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EXPLORING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOMESTIC
AND FOREIGN CULTURAL TOURIST BEHAVIOUR
VISITING MALACCA
DING KAY LEE
ii
EXPLORING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOMESTIC
AND FOREIGN CULTURAL TOURIST BEHAVIOUR
VISITING MALACCA
DING KAY LEE Bachelor of Electrical & Electronic Engineering (Honours)
University of Lincoln England
2002
Submitted to the Graduate School of Business
Faculty of Business and Accountancy
University of Malaya, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Business Administration
April 2009
iii
ABSTRACT
In 2008, Malacca was awarded as one of World Heritage Site by UNESCO. With this
award, it enables Malacca to use the award as leverage to boost its cultural tourism
industry. Although Malacca is an important heritage site in Malaysia, but there is no
much research being done to study the tourist’s behaviour in Malacca. The main
objective of this research project is to conduct an exploratory study on the differences
between local and foreign tourist’s behaviour in Malacca. Through this research project,
the underlying tourist’s behaviours such as motivation, destination choice, consumption
behaviour, and sources of information would be studied and analysed. This study was
conducted at the Old Fort A’-Famosa with 300 respondents comprise of 150 local and
150 foreign tourists respectively. From the study findings, it acknowledged that there are
no major differences between local and foreign tourists in term of motivation dimension.
Both local and foreign tourists stated that relaxation and exploring as their main
motivation to visit Malacca. For destination choice dimension, foreign tourists considered
visiting heritage site as a necessity compared to local tourists. In consumption behaviour
dimension, there are major differences between local and foreign tourist’s behaviours.
Foreign tourist’s expenditure is much larger compared to local tourist’s expenditure. One
of the reasons is most of local tourists prefer to spend one day to visit Malacca.
Meanwhile, most of the foreign tourists will stay more than two nights in Malacca.
Finally, the most vital source of information for the potential tourists is words of mouths
from the previous tourists to Malacca. At the end of chapter five, a 4 Ps marketing mix is
proposed to help the relevant stakeholders to enhance the cultural tourism industry in
iv
Malacca. Based on this finding on local and foreign tourist’s behaviour, government
agency, local authority and tour operators can work simultaneously to develop and propel
the cultural tourism in Malacca to the international stage.
Key words: cultural tourism, motivation, destination choice, consumption behaviour,
source of information, Malacca
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like express my gratitude to my supervisor Ms. Farinda
Abdul Ghani for her valuable guidance and advice throughout the whole course of this
thesis. With her full attention on my thesis, it motivated me to continue to work harder in
order to complete this thesis.
Next, I would like to thank my friend, Rosdin Anang for his insightful comments and
suggestions on my research project. Through these comments and suggestions, it enables
me to produce a better result and analysis for my research project.
Besides that, I would like to thank my brother, Ding Nik Siong. I would like to thank him
for hours that he spent to help me to distribute this research project questionnaire to the
respondents.
Finally, an honorable mention goes to my family members and friends for their
understandings and supports on me in throughout this project.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ x
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Historical City ............................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................ 6
1.4 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 7
1.5 Limitations of study ............................................................................................. 7
1.6 Organization of the Study .................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 10
2.1 Tourism Industry ................................................................................................ 11
2.2 International and Domestic Tourists .................................................................. 13
2.3 Definition of Cultural Tourism .......................................................................... 14
2.4 Tourist’s Behaviour ............................................................................................ 16
2.4.1 Demographic Profile ................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Motivation ................................................................................................... 19
vii
2.4.3 Theories and concepts on tourist’s behaviour ............................................. 22
2.4.3.1 The Model of Tourism System by Clare Gunn ................................... 22
2.4.3.2 Means-End Theory .............................................................................. 24
2.4.3.3 Intrinsic Motivation and the Achievement Theory .............................. 24
2.4.3.4 The Attribution Theory ........................................................................ 25
2.4.3.5 Crompton’s Cultural-Social-Psychological Continuum ...................... 25
2.4.3.6 Scmidhauser’s work on sociological fulfillment through travel ......... 26
2.4.3.7 Lifestyle and Tourist’s Behaviour ....................................................... 27
2.4.3.8 Cohen’s Types of Tourists ................................................................... 27
2.4.3.9 AIO, Vacation Travel and Demographic Characteristics .................... 28
2.4.3.10 Mill and Morrison’s Travel Motivation Theory .................................. 29
2.4.3.11 American Express’s Cross-cultural study on Travel Motivation ........ 30
2.4.3.12 Wanderlust and Sunlust ....................................................................... 32
2.4.3.13 Mcintosh and Goeldner’s Study on Travel Motivation ....................... 33
2.4.3.14 Iso-Ahola’s Model of Social Psychological Theory of Tourism
Motivation. ............................................................................................................. 33
2.4.3.15 Push/Pull Factors of Travel Motivation............................................... 34
