Final Review 44-148 Plate Tectonics 44-52 The order of layers of the Earth from the surface to the center is:
A.Lithosphere, asthenosphere, outer core, inner core B.Lithosphere, asthenosphere, inner core, outer core C.Outer core, inner core, lithosphere, asthenosphere D.Asthenosphere, lithosphere, outer core, inner core The mantle not included in the choices to the left changes from a solid at the upper most part in the lithosphere to partially melted in the athenosphere to solid again before the outer liquid core. Seafloor spreading occurs at which of the following plate boundaries? a. divergent b. transform fault c. convergent d. subduction Seafloor spreading states that new ocean crust is formed at ocean ridges and destroyed at deep-sea trenches. Magma is forced toward the crust along an ocean ridge and fills the gap that is created. When the magma hardens, a small amount of new ocean floor is added to Earths surface. Divergent boundaries are places where two tectonic plates are moving apart. Most divergent boundaries are found in rifts, or fault-bounded valleys, which form along the axis of anocean ridge. Mountain ranges form at this type of boundary:
a.divergent b.transform fault c.convergent d.subduction Convergent boundaries are places where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other. One type of convergent boundaries is when continental crust converges and collides with another continental crust. Because continental rocks are too buoyant to be forced into the mantle, the colliding edges of the continents are crumpled and uplifted to form a mountain range. A fault formed at the point where two plates slide past each other is called a:
a.convection fault b.divergent fault c.transform fault d.subduction fault A transform boundary is a place where two plates slide horizontally past each other, deforming or fracturing the crust. Transform boundaries are characterized by long faultsand usually offset sectionsof ocean ridges. The San Andreas Fault is anexception to the fact that transform boundaries rarely occur on continents. The theory that Earths crust and upper mantle are broken into sections that are constantly moving is called: seafloor spreading plate tectonics convection currents fault making The theory of plate tectonics states that Earths crust and rigid upper mantle are broken into enormous moving slabs called plates. There are a dozen or so major plates and several smaller ones. Tectonic plates move in different directions and at different rates over Earths surface. What hypothesis states that the continents were once joined to form a single supercontinent?
A.Plate tectonics B.Seafloor spreading C.Continental drift D.Paleomagnetism The first time that the idea of moving continents was proposed as a serious scientific hypothesis was in 1912 by a German scientist namedAlfred Wegener. Wegeners hypothesis, continental drift, proposed that Earths continents had once been joined as a single landmass. The supercontinent in the continental drift hypothesis was called____________.
Panthalassa Pangaea Mesosaurus Africa Wegeners hypothesis, continental drift, proposed that Earths continents had once been joined as a single landmass. Wegener proposed that Pangaea began to break apart about 200 million years ago and that the continents had continued to slowly move to their present positions. Pangaea, a Greek word that means all the earth, refers to the combined landmass. The same magnetic directions exist on different continents
One kind of evidence that supports Wegeners hypothesis is that__________. The same magnetic directions exist on different continents Major rivers on different continents match Land bridges still exist that connect major continents Fossils of the same organisms have been found on different continents fossils of several different animals and plants that once lived on land had been found on widely separated continents. Fossils of Glossopteris, a seed fern that resembled low shrubs, have been found on many continents, indicating that the areas had a single climate that was close to the equator. Notice in the picture plants fossils in Antarctica, how could that be possible in its current location? What was the main reason Wegeners continental drift hypothesis was rejected?
