several identical part cavities.

Fig.2.6 Mold overview.

2.8 MOLD BASE:

The mold core and mold cavity are each mounted to the mold base, which is then fixed to

the platens inside the injection molding machine. The front half of the mold base includes a

support plate, to which the mold cavity is attached, the sprue bushing, into which the material

will flow from the nozzle, and a locating ring, in order to align the mold base with the nozzle.

The rear half of the mold base includes the ejection system, to which the mold core is attached,

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and a support plate. When the clamping unit separates the mold halves, the ejector bar actuates

the ejection system. The ejector bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box,

which in turn pushes the ejector pins into the molded part. The ejector pins push the solidified

part out of the open mold cavity.

Fig.2.7 Mold base.

2.9 MOLD CHANNELS:

In order for the molten plastic to flow into the mold cavities, several channels are

integrated into the mold design. First, the molten plastic enters the mold through the sprue.

Additional channels, called runners, carry the molten plastic from the sprue to all of the cavities

that must be filled. At the end of each runner, the molten plastic enters the cavity through a gate

which directs the flow. The molten plastic that solidifies inside these runners is attached to the

part and must be separated after the part has been ejected from the mold. However, sometimes

hot runner systems are used which independently heat the channels, allowing the contained

material to be melted and detached from the part. Another type of channel that is built into the

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mold is cooling channels. These channels allow water to flow through the mold walls, adjacent

to the cavity, and cool the molten plastic.

Fig.2.8 Mold channels.

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CHAPTER-03

3.0 MOLD DESIGN:

In addition to runners and gates, there are many other design issues that must be

considered in the design of the molds. Firstly, the mold must allow the molten plastic to flow

easily into all of the cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified part from the

mold, so a draft angle must be applied to the mold walls. The design of the mold must also

accommodate any complex features on the part, such as undercuts or threads, which will require

additional mold pieces. Most of these devices slide into the part cavity through the side of the

mold, and are therefore known as slides, or side-actions. The most common type of side-action is

a side-core which enables an external undercut to be molded. Other devices enter through the end

of the mold along the parting direction, such as internal core lifters, which can form an internal

undercut. To mold threads into the part, an unscrewing device is needed, which can rotate out of

the mold after the threads have been formed.

Fig.3.1 Mold – Closed.

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Fig.3.2 Mold - Exploded view.

Fig.3.3 Standard two plates tooling – core and cavity are inserts in a mold base – "Family mold" of 5 different parts.

The mold consists of two primary components, the injection mold (A plate) and the

ejector mold (B plate). Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the injection mold, the

sprue bushing is to seal tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the molding machine

and to allow molten plastic to flow from the barrel into the mold, also known as cavity. The

sprue bushing directs the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels that are machined

into the faces of the A and B plates. These channels allow plastic to run along them, so they are

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referred to as runners. The molten plastic flows through the runner and enters one or more

specialized gates and into the cavity geometry to form the desired part.

The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a shot.

Trapped air in the mold can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the

mold. If the trapped air is not allowed to escape, it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming

material and is squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents filling and causes other

defects as well. The air can become so compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding

plastic material. To allow for removal of the molded part from the mold, the mold features must

not overhang one another in the direction that the mold opens, unless parts of the mold are

designed to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens (utilizing components

called Lifters).

Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (The axis of the cored

position (hole) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mold as it opens and

closes) are typically angled slightly with (draft) to ease release of the part from the mold.

Insufficient draft can cause deformation or damage. The draft required for mold release is

primarily dependent on the depth of the cavity: the deeper the cavity, the more draft necessary.

Shrinkage must also be taken into account when determining the draft required. If the skin is too

thin, then the molded part will tend to shrink onto the cores that form them while cooling, and

cling to those cores or part may warp, twist, blister or crack when the cavity is pulled away.

The mold is usually designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the ejector (B)

side of the mold when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along with

the parts. The part then falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also known as

submarine or mold gate, is located below the parting line or mold surface. The opening is

machined into the surface of the mold on the parting line. The molded part is cut (by the mold)

from the runner system on ejection from the mold. Ejector pins, also known as knockout pin, is a

circular pin placed in either half of the mold (usually the ejector half) which pushes the finished

molded product, or runner system out of a mold.

The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes

drilled through the mold plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The

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coolant absorbs heat from the mold (which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps the

mold at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate.

To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and

sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable

inserts, one mold may make several variations of the same part.

More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called

slides that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part

features. When the mold is opened, the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using

stationary “angle pins” on the stationary mold half. These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause

the slides to move backward when the moving half of the mold opens. The part is then ejected

and the mold closes. The closing action of the mold causes the slides to move forward along the

angle pins.

Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer

to form around the first part. This is often referred to as over molding. This system can allow for

production of one-piece tires and wheels. 2-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "over mold"

within a single molding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection molding machines

with two or more injection units. This process is actually an injection molding process performed

twice. In the first step, the base color material is molded into a basic shape. Then the second

material is injection-molded into the remaining open spaces. That space is then filled during the

second injection step with a material of a different color.

A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of

"impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitations. A tool with

one impression will often be called a single impression (cavity) mold. A mold with 2 or more

cavities of the same parts will likely be referred to as multiple impression (cavity) mold. Some

extremely high production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.

In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool. Some

toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts are related.

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3.1 DESIGN RULES

3.1.1 MAXIMUM WALL THICKNESS:

Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time

and cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT

Part with thick walls

CORRECT

Part redesigned with thin walls

Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects

INCORRECT

Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 ≠ t2)

CORRECT

Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

3.1.2 CORNERS:

Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture

Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

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INCORRECT

Sharp corner

CORRECT

Rounded corner

3.1.3 DRAFT:

Apply a draft angle of 1° - 2° to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate

removing the part from the mold.

INCORRECT

No draft angle

CORRECT

Draft angle ()

3.1.4 RIBS:

Add ribs for structural support, rather than increasing the wall thickness

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INCORRECT

Thick wall of thickness t

CORRECT

Thin wall of thickness t with ribs

Orient ribs perpendicular to the axis about which bending may occur

INCORRECT

Incorrect rib direction under load F

CORRECT

Correct rib direction under load F

Thickness of ribs should be 50-60% of the walls to which they are attached

Height of ribs should be less than three times the wall thickness

Round the corners at the point of attachment

Apply a draft angle of at least 0.25°

INCORRECT

Thick rib of thickness t

CORRECT

Thin rib of thickness t

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Close up of ribs

3.1.5 BOSSES:

Wall thickness of bosses should be no more than 60% of the main wall thickness

Radius at the base should be at least 25% of the main wall thickness

Should be supported by ribs that connect to adjacent walls or by gussets at the base.

INCORRECT

Isolated boss

CORRECT

   

Isolated boss with ribs (left) or gussets (right)

If a boss must be placed near a corner, it should be isolated using ribs.

INCORRECT

Boss in corner

CORRECT

Ribbed boss in corner

3.1.6 UNDERCUTS:

Minimize the number of external undercuts

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o External undercuts require side-cores which add to the tooling cost

o Some simple external undercuts can be molded by relocating the parting line

Simple external undercut Mold cannot separateNew parting line allows

undercut

o Redesigning a feature can remove an external undercut

Part with hinge Hinge requires side-core

Redesigned hinge New hinge can be molded

Minimize the number of internal undercuts

o Internal undercuts often require internal core lifters which add to the tooling cost

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o Designing an opening in the side of a part can allow a side-core to form an internal

undercut

Internal undercut accessible from the side

o Redesigning a part can remove an internal undercut

Part with internal undercut Mold cannot separate

Part redesigned with slot New part can be molded

Minimize number of side-action directions

o Additional side-action directions will limit the number of possible cavities in the mold

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3.1.7 THREADS

If possible, features with external threads should be oriented perpendicular to the parting

direction.

Threaded features that are parallel to the parting direction will require an unscrewing device,

which greatly adds to the tooling cost.

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CHAPTER-04

4.0 MATERIALS:

There are many types of materials that may be used in the injection molding process. Most

polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some elastomers.

When these materials are used in the injection molding process, their raw form is usually small

pellets or a fine powder. Also, colorants may be added in the process to control the color of the

final part. The selection of a material for creating injection molded parts is not solely based upon

the desired characteristics of the final part. While each material has different properties that will

affect the strength and function of the final part, these properties also dictate the parameters used

in processing these materials. Each material requires a different set of processing parameters in

the injection molding process, including the injection temperature, injection pressure, mold

temperature, ejection temperature, and cycle time. A comparison of some commonly used

materials is shown below (Follow the links to search the material library).