2.4.3.16 Consumption Behaviour ...................................................................... 36
2.5. Destination Marketing ........................................................................................ 37
2.5.1 Destination Image ....................................................................................... 40
2.5.2 Marketing Mix ............................................................................................ 44
2.6 Future of Cultural Tourism in Malacca .............................................................. 46
2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................ 47
viii
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 49
3.2 Development of Research Questions ................................................................. 50
3.3 Selections of Measures ....................................................................................... 50
3.4 Sampling Design ................................................................................................ 54
3.5 Data Collection Procedure ................................................................................. 55
3.6 Data Analysis Techniques .................................................................................. 56
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH RESULTS
4.1 Pilot Study .......................................................................................................... 57
4.2 Final Study ......................................................................................................... 57
4.3 Analyses of Measures ......................................................................................... 58
4.4 Descriptive Analysis .......................................................................................... 62
4.4.1 Motivation ................................................................................................... 63
4.4.2 Destination Choice ...................................................................................... 64
4.4.3 Consumption Behaviour ............................................................................. 65
4.4.4 Sources of Information ............................................................................... 67
4.4.5 Demographic Profiles ................................................................................. 69
4.5 Inferential Analysis ............................................................................................ 74
4.5.1 Analysis of Variances (Test of Chi-Square) ............................................... 74
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................ 80
ix
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Discussion on Research Questions ..................................................................... 82
5.2 Conclusions................................................................ ........................................ 96
5.3 Suggestion for Future Research ......................................................................... 97
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 99
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 107
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRES .......................................................................... 108
APPENDIX 2: RELIABILTY TEST .......................................................................... 114
APPENDIX 3: NORMALITY TEST .......................................................................... 118
APPENDIX 4: CHI-SQUARE TEST .......................................................................... 125
x
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
1.1 Distributions of Pre-War Buildings in Selected States in
Malaysia
3
2.1 Attributes of Wanderlusters and Sunlusters
32
2.2 Fakeye & Crompton’s (1991) model of promotion type depending on image stage
44
3.1 Tourist Behaviour Statements and Reference Sources
51
4.1 Reliability Analysis
58
4.2 Statistics for Measures of Motivation
63
4.3 Statistics for Measures of Destination Choice
64
4.4 Statistics for Measures of Consumption Behaviour
66
4.5 Statistics for Measures of Sources of Information
68
4.6 Demographic Profiles of Respondents
70
4.7 Differences between the two groups of cultural tourists concerning demographic profiles
75
4.8 Differences between the two groups of cultural tourists concerning tourists behaviour
77
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
2.1 The Functioning Tourism System
23
2.2 Model of Push and Pull Travel Motivations
36
2.3 Gunn’s Model of Image Formation
41
3.1 Theoretical Framework 49
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Today, cultural tourism seems to be "new" tourism phenomena. Cultural tourism has
emerged as a potential form of alternative tourism among both international tourists as
well as Malaysian domestic tourists (Richards, 2007). The advantage of culture tourism is
that it helps to preserve the existing culture it promotes to the tourists. For example,
cultural tourism enables the conservation of cultural resources, supply accurate
interpretation of cultural resources, and giving authentic cultural experience to the
tourists (Richards, 2007). Cultural tourism has therefore been embraced globally by local,
national, and international bodies.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has taken
active task of promoting cultural tourism as a means of preserving world heritage.
Through UNESCO World Heritage Committee, a list of world heritage sites called
UNESCO World Heritage Site is maintained under International World Heritage
Programme (UNESCO, 2008). The focus of cultural tourism is on traditional
communities who have diverse customs, unique form of art and distinct social practices.
Besides that, cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or
large cities and their cultural facilities such as museums and monuments. It can also
include tourism in rural areas displaying the traditions of indigenous cultural
communities together with their values and lifestyle (Kastenholz, 2002).
2
Cultural tourism has huge potential to be fully developed as new niche tourism product in
Malaysia since Malaysia is well known throughout the world as melting pot of Asia
culture. Malaysia boasts to host a wide variety of Asian ethnic groups making it into a
little Asia. Malaysia’s promotion arm, Tourism Malaysia has taken this advantage by
creating the tagline “Malaysia: Truly Asia” to promote our country to foreign tourists.