He could not provide any fossil evidence that a super continent existed. He was not well liked by other scientists He could not provide any climatic evidence. He could not provide an explanation for why the continents moved. In the early 1900s, most scientists rejected Wegeners hypothesis of continental drift. Two unanswered questionswhat forces could move continents and how continents could move without shatteringwere the main reasons that the hypothesis of continental drift was rejected. Later on these questions were answered with the concepts of sea floor spreading. Earthquakes 53-61 Most earthquakes happen at the edges of
tectonic plates. earthquake zones. elastic deformations. shear waves. The majority of the worlds earthquakes occur in relatively narrow seismic belts that are associated with tectonic plate boundaries. Almost 80 percent of all earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific Belt. About 15 percent take place across southernEurope and Asia. Most of the remaining earthquakes occur in narrow bands that run along the crests of ocean ridges. A very small percentage of earthquakes happen far from tectonic plate boundaries and are distributed more or less at random. A break in Earths crust along which blocks of crust slide relative to one another is
a plate. a fault. a deformation. an earthquake. A fault is the fracture or system of fractures along which movement occurs. The surface along which the movement takes places is called the fault plane. How much more ground motion does an earthquake with a magnitude of 6
How much more ground motion does an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 have than one with a magnitude of 4.0? 2 times as much 100 times as much 10 times as much 1000 times as much The Richter scale is a numerical scale based on the size of the largest seismic waves generated by a quake that is used to describe its magnitude. Each successive number in the scale represents an increase in seismic-wave size, or amplitude, of afactor of 10. Thus each unit it changes multiply by another 10.So a change from a 3.0 to a 7.0 quake the 7.0 is 10 by 10 by 10 by 10 = 10,000 times stronger. The strength of an earthquake is determined by the
type of fault on which it occurs. amount of damage it causes. gap hypothesis. amount of ground motion or energy released. Magnitude (or strength)is the measurement of the amount of energy released during an earthquake. The Richter scale is a numerical scale based on the size of the largest seismic waves generated by a quake that is used to describe its magnitude. What is the degree to which people feel an earthquake and how much damage it causes called?
Intensity Magnitude Richter frequency Magnitude is the measurement of the amount of energy released during an earthquake. The Richter scale is a numerical scale based on the size of the largest seismic waves generated by a quake that is used to describe its magnitude. The modified Mercalli scale, which measures the amount of damage done to the structures involved, is used to determine the intensity of an earthquake. Seismic waves that cause particles of rock to move in a side-to-side direction (or up and down)
Focus Seismograph P waves Epicenter S waves Primary waves, or P-waves, squeeze and pull rocks in the same direction along which the waves are traveling Secondary waves, or S-waves, cause rocks to move at right angles in relationto the direction ofthe waves. Seismic waves that cause particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth motion (squeeze and pull)
Focus Seismograph P waves Epicenter S waves Primary waves, or P-waves, squeeze and pull rocks in the same direction along which the waves are traveling Secondary waves, or S-waves, cause rocks to move at right angles in relationto the direction ofthe waves. The point along a fault at which the first motion of an earthquake occurs
Focus Seismograph P waves Epicenter S waves The focus of an earthquake is the point of failure of rocks at the depth where an earthquake originates. The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on Earths surface directly above the focus. The point on Earths surface directly above an earthquakes starting point
Focus Seismograph P waves Epicenter S waves The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on Earths surface directly above the focus. Volcanoes 62-70 A shield volcano is sometimes called a stratovolcano. has gently sloping sides. has a jagged surface. forms when lava erupts underwater. A shield volcano is a mountain with broad, gently sloping sides and a nearly circular base that forms when layer upon layer of basaltic lava accumulates during nonexplosive eruptions. A combination of explosive and nonexplosive eruptions will create a
shield volcano. cinder cone volcano. composite volcano. plateau volcano. Composite volcanoes are large volcanoes that form when layers of volcanic fragments alternate with lava. The magma that forms composite volcanoes commonly contains large amounts of silica, water, and gases, making these volcanoes violently explosive. Also called stratovolcano, a term for steep-sided, often symmetrical cones constructed of alternating layers of lava flows, ash, and other volcanic debris. Composite volcanoes tend to erupt explosively and pose considerable danger to nearby life and property. Some volcanoes are located far from plate boundaries and form as the result of hot spots.