Material name Abbreviation Trade names Description Applications

Acetal POM Celcon, Delrin, Hostaform, Lucel

Strong, rigid, excellent fatigue resistance, excellent creep resistance, chemical resistance, moisture resistance, naturally opaque white, low/medium cost

Bearings, cams, gears, handles, plumbing components, rollers, rotors, slide guides, valves

Acrylic PMMA Diakon, Oroglas, Lucite, Plexiglas

Rigid, brittle, scratch resistant, transparent,

Display stands, knobs, lenses, light housings,

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optical clarity, low/medium cost

panels, reflectors, signs, shelves, trays

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

ABS Cycolac, Magnum, Novodur, Terluran

Strong, flexible, low mold shrinkage (tight tolerances), chemical resistance, electroplating capability, naturally opaque, low/medium cost

Automotive (consoles, panels, trim, vents), boxes, gauges, housings, inhalors, toys

Cellulose Acetate CA Dexel, Cellidor, Setilithe

Tough, transparent, high cost

Handles, eyeglass frames

Polyamide 6 (Nylon) PA6 Akulon, Ultramid, Grilon

High strength, fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, low creep, low friction, almost opaque/white, medium/high cost

Bearings, bushings, gears, rollers, wheels

Polyamide 6/6 (Nylon)

PA6/6 Kopa, Zytel, Radilon

High strength, fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, low creep, low friction, almost opaque/white, medium/high cost

Handles, levers, small housings, zip ties

Polyamide 11+12 PA11+12 Rilsan, Grilamid High strength, Air filters,

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(Nylon) fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, low creep, low friction, almost opaque to clear, very high cost

eyeglass frames, safety masks

Polycarbonate PC Calibre, Lexan, Makrolon

Very tough, temperature resistance, dimensional stability, transparent, high cost

Automotive (panels, lenses, consoles), bottles, containers, housings, light covers, reflectors, safety helmets and shields

Polyester - Thermoplastic

PBT, PET Celanex, Crastin, Lupox, Rynite, Valox

Rigid, heat resistance, chemical resistance, medium/high cost

Automotive (filters, handles, pumps), bearings, cams, electrical components (connectors, sensors), gears, housings, rollers, switches, valves

Polyether Sulphone PES Victrex, Udel Tough, very high chemical resistance, clear, very high cost

Valves

Polyetheretherketone PEEKEEK Strong, thermal stability, chemical

Aircraft components, electrical

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resistance, abrasion resistance, low moisture absorption

connectors, pump impellers, seals

Polyetherimide PEI Ultem Heat resistance, flame resistance, transparent (amber color)

Electrical components (connectors, boards, switches), covers, sheilds, surgical tools

Polyethylene - Low Density

LDPE Alkathene, Escorene, Novex

Lightweight, tough and flexible, excellent chemical resistance, natural waxy appearance, low cost

Kitchenware, housings, covers, and containers

Polyethylene - High Density

HDPE Eraclene, Hostalen, Stamylan

Tough and stiff, excellent chemical resistance, natural waxy appearance, low cost

Chair seats, housings, covers, and containers

Polyphenylene Oxide

PPO Noryl, Thermocomp, Vamporan

Tough, heat resistance, flame resistance, dimensional stability, low water absorption, electroplating capability, high cost

Automotive (housings, panels), electrical components, housings, plumbing components

Polyphenylene PPS Ryton, Fortron Very high Bearings,

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Sulphide strength, heat resistance, brown, very high cost

covers, fuel system components, guides, switches, and shields 

Polypropylene PP Novolen, Appryl, Escorene

Lightweight, heat resistance, high chemical resistance, scratch resistance, natural waxy appearance, tough and stiff, low cost.

Automotive (bumpers, covers, trim), bottles, caps, crates, handles, housings

Polystyrene - General purpose

GPPS Lacqrene, Styron, Solarene

Brittle, transparent, low cost

Cosmetics packaging, pens

Polystyrene - High impact

HIPS Polystyrol, Kostil, Polystar

Impact strength, rigidity, toughness, dimensional stability, naturally translucent, low cost

Electronic housings, food containers, toys

Polyvinyl Chloride - Plasticised

PVC Welvic, Varlan Tough, flexible, flame resistance, transparent or opaque, low cost

Electrical insulation, housewares, medical tubing, shoe soles, toys

Polyvinyl Chloride - Rigid

UPVC Polycol, Trosiplast

Tough, flexible, flame resistance, transparent or opaque, low cost

Outdoor applications (drains, fittings, gutters)

Styrene Acrylonitrile SAN Luran, Stiff, brittle, Housewares,

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Arpylene, Starex

chemical resistance, heat resistance, hydrolytically stable, transparent, low cost

knobs, syringes

Thermoplastic Elastomer/Rubber

TPE/R Hytrel, Santoprene, Sarlink

Tough, flexible, high cost

Bushings, electrical components, seals, washers

Table 3: Materials.