With cultural tourism, Malaysia cultural vibrancy can be further manifested. Besides that,
Malaysia has distinctive multicultural architectural heritage with strong Islamic, Chinese
and Western influences (Yeoh, 2007). All of these distinctive multicultural architectural
heritage elements have been portrayed in the heritage buildings and monuments. These
heritage buildings and monuments still exist and also being taken good care of in
Malaysia (Ahmad, 1997).
The major heritage elements such as historic building, historical sites and unique local
cultures are commonly found in many historic cities throughout Malaysia such as George
Town, Ipoh, Malacca, Taiping, Kuala Lumpur and Kuching (Ahmad, 1997). Unique
colonial architectural styles of buildings can be seen throughout the historic cities. An
inventory has revealed that 30,000 heritage buildings are located in 162 cities throughout
Malaysia (Idid, 1996). From this figure, 69.6% are shop houses and dwellings built
before World War II as shown in Table 1.1.
3
Table 1.1
Distributions of Pre-War Buildings in Selected States in Malaysia
Source: Adaptive Re-Use of Old Buildings for Heritage Hotels: Prospects and Challenges in the Malaysian Tourism Industry From all historical cities in Malaysia, the city of Malacca was chosen for this cultural
tourism study. The reason is Malacca has been focal point of Malaysia history. Moreover,
Melaka has adopted the tagline “Visit Historic Melaka Means Visit Malaysia”. Malacca
was established by Sultanate of Malacca. Thereafter, Malacca was colonialised by the
Britain, Dutch, Portugal, and Japan. The history of Malacca will be described in detail in
Section 1.2. Over the centuries, a harmonious co-existence of people of different cultures
and religions existed in Malacca. This can be observed from the fluid intermingling of the
Malays, Chinese, Indians, Babas and Nyonyas, Portuguese, Chitty and the Eurasians. In
July 2008, UNESCO listed Malacca and Georgetown in Penang as World Heritage Sites
for the living culture, history, architecture and diversified culture. This reflects a global
recognition of our rich and diversified cultural heritage (ETN, 2008). To support
preservation initiatives, the government provides an allocation of RM50 million in 2009
budget for conservation works of heritage sites in Malacca and Georgetown, and to
States in Malaysia Number of Pre-War Buildings Percentage (%) Penang
Perak
Johor
Malacca
Kuala Lumpur
5057
3351
2323
2177
1763
24.3
16.1
11.2
10.5
8.4
4
support activities undertaken by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the private
sectors.
In order to develop and expand the cultural tourism industry in Malacca, understanding
the tourist’s behaviour has become a necessity and an important element of success. This
understanding will lead to tour operators, tourism promotion boards and destinations to
provide appropriate marketing strategies that suit different market segments of tourists
(Kastenholz, 2002). Tourists’ behaviour studies in the field of travel and tourism have
examined the relationship between a tourist's personality type, values, and demographics.
In recent years, a substantial quantity of research has been conducted in the area of
tourists’ behaviour in tourism. While results varied greatly, most studies determined that
motivation played a major role in determining tourists' behaviour. Accordingly,
motivation determines not only if tourists will engage in a tourism activity or not, but also
when, where, and what type of tourism they will pursue (Hallab 1999).
1.2 The Historical City
Melaka or Malacca or Malaqua (as it was known to the Europeans in the 1500's) began
its humble existence as a fishing village and grew into the region's most important
entrepot. In fact, the earliest written records of the country made reference to the Malacca
Peninsula, instead of the Malay Peninsula or Malaya. Malacca or better known as Melaka
in Malay language is rich with history. Malacca was founded around 1400 by a fleeing
Sumatra prince, Parameswara. Parameswara made the journey to Malacca in order to
5
escape the wrath of the Emperor of Majapahit whom he had unsuccessfully tried to
overthrown.
There are a few legends on how Malacca got its name. According to a popular legend,
Parameswara was resting under a gray tree near a river while hunting, when one of his
dogs cornered a mouse deer. In self-defence, the mouse deer pushed the dog into the river.