Hot spots are unusually hot regions of Earths mantle where high-temperature plumes of mantle material rise toward the surface. A plume does not move laterally, which results in a trail of progressively older volcanoes that formed as a plate moved over a hot spot. The Hawaiian Islands continue to rise above the ocean floor as the Pacific Plate moves slowly over a hot spot. The volcanoes of Hawaii and other places far from tectonic plate boundaries are known as Calderas. hot spots. mid-ocean ridges. viscous volcanoes. Which of these would you expect to see during a nonexplosive eruption?
giant fountains of lava and rock a mountainside caving in clouds of ash darkening the sky huge lava flows The volcanoes fueled by basaltic magma erupt relatively quietly. Rhyolitic magma has high viscosity and fuels very explosive volcanoes which also includes tephra or ejected rock. Nonexplosive volcanoes are going to be missing that tephra and ash component. Heres an example on the right, take not of whats not there. Highly explosive volcanoes tend to have what type of magma?
magma with high silica, high viscosity, and higher gas content magma with low silica, low viscosity, and lower gas content magma with low silica, high viscosity, and lower gas content magma with no silica, high viscosity, and no gas content What type of volcano is built almost entirely from ejected lava fragments?
cinder cone shield volcano composite cone pahoehoe volcano A cinder-cone volcano is a generally small, steep-sided volcano that forms when material ejected high into the air falls back to Earth and piles up around the vent. The magma that fuels these volcanoes contains more water and silica than shield volcanoes, which makes them more explosive in nature. The most violent volcanic eruptions are associated with what type of volcano?
cinder cones composite cones shield volcanoes fissure eruptions Composite volcanoes are large volcanoes that form when layers of volcanic fragments alternate with lava. The magma that forms composite volcanoes commonly contains large amounts of silica, water, and gases, making these volcanoes violently explosive. Where are volcanoes most likely to form?
near the center of continents along plate boundaries along bodies of water in mountainous areas Most volcanoes form at plate boundaries. About 80 percent of all volcanoes are found along convergent boundaries. About 15 percent are found along divergent boundaries. Only about 5 percent of extrusive igneous activity occurs far from plate boundaries. Which of the following plays a major part in determining the form of a volcano?
elevation above sea level magma composition local soil type nearness of other volcanoes The appearance of a volcano depends ontwo factors: The type of material that forms the volcano The type of eruptions that occur Based on these two criteria, three major types of volcanoes have been identified: Shield volcanoes Cinder-cone volcanoes Composite volcanoes Energy Resources 71- Which of the following is a disadvantage associated with most alternative fuel sources?
They create a great deal of pollution They are expensive to implement They are easily constructed anywhere on Earth Their wastes can be easily contained Most alternative energy sources such as wind power, hydroelectric, solar cells or solar power, and geothermal create little pollution especially in the operation. Along with creating little pollution they typically have no or little waste so they can easily be contained. Although it varies most of the renewable technologies can be used anywhere on Earth, or at least on of the many options would. They are however more experiment and not as mass produced as nonrenewable fuels such as fossil fuels and therefore may be more expensive to start.Keep in mind long term costs of pollution and health issues as well.Fossil fuels do have hidden costs not included in the electric bill. What is the term for two or more nuclei joining together to form a new nucleus?
Combining Splitting Fusion Fission Nuclear Fusion;a nuclear change in which two light elements are forced together at extremely high temperatures, to form a heavier nucleus and releasing energy. Fusion releases more energy than fission but requires extremely high temps such as 1 million C. An example a of giant fusion reactor is the sun. Strip mining is used when coal is found deep in Earth. to limit the use of explosives in order to protect the environment. to mine shallow coal deposits Used when ore bodies lie near the surface The cheapest and safest method, but can have a significant impact environmentally on the surface. The ore is close to the surface of the land (30m) but has one or more layers of rock and dirt on top of it (Overburden). To mine the ore, these layers have to be taken off. This mining is done in long, narrow strips. When the ore is done in one strip, the miners begin to create another strip next to it. The waste, dirt, and rock that they take off of the top of the next strip is put on top of the last one (It is now called Spoil). What is reusing waste or scrap materials called? Reducing recycling
refreshing resourcing Recycling is the process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products. Recycling can benefit your community and the environment. Benefits of Recycling Reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators; Conserves natural resources such as timber, water, and minerals; Prevents pollution caused by reducing the need to collect new raw materials; Saves energy; Reduces greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global climate change; Helps sustain the environment for future generations; Helps create new well-paying jobs in the recycling and manufacturing industries in the United States. Which of the following is NOT a stage of coal formation?