4.1 MOLDING DEFECTS:

Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can either be caused

by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)

Molding

Defects

Alternative

Name

Descriptions Causes

Blister Blistering Raised or layered

zone on surface of

the part

Tool or material is too hot, often caused

by a lack of cooling around the tool or a

faulty heater

Burn marks Air Burn/

Gas Burn/

Dieseling

Black or brown

burnt areas on the

part located at

furthest points from

gate or where air is

trapped

Tool lacks venting, injection speed is too

high

Color streaks

(US)

Colour

streaks (UK)

Localized change of

color/colour

Masterbatch isn't mixing properly, or the

material has run out and it's starting to

come through as natural only. Previous

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colored material "dragging" in nozzle or

check valve.

Delamination Thin mica like

layers formed in

part wall

Contamination of the material e.g. PP

mixed with ABS, very dangerous if the

part is being used for a safety critical

application as the material has very little

strength when delaminated as the

materials cannot bond

Flash Burrs Excess material in

thin layer exceeding

normal part

geometry

Mold is over packed or parting line on

the tool is damaged, too much injection

speed/material injected, clamping force

too low. Can also be caused by dirt and

contaminants around tooling surfaces.

Embedded

contaminates

Embedded

particulates

Foreign particle

(burnt material or

other) embedded in

the part

Particles on the tool surface,

contaminated material or foreign debris

in the barrel, or too much shear heat

burning the material prior to injection

Flow marks Flow lines Directionally "off

tone" wavy lines or

patterns

Injection speeds too slow (the plastic has

cooled down too much during injection,

injection speeds must be set as fast as

you can get away with at all times)

Jetting Deformed part by

turbulent flow of

material

Poor tool design, gate position or runner.

Injection speed set too high.

Knit Lines Weld lines Small lines on the

backside of core

pins or windows in

parts that look like

just lines.

Caused by the melt-front flowing around

an object standing proud in a plastic part

as well as at the end of fill where the

melt-front comes together again. Can be

minimized or eliminated with a mold-

flow study when the mold is in design

phase. Once the mold is made and the

gate is placed one can only minimize this

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flaw by changing the melt and the mold

temperature.

Polymer

degradation

polymer breakdown

from hydrolysis,

oxidation etc.

Excess water in the granules, excessive

temperatures in barrel

Sink marks [sinks] Localized

depression (In

thicker zones)

Holding time/pressure too low, cooling

time too short, with sprueless hot runners

this can also be caused by the gate

temperature being set too high.

Excessive material or thick wall

thickness.

Short shot Non-fill /

Short mold

Partial part Lack of material, injection speed or

pressure too low, mold too cold

Splay marks Splash mark /

Silver streaks

Circular pattern

around gate caused

by hot gas

Moisture in the material, usually when

hygroscopic resins are dried improperly.

Trapping of gas in "rib" areas due to

excessive injection velocity in these

areas. Material too hot.

Stringiness Stringing String like remain

from previous shot

transfer in new shot

Nozzle temperature too high. Gate hasn't

frozen off

Voids Empty space within

part (Air pocket)

Lack of holding pressure (holding

pressure is used to pack out the part

during the holding time). Filling to fast,

not allowing the edges of the part to set

up. Also mold may be out of registration

(when the two halves don't center

properly and part walls are not the same

thickness).

Weld line Knit line /

Meld line /

Transfer line

Discolored line

where two flow

fronts meet

Mold/material temperatures set too low

(the material is cold when they meet, so

they don't bond). Point between injection

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and transfer (to packing and holding) too

early.

Warping Twisting Distorted part Cooling is too short, material is too hot,

lack of cooling around the tool, incorrect

water temperatures (the parts bow

inwards towards the hot side of the tool)

Uneven shrinking between areas of the

part

Table 4: Molding Defects.

4.2 TOLERANCES AND SURFACES:

Molding tolerance is a specified allowance on the deviation in parameters such as

dimensions, weights, shapes, or angles, etc. To maximize control in setting tolerances there is

usually a minimum and maximum limit on thickness, based on the process used. [36] Injection

molding typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT Grade of about 9–14. The possible

tolerance of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is ±0.008 to ±0.002 inches. Surface finishes of two to four

micro inches or better are can be obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are also possible.

Molding Type Typical Possible

Thermoplastic ±0.008 ±0.002

Thermoset ±0.008 ±0.002

Table 5: Tolerances.

CHAPTER-05

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5.0 COSTING & ESTIMATION:

5.1 MATERIAL COST:

The material cost is determined by the weight of material that is required and the unit price of

that material. The weight of material is clearly a result of the part volume and material density;

however, the part's maximum wall thickness can also play a role. The weight of material that is

required includes the material that fills the channels of the mold. The size of those channels, and

hence the amount of material, is largely determined by the thickness of the part.