Parameswara decided on the spot to found an empire on the very place that he was sitting
after impressed by the courage of the deer and taking it as a propitious omen of the weak
overcoming the powerful. He named it 'Melaka' after the tree under which he had taken
shelter (History, 2009). At the height of its power, the Sultanate of Malacca extended its
borders over the whole of the peninsula to encompass Patani in the North and on the
West right into the neighbouring island of Sumatra to included Aru, Rokan, Siak, Kampar
and Inderagiri. This was during the mid-1400s. The Golden Age of the Malacca Sultanate
unfortunately lasted only for a century.
In 1511, the first of many foreign invasions of Malacca took place when the Portuguese
arrived. The Portuguese were determined to control the East-West trade. Therefore,
Malacca retained its importance as a trade centre until 1641 when the Portuguese
surrendered Malacca to the Dutch. The Dutch had a stronger foothold over the Indonesia
archipelago. They swung the trade centre over to Sumatra. In the meantime, Malacca's
trade also declined due to the silting of its port (Malacca, 2009).
6
In 1795, Malacca was given to the British to prevent it from falling to the hands of the
French, where the Dutch was captured during the French Revolution. By the time British
took over in 1824, the focus of the trade has shifted from Malacca to Singapore and
Penang. Malacca however becomes the focal again during the struggle for independence
after the Japanese Occupation during the Second World War and the British Colonial
period that followed. When Malaya gained its independence, it was only fitting that the
Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Malacca, where it all began. In 1989,
Malacca was declared as Malaysia's Historical City (Malacca, 2009). On 7th July 2008,
this historical city centre was listed as a prominent World Heritage Site of UNESCO.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to explore the differences between domestic and
foreign cultural tourist behaviour visiting Melaka. From the main objective, several sub-
objectives are formed, as listed below:
i. To differentiate domestic and foreign tourists’ behaviour
ii. To explore domestic and foreign tourists’ demographic characteristics profile
iii. To propose a marketing mix to promote Malacca as a destination for cultural
tourism according to tourist’s behaviour
7
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study will be of significant value to cultural tourism tour operators, accommodation
providers and tourism promotion boards as it tries to explore the tourist behaviour,
personality, and demographic characteristics of domestic and foreign cultural tourists.
These will allow the relevant parties to design their promotion strategies based on these
information. Besides that, there were not many studies undertaken by researchers on
cultural tourism topic in Malacca.
Income from cultural tourism not only can boost the economy of the cultural and heritage
site but also help to preserve the site. Therefore, it is very important that authorities
concerned, utilize the findings of this study to design an effective program that will lure
more domestic and foreign travellers to visit cultural sites in Malacca. Besides that, more
measures can be taken by authorities concerned to lead the local tourists to further
appreciate our country’s rich history and culture. This action will also help to create a
harmonious community in Malaysia.
1.5 Limitations of study
Few main challenges are faced while conducting the study. The challenges are as
described below:
8
a) Limited academic research
There are very few available academic researches relating to the cultural tourism
in Malaysia. One of the reasons is due to its relatively new niche market in the
Malaysian tourism sector. Therefore, foreign researches were used as references
for the study.
b) Time Limitation
Due to the short duration of time given for the study, and only a few weekly travel
to Malacca were managed to be done. Therefore, only 300 respondents were
surveyed.
c) Single lingual questionnaire form
The questionnaire forms were printed in English language only. Requirement of
translation to other language is needed if the respondent unable to read English.
Therefore it is time consuming conducting the survey.
1.6 Organization of the Study
This study comprises of five chapters. Chapter One serves as an introduction to the study.
It also sets out the objectives and significance of the study. Chapter Two reviews some
literature on the theories and concepts of the subject matter and studies that have been
done prior to this. Chapter Three discusses the research methodology. Chapter Four
reveals the research results. Chapter Five concludes the study by summarizing the
9
findings and makes some suggestions to the relevant authorities. It also presents
information on possible extensions and future works.
10
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review
This chapter reviews the literature that supports the necessity of conducting this study.
Reviewing the literature will help to define the concept and reflect on the core value of
cultural tourism and its significance for existing society. Furthermore, special attention
will be given to the tourist, his/her motivations and behaviour as the main element of the
tourism system.
In the early days, people travel or move away in order to escape danger or driven by
hunger. Later, war, trade and religion made people move. The “Grande Tour” is usually
cited as the origin of modern tourism (Kastenholz, 2002). Subsequently, the
industrialization era makes leisure travel accessible for a growing number of people due
to more income, leisure time available and improved technology. In the beginning of the
industrialisation era, the major driving forces behind the growing need for leisure were
due to bad working and living conditions, and an increasing need to escape. However, the
starting point of modern mass tourism is usually accredited to the decade after the World
War II. The increase of private car ownership, improvement of the road system and the
development of the airline industry help to spur the growth of the tourism industry. Then,
increasing demand for international tourism stimulated the development of the
“international tourism industry”. Nowadays, tourism is thought of as an almost basic
11
need in the richest part of the developed world, where it helps people to achieve a higher
degree of self-fulfillment and psychological balance. (Kastenholz, 2002).