hematite Lignite anthracite peat Coal is a result of the fossilization of organic matter, mainly trees. This process, measured in terms of geological time, takes place over several million years. Everything begins with a marsh on the border of asedimentary basin(i.e. a lagoon or a lake). Tectonic activityraises sea levels, submerging and killing off vegetation. Plant debris accumulates and becomes covered with layers of mud and sand in a process known assedimentation. This shelters the debris from the air and slows down the rotting process. Vegetation grows back... until the next flooding. The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the weight of thesedimentsand the layers of dead plants are subjected torising temperatures, leadingprogressivelyto their transformation. The first stage of sedimentation turns it into peat, thenlignite, then bituminous, and finallyanthracite. Anthracite has thehighest carbon content. Burial compacts the peat and, consequently, much water is squeezed out during the first stages of burial. Continued burial and the addition of heat and time cause the complex hydrocarbon compounds in the peat to break down and alter in a variety of ways becoming higher in carbon content and lower in water content.The higher the carbon content the hotter it will burn. 76-80 are matching sections that deal with the vocabulary on your quizlet site.Sign into quizlet.com and go to the energy terms to find the definitions for; Nonrenewable resource - Renewable resource - Natural resource - Recycling - Fossil fuel 81-85 are matching sections that deal with the vocabulary on your quizlet site.Sign into quizlet.com and go to the energy terms to find the definitions for; Petroleum - Natural gas - Coal - Acid precipitation - Smog - To produce energy, nuclear power plants use a process called
fission. fusion. fractionation. None of the above Fission:is a nuclear change in which nuclei with large mass numbers (uranium 235) are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons, each fission releases two or three more neutrons and energy and the cycle continues. Nuclear Fusion;a nuclear change in which two isotopes of light elements are forced together at extremely high temperatures, to form a heavier nucleus and releasing energy.As of yet we can not sustain fusion reactions but thats what powers stars. A nuclear reactor makes power by controllingfission reactions which makes heat to boil water that turns to steam that turns an electric generator, not that different from coal or hydroelectric power. A mixture of gasoline and alcohol used as a fuel is
Nuclear energy Chemical energy Hydroelectric energy Gasohol Wind Energy There are severalcommon ethanol(alcohol) fuel mixturesin use around the world. The use of pure ethanol inengines is only possible if the engine is designed or modified for that purpose. Ethanol can be blended with gasoline in various ratios for use in unmodified gasoline engines, and with minor modifications can also be used with a higher content of ethanol. Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage ofethanol fuel in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85%ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, are also known asgasohol, though internationally the most common use of the term gasohol refers to the E10 blend. Blends of E10 or less are used in more than twenty countries around the world by 2011, led by the United States, where almost all retail gasoline sold in 2010 was blended with 10% of ethanol. Blends from E20 to E25 have been used in Brazil since the late 1970s. E85 is commonly used in the U.S. and Europe forflexible-fuel vehicles. Ethanol is often obtained by fermenting agricultural crops or crop wastes thus are often called biofuels. Gasohol has higher octane, or antiknock, properties than gasoline and burns more slowly, coolly, and completely, resulting in reduced emissions of some pollutants, Electrical energy produced by falling water is
Nuclear energy Chemical energy Hydroelectric energy Gasohol Wind Energy hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a power source is used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in an electric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity. A coal-fired power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results are the same. The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a large drop in elevation (there are not many hydroelectric plants in Kansas or Florida). The dam stores lots of water behind it in the reservoir. Near the bottom of the dam wall there is the water intake. Gravity causes it to fall through the penstock inside the dam. At the end of the penstock there is a turbine propeller, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine goes up into the generator, which produces the power. Energy released by a fission or fusion reaction is
Nuclear energy Chemical energy Hydroelectric energy Gasohol Wind Energy Fission:is a nuclear change in which nuclei with large mass numbers (uranium 235) are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons, each fission releases two or three more neutrons and energy and the cycle continues. Nuclear Fusion;a nuclear change in which two isotopes of light elements are forced together at extremely high temperatures, to form a heavier nucleus and releasing energy.As of yet we can not sustain fusion reactions but thats what powers stars. A nuclear reactor makes power by controllingfission reactions which makes heat to boil water that turns to steam that turns an electric generator, not that different from coal or hydroelectric power. Use of a windmill to drive an electric generator is
Nuclear energy Chemical energy Hydroelectric energy Gasohol Wind Energy Wind energy development is growing rapidly in the United States, with utility scale projects installed in 38 states as of 2011. North Carolina has exceptional offshore wind resources in fact, National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimates show that N.C.s potential is higher than any other East Coast state. The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity. So how do wind turbines make electricity? Simply stated, a wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. Energy released when a chemical compound reacts to produce a new compound is...