5.2 PRODUCTION COST:

The production cost is primarily calculated from the hourly rate and the cycle time. The hourly

rate is proportional to the size of the injection molding machine being used, so it is important to

understand how the part design affects machine selection. Injection molding machines are

typically referred to by the tonnage of the clamping force they provide. The required clamping

force is determined by the projected area of the part and the pressure with which the material is

injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force, and hence a more

expensive machine. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require

higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine

specifications, such as clamp stroke, platen size, and shot capacity.

The cycle time can be broken down into the injection time, cooling time, and resetting time. By

reducing any of these times, the production cost will be lowered. The injection time can be

decreased by reducing the maximum wall thickness of the part and the part volume. The cooling

time is also decreased for lower wall thicknesses, as they require less time to cool all the way

through. Several thermodynamic properties of the material also affect the cooling time. Lastly,

the resetting time depends on the machine size and the part size. A larger part will require larger

motions from the machine to open, close, and eject the part, and a larger machine requires more

time to perform these operations.

5.3 TOOLING COST:

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The tooling cost has two main components - the mold base and the machining of the cavities.

The cost of the mold base is primarily controlled by the size of the part's envelope. A larger part

requires a larger, more expensive, mold base. The cost of machining the cavities is affected by

nearly every aspect of the part's geometry. The primary cost driver is the size of the cavity that

must be machined, measured by the projected area of the cavity (equal to the projected area of

the part and projected holes) and its depth. Any other elements that will require additional

machining time will add to the cost, including the feature count, parting surface, side-cores,

lifters, unscrewing devices, tolerance, and surface roughness.

The quantity of parts also impacts the tooling cost. A larger production quantity will require

a higher class mold that will not wear as quickly. The stronger mold material results in a higher

mold base cost and more machining time.

One final consideration is the number of side-action directions, which can indirectly affect the

cost. The additional cost for side-cores is determined by how many are used. However, the

number of directions can restrict the number of cavities that can be included in the mold. For

example, the mold for a part which requires 3 side-action directions can only contain 2 cavities.

There is no direct cost added, but it is possible that the use of more cavities could provide further

savings.

CHAPTER-06

6.0. APPLICATIONS:

31

Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle

caps, automotive dashboards, pocket combs, and most other plastic products available today.

Injection molding is the most common method of part manufacturing. It is ideal for producing

high volumes of the same object. Some advantages of injection molding are high production

rates, repeatable high tolerances, and the ability to use a wide range of materials, low labor cost,

minimal scrap losses, and little need to finish parts after molding. Some disadvantages of this

process are expensive equipment investment, potentially high running costs, and the need to

design moldable parts.

Most polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermo sets, and some

elastomers. In 1995 there were approximately 18,000 different materials available for injection

molding and that number was increasing at an average rate of 750 per year. The available

materials are alloys or blends of previously developed materials meaning that product designers

can choose from a vast selection of materials, one that has exactly the right properties. Materials

are chosen based on the strength and function required for the final part but also each material

has different parameters for molding that must be taken into account. [8] Common polymers like

Epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics while nylon, polyethylene, and

polystyrene are thermoplastic.

6.1 GENERAL PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING APPLICATIONS:

Aerospace components

Automotive components

Avionics components

Cable assemblies

Computer electronics

Electronics components

Encapsulations

Engineering prototypes

Geophysics

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Instrumentation

Marketing samples

Material quality testing

Medical & dental products

Medical laboratories

Model shops, toys, hobby

New product design & development

R&D labs

Test specimens

6.2 THE FUTURE OF INJECTION MOLDING:

Some of the new tendencies and technology in injection molding are the electric injection

machines and the gas assisted injection molding. The electric machines have several advantages

over the old design of the conventional injection machine. It runs silent, its operating cost is less,

and they are more accurate and stable.

Fig.6.1 An all-electrical Injection Machine.

CONCLUSION:

Injection molding is one of the most important processes for plastics and it has a very wide list of

kinds of products it can produce, which makes it very versatile.

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REFERENCES:

1. MENGES / MICHAELI / MOHREN; How to Make Injection Molds; Third Edition;

Hanser; Cincinnati, USA; 2001

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2. RICHARDSON & LOKENSGARD; Industrial Plastics, Theory and Applications;

Third Edition; Delmar Publishers Inc.; Albany, NY, USA; 1997

3. BERNIE A. OLMSTED & MARTIN E. DAVIS; Practical Injection Molding; SPE;

MarcelDekker; New York, USA; 2001

4. MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY; Prof. P.N. Rao, Univarsiti Mara, Shah Alam,

Malasia.

URL:

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www.gasassist.com

www.plasticnews.com

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