2.1 Tourism Industry
One of the best-known holistic approaches for tourism is one by Hunziker and Krapf
(1942), who defined tourism as: “…. the sum of the phenomena and relationship arising
from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent
residence and are not connected to any earning activity” (Holloway, 1995). This
definition has later been criticized as too fuzzy. The Standard Industrial Classification
Codes (SIC codes) does not have a specific code for tourism because of the difficulties in
classifying tourism as a distinct industry. However, it is generally agreed that tourism
appears to be an adequate term that singularly describes the activity of people taking trips
away from home, and the industry has developed in response to this tourism activity
(Hunt and Layne, 1991).
Integrated model of tourism is introduced by Cook, Yale, and Marqua’s (1999). The
model shows that the tourism industry is revolved around the tourists. The model is
divided into three large layers, which contain of several inter-reliant groups of tourism
participants and organizations, enveloping the focal point. The first layer consists of the
tourism promoters such as tour operators, tourist’s board and travel agents. Tourism
promoters will carry out marketing efforts directly and indirectly to the tourists. Tourists
will normally correspond with tourism promoters on matters pertaining to travel. The
12
second layer is the tourism services suppliers. They provide services that are required by
tourists such as transportation and accommodation. The third layer is the environment.
Compare with other industries, the tourism industry is exposed to external environments,
which consists of social, cultural, political, environmental, and economic forces. Tourism
promoters and tourism services suppliers must able to constantly react to these forces that
may range from subtle and abrupt changes.
As a result, the use of the term “industry” for the tourism industry may oversimplify a
complex phenomenon and lead to erroneous market approaches, as suggested by Gunn
(1994). She argues: “there is a prevailing misconception that tourism is an industry.
Instead, it is an agglomeration of land development and programs designed to meet the
needs of tourists. This agglomeration has environmental and social as well as economic
implications. It is made up of more than only a business sector.”
Tourism is also an important socio-cultural phenomenon and an economic development
tool for both tourist generating and receiving countries. As personnel intensive branch,
tourism helps to create employment. Both investors and workers in the industry will
receive the positive effects on income. Multiplier effects happen due to tourist
consumption, investments in infrastructures by government and the buying power created
by the supplementary income. As an exportation branch international tourism brings in
foreign exchange for the receiving countries. However, there are negative effects of
overdependence on foreign tour operators and tourists. They will give the receiving
13
countries some economics issues such as imported inflation, seasonality and congestion
during certain period of year. Therefore strategic planning is very important, in order to
create a spatially and temporally more balanced demand.
2.2 International and Domestic Tourists
From a marketing point of view, the tourist is viewed as the main element of the tourism
system. By understanding the tourists’ wants, one can understand, foresee and direct
tourism development. Researchers suggested a few contradictory motivations that drive
the tourist. First theory is by Holloway, (1995) which defines tourist as follows: “With
the advent of twentieth century mass tourism, perhaps the most accurate definition of a
tourist is someone who travels to see something different and then complains when
he/she finds things are not the same”. Next, the tourist is a “fantasist temporarily
equipped with power”, who desires to explore the world. Meanwhile tourism merely
provides a “world discovered (or even created) by entrepreneurs, packaged and then
marketed”( Crick, 1989).
The League of Nations Statistical Committee launched the first operational definition for
tourists in 1937. It defines an international tourist as one, who “visits a country other than
that in which he habitually lives for a period of at least 24 hours” (Leiper, 1979). In 1963
the United Nations completed this definition assigning it to “visitors” engaging in the
described activity, “ for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated from
within the country visited”, distinguishing between (Leiper, 1979):
14
1. Tourists: temporary visitors, staying at least 24 hours, with one of the following
purposes:
a) Leisure (recreation, holiday, health, study, religion, and sport)
b) Business, family, mission, meeting
2. Excursionists : temporary tourists staying less than 24 hours
The more recent World Tourism Organization (WTO) recommendations for tourism
statistics further stipulate that the tourist’s period of continuous stay must not go beyond
a year. Furthermore, “international” and “internal” tourists are distinguished. The first
reside in a country other than the country he/she visited. For the “internal” tourists, they
travel inside their country of residence and are also known as “domestic market”.