Nuclear energy Chemical energy Hydroelectric energy Gasohol Wind Energy Chemical energy is in fact a staple in our lives, and we use it every day no matter what form of energy we are using. Batteries that are powering our cell phones and television remotes usechemical energyto perform the functions we require. Chemical energyis produced through reactions that occur inchemical compounds. A chemical compound is a simple collection of many atoms that are bound to each other. As the bonds between these atoms loosens or breaks, a chemical reaction will occur, and new compounds are created.When a molecule breaks down and converts into newer molecules, the energy between these bonds will be released. A simple example of this is when we eat food every day. The molecules in our food are broken down into smaller pieces, and the bonds between the atoms between the molecules are also broken down. The energy that we get from food is obtained through these broken bonds and is absorbed into our bodies to use in our every day life. What is the organic material formed in soil from the decayed remains of plants and animals called?
Bedrock residual soil parent rock humus Humus is a complex organic substance resulting from the breakdown of plant material in a process called humification. This process can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost. Humus is extremely important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense. -Science Daily The removal from soil of substances that can be dissolved in water is called
Leaching. Horizons. Infiltration. transporting Leaching is the movement of minerals or nutrients in the soil typically being dissolved in water as they are eroded and then carried away into deeper layers of the soil (or rock) andcarried off in bodies of water. Soil quality based on the relative size of soil particles is called
residual soil. soil texture soil structure. soil particles. The quality of soil is an importantcharacteristic to know when determining the appropriate conditions for crop growth. Its also useful when environmental conditions such as a drought may cause the soil to behave in a certain peculiar ways. Soil textures is a term commonly used to describe the different sized particles in a type of soil. The process of growing different crops in the same area in back to back seasons is called crop rotation. Crop rotation helps to replenish nitrogen, controls the buildup of pathogens and pests, and can improve soil structure and fertility. What is it called when a farmer plants different crops in order to use less nutrients or different nutrients from the soil? Terracing crop rotation cover crops contour plowing Ice, wind, water, gravity, plants, and animals are all agents of
differential weathering. Oxidation. mechanical weathering. desertification. Types of Mechanical Weathering: Exfoliation- process where sheets of rock peel or flake away Ice wedge- occurs when water seeps into rocks and freezes Organic activity- roots of plants and burrowing animals weather away rock Abrasion- collision of rock with one another resulting in breaking and wearing away. It will weather more quickly.
If you increase the surface area of a rock, how will it affect the rate at which it weathers? It will weather more quickly. It will have no effect because surface area is not a factor in weathering. It will weather more slowly. It will have no effect because a rock does not have a surface area. Rates of weathering depend on 4 things: Rock Composition: Igneous and metamorphic rocks dont weather easily; Sedimentary rocks do. Amount of Exposure: More exposure it receives, faster it will weather; Amount of time and amount of surface area exposed is also important Climate: hot humid climates means more chemical weathering; cold climates means more mechanical weathering. Topography: The more slope land has, the more erosion and weathering will occur. Which of waters properties directly causes mechanical weathering?