2.3 Definition of Cultural Tourism
Tourism can be considered as an ubiquitous phenomenon in modern society, but its
definition is far from consensual. Normally, people think of tourism as “holidays”
focusing on the pleasure motive, but neglecting other forms of travel, such as business
tourism, cultural tourism, and health tourism. Different approaches used by various
agents involved in tourism caused the difficulty of finding an exact definition for tourism
(Leiper, 1979).
15
For “cultural tourism” definition, there is also not much agreement amongst researchers.
This “cultural tourism” term has been widely used, but it is also widely misunderstood.
Richards (1994) corroborating this idea, defends that “cultural tourism is a difficult
concept, partly because of its potentially wide scope, but also because the term “culture”
itself has many possible meanings.” Some researchers use a narrow definition of “cultural
tourism”, while others prefer a broader one. Culture is defined broadly as quoted in
Meethan (2001),
“…..as a set of practices, based on forms of knowledge, which encapsulate common values and act as general guiding principles. It is through these forms of knowledge that distinctions are created and maintained, so that, for example, one culture is marked off as different from another”.
World Tourism Organization (2001) defines cultural tourism as the movements of
persons for essentially cultural motivations such as study tours, performing arts and
cultural tours; travel to festivals and other related events. Essentially, cultural tourism is
based on the mosaic of places, traditions, art forms, celebrations and experiences that
portray ones nation and its people (National Assembly of State Arts Agencies, 2005).
Meethan (2001) accurately observed that there are collections of tourist activities that
come under the heading of cultural tourism. However, he argues for a distinct separation
of cultural tourism and hence a distinct profile of cultural tourists quotes,
“….the cultural tourists are those who go about their leisure in a more serious frame of mind. To be a cultural tourist…..is to go beyond idle leisure and to return enriched with knowledge of other places and other people even if this involves `gazing` at or collecting in some way, the commodified essences of otherness”.
16
Medlik (2003), for example, defines cultural tourism in a narrow sense as “special
interest holidays (vacations) essentially motivated by cultural interests, such as trips and
visits to historical sites and monuments, museums and galleries, artistic performances and
festivals, as well as lifestyles of communities”, while he also adds in a wider sense
“activities with a cultural content as parts of trips and visits with a combination of
pursuits”. However, for quantifying cultural tourism, the above definition is sometimes
difficult to use. In this case, it is more satisfactory to use a technical definition of cultural
tourism. Bonink and Richards (1992) suggest the following technical definition of
cultural tourism: “all movements of persons to specific cultural attractions, such a
heritage sites, artistic and cultural manifestations, arts and drama outside their normal
place of residence”. This definition is used in this study.
Even though there are many different definitions of cultural tourism, both academics and
policy makers agree that the importance of cultural tourism is indisputable and growing
worldwide. In general, there is a perspective that the market of cultural tourism is likely
to be composed of travelers with high socio-economic status, high levels of education,
adequate leisure time, and often having occupations related to the cultural industries and
education (Richards, 1996).
2.4 Tourist’s Behaviour
Tourists are viewed as the principal element of the tourism industry. It is important to
know more about who they are, why they travel, and what they expect during their travels
(Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999). For this purpose, tourist’s behaviour and the field of
17
studies on how individuals, groups, services, ideas, or experiences that will satisfy their
needs and desires were developed (Kotler, et al., 1999). According to Boone and Kurtz
(1998), tourist’s behaviour is the process through which the buyer makes purchase
decisions.
Psychologist Lewin (1999) described that behaviour is a function of the interactions of
personal influences and pressures exerted by outside environmental forces (Boone and
Kurtz, 1998). Kotler’s (1997), model of buying behaviour , supports Lewin’s proposition
whereby the decision are influenced by environmental stimuli, which includes economic,
technological, political, and personal characteristics such as cultural, social, personal and
psychological. Furthermore, market trends have also been showing that tourists are
focusing more on personal needs and being more active when taking trips (Chon and
Singh, 1995). The 90’s tourist is being considered as an individual who undertakes
activities that bring tangible results (Martin and Mason, 1993). For such a tourist, leisure
time is considered a way to improve one’s mental and physical condition as well as to
enjoy oneself and help others (Martin and Mason, 1993).
Thus, understanding the tourist’s behaviour of different market segments has become a
requirement in today’s tourism industry. It is an industry that has been characterized with
flexibility, segmentation, and authentic experiences (Poon, 1994). Following a consumer-
led orientation will help tourist promoters to generate a successful experience to their
destinations, and consequently, to their organizations/destinations. A consumer-led
orientation to the tourism business implies that officials’ actions need to rely on a solid
18
knowledge of their clients, their needs, wants, expectations, and behavioural patterns
(Haywood, 1990). The following to analyze in more detail the tourist’s behaviour.
2.4.1 Demographic Profile
Goodall (1991) notes that “holidays comprise bundles of attributes such as destination,
accommodation type, travel mode, activities, etc) leading to benefits (and costs) of
differential desirability to holiday-makers.” Such diversity of needs, perceptions, and
motivations requires the understanding of the formation of tastes and preferences of
tourists in different market segments (Johnson & Thomas, 1992).
Analyzing the different market segment’s demands can be done through a “socio-
economic approach” (Theuns, 1984; Hallab, 1999). The socio-economic method is based
on variables such as income, level of education, age, marital status, and residence. Such
research methods strive to give an explanation of the individual’s travel behaviour/choice
and build a bridge between the demand and the supply side.
Although personality is not the main determinant to segment the tourist’s market, it is
normally used to help tourism industry to target their market. In Scifmann and Kanuk’s
(1991), it claims that there are three different properties in consumers’ personality
(Sciffman and Kanuk, 1991).
1. Personality reflects individual differences
2. Personality is consistent and enduring; and
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3. Personality can change.
Based on the above properties posses by each person, tourism promoters are convinces
that it will provide a reliable and beneficial foundation to tourism market segmentation in
order to serve and satisfy the tourists’ needs and wants.
2.4.2 Motivation
Motivation is the main driving force in interpreting an individual’s behaviour as stated in
(Fodness, 1994). Motivational variables help to reveal information on some personal
psychological components such as needs, benefits sought, expectations, and
achievements.
Scholars have looked at the term “motive” as a collection of internal forces and external
goals that guide, direct, and integrate an individual’s behavioural pattern for the ultimate
goal of a future satisfactory outcome (Murray, 1964; Atkinson and Raynor, 1975; Iso-
Ahola, 1982; Hoyenga and Hoyenga, 1984; Pyo and Uysal, 1990). Therefore, motivation
has interpersonal as well as physiological aspects.
Motivators may be classified and hierarchized , but most scholars acknowledge that
tourism motivation generally results from a combination of diverse partially
interdependent motivators, which may be more or less conscious and more or less
complementary or contradictory. Some frequently used classifications of tourist
motivation are:
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1. physical motivators : physical rest and relaxation, sports, health, reduction of
tension through physical activity (McIntosh and Goeldner, 1990)
2. physical and psychological recovery from stress and monotory (Schmidhauser,
1989)
3. self-reward,self indulgence (Schmidhauser, 1989), “having fun” and
“conspicious spending” (Crick, 1989)
4. interpersonal/social motivators : new contacts or revitalizing of old one
(McIntosh and Goeldner, 1990; Fridgen, 1991)
5. status and prestige motivators : personal development, desire for recognition and
attention from others (McIntosh and Goeldner, 1990; Fridgen, 1991)
6. comparison: apart from the mentioned status/prestige motive, motives related to
challenge and adventure (Fridgen,1991)
7. cultural motivators: interest in all kind of cultural manifestations (McIntosh &
Goeldner, 1990) and education
8. novelty:exploration, stimulation/arousal and curiosity (Fridgen, 1991), widening
horizons, satisfying curiosity and self realization (Schmidhauser, 1989)
9. escape : get away (from stressm from others, from norms, from “oridinary social
reality”) (Fridgen, 1991; Crompton, 1979)
10. compensation for deficits in everyday life in a working performance society,
namely: social deficits, climate deficits, deficits in movement and activity, in
closeness to nature, in experience and change, in enjoyment, luxury and prestige,
in freedom (Schmidhauser, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987), compensation for “anomie”
(Dann,1977)
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One not only can find some contradictions, but also redundancy in the above
classifications. Some motivations may reflect the same underlying needs, whereas others
combine widely varied basic needs.
Meanwhile, Uysal and Hagan (1993) stated that desires are considered as recognized
need. Travel motivation tells of an individual’s attempt to satisfy his/her recognized need
(Mill and Morrison, 1995). Hence, a marketer does not create needs but influences the
approach the individual intends to fulfill his or her needs.
He argued that the development of travel motivation models needs to be based on
Maslow’s self-actualization theory with extra inputs from achievement motivation and
attribution theory. Maslow (1943) presented five classes of needs in a hierarchical
fashion. They range from basic physiological ones which is the lowest to self-
actualization as the highest. Maslow stated that the individual may partially fulfill the
needs of one level before moving on to the higher one. Hudman (1980) recognized
Maslow’s theory inclusion of major push factors for travel. The five levels of needs are
the following:
1. Need for self actualization;
2. Need for self-esteem;
3. Need for belonging;
4. Need for safety or security
5. Need for physiological requirements.
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2.4.3 Theories and concepts on tourist’s behaviour
There are a quite a number of theories and concepts suggested by scholars to describe the
tourist’s behaviour. Model of Tourism System (Clare Gunn), Means-End theory, intrinsic
motivation and the achievement theory, and the attribution theory are among most
popular theories used to describe tourist’s behaviour. The following are the full details of
theories and concepts used to support this study.
2.4.3.1 The Model of Tourism System by Clare Gunn
Many authors agreed that tourism appears to be a suitable term that singularly describes
the activity of people taking trips away from home, and the industry has developed in
response to this activity (Hunt and Layne, 1991). Gunn (1972, as cited by Leiper, 1979)
uses the term “system of tourism environment” which is made up of five components:
1. People…. with the desire and ability to participate
2. Attraction…. Offering activities for user participation;
3. Services and Facilities …..for users supporting the activities;
4. Transportation ….. moving people to and from destinations;
5. Information and Direction…..assisting users in knowing, finding and enjoying.
In addition, she distinguishes between market side (the first point) and supply side (the
following), including promotion in the last point (Gunn, 1988). By using this definition, it
23
has the advantage of being a systemic approach. The figure 2.1 shows the model of
tourism system proposed by Clare Gunn.
Figure 2.1: The Functioning Tourism System
(Gunn 1994) points out those three sectors are involved in this offering, namely private
enterprises, non-profit organizations and the public sector, marked by systemic
interdependencies. Her supply-side model emphasizes the dynamic relationship existing
between the five main components, with change in any element influencing all the others.
POPULATION INTEREST TO TRAVEL ABILITY TO TRAVEL
TRANSPORTATION VOLUME AND QUALITY
OF ALL MODES
INFORMATION/ PROMOTION
ATTRACTIONS RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT FOR
QUALITY VISITOR SATISFACTIONS
FACILITIES/SERVICES VARIETY AND QUALITY OF FOOD,
LODGING, & PRODUCTS
DEMAND
SUPPLY
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2.4.3.2 Means-End Theory
The main focus of this theory is to build an understanding of consumers' thinking of
products. In other words, the theory serves as a mechanism though which researchers
may seek to understand the relationship between consumers and the products they acquire
or consume (Klenosky, Gengler and Mulvey, 1993). Such a phenomenon may serve as a
tool to understand and therefore influence the individual’s decision making.
2.4.3.3 Intrinsic Motivation and the Achievement Theory
Tourist’s behaviour also can be explained by using motivational theories. For example,
De Charms and Muir (1978) as well as Csikszentmigalyi (1975) emphasize intrinsic
motivation as a way that helps in the study of an individual’s travel behaviour. Intrinsic
motivation emphasizes one’s personal control and choice as well as self-direction and
autonomy.
Meanwhile, achievement motivation looks at long term incentives and rewards when it
comes to examining an individual’s travel behaviour and perceived images from the past
(Atkinson and Raynor, 1975). The concern is not restricted to looking at an individual’s
short-term result and current satisfactions from his or her travel experience.
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2.4.3.4 The Attribution Theory
The attribution theory gives the framework through which researchers may refrain
themselves from being biased. This objective is obtained by giving tourists enough room
to express their own explanations of their travel motives (Pearce, 1982). This theory
avoids a common shortcoming in research studies where the researcher end up
interpreting a tourist’s travel behaviour. The shortcoming may limit the tourist’s own
self-expression.
2.4.3.5 Crompton’s Cultural-Social-Psychological Continuum
Crompton (1979) has undertaken a socia-psychological approach to analyze tourists’
motives to take a vacation. Seven intra-individual forces with connection to promoting
travel has been identified by him as follows:
i. Exploration and evaluation of self
ii. Relaxation
iii. Escape from a perceived mundane environment
iv. Prestige
v. Regression
vi. Enhancement of kinship relationship
vii. Facilitation of social interaction
The principle idea behind Crompton’s theory is