Water dissolves many minerals. Water can hold heat longer than soil. Water expands when it freezes. Water can form an acid when combined with some gases. Water, H2O, is a very interesting substance dues to its many unique properties. Among these properties is its ability to dissolve almost anything. This can cause different types of chemical weathering in rocks. Another property of water that is even more fascinating is the fact that the solid form of water is less dense than the liquid foThis causes ice to float in water! This also causes water that is trapped in rocks to crack those rocks when it freezes, causing a type of mechanical weathering. Which of these factors affects the rate of weathering. a. climate b
Which of these factors affects the rate of weathering? a. climate b. chemical composition of the exposed rock c. surface area of the exposed rock d. all of the above e. a and c Rates of weathering depend on 4 things: Rock Composition: Igneous and metamorphic rocks dont weather easily; Sedimentary rocks do. Amount of Exposure: More exposure it receives, faster it will weather; Amount of time and amount of surface area exposed is also important Climate: is the MOST influential of the controls on soil formation. hot humid climates means more chemical weathering; cold climates means more mechanical weathering. Climate is the most Topography: The more slope land has, the more erosion and weathering will occur. In a well-developed soil profile, which horizon is the uppermost layer?
the C horizon the A horizon the B horizon the parent horizon O horizon -(leaf litter) organic matter accumulation and decomposition.Almost all organic. A horizon (top soil) zone of leaching.High organic with some inorganic rock. The dark coloration in the O and A horizons is due toorganic material, remains of animals and plants B horizon (sub soil) zone of accumulation.More just weathered rock less organic.Mostly clay and minerals. C horizon (regolith) weathered parent material, either rock or sediments R horizon (bedrock), unweathered parent material. In Figure 5-2, what is the layer labeled Y composed of?
Humus unweathered parent material Topsoil subsoil O horizon -(leaf litter) organic matter accumulation and decomposition.Almost all organic. A horizon (top soil) zone of leaching.High organic with some inorganic rock. The dark coloration in the O and A horizons is due toorganic material, remains of animals and plants B horizon (sub soil) zone of accumulation.More just weathered rock less organic.Mostly clay and minerals. C horizon (regolith) weathered parent material, either rock or sediments R horizon (bedrock), unweathered parent material. In Figure 5-2, what layer makes up the B horizon?
layer X layer W layer Y layer Z O horizon -(leaf litter) organic matter accumulation and decomposition.Almost all organic. A horizon (top soil) zone of leaching.High organic with some inorganic rock. The dark coloration in the O and A horizons is due toorganic material, remains of animals and plants B horizon (sub soil) zone of accumulation.More just weathered rock less organic.Mostly clay and minerals. C horizon (regolith) weathered parent material, either rock or sediments R horizon (bedrock), unweathered parent material. What kind of material is found in the C horizon of a soil profile?
partially weathered parent material clay particles hardpan mineral and organic matter O horizon -(leaf litter) organic matter accumulation and decomposition.Almost all organic. A horizon (top soil) zone of leaching.High organic with some inorganic rock. The dark coloration in the O and A horizons is due toorganic material, remains of animals and plants B horizon (sub soil) zone of accumulation.More just weathered rock less organic.Mostly clay and minerals. C horizon (regolith) weathered parent material, either rock or sediments R horizon (bedrock), unweathered parent material. Question 99-100 The B horizon is also called the ____. Topsoil Bedrock
Regolith subsoil O horizon -(leaf litter) organic matter accumulation and decomposition.Almost all organic. A horizon (top soil) zone of leaching.High organic with some inorganic rock. The dark coloration in the O and A horizons is due toorganic material, remains of animals and plants B horizon (sub soil) zone of accumulation.More just weathered rock less organic.Mostly clay and minerals. C horizon (regolith) weathered parent material, either rock or sediments R horizon (bedrock), unweathered parent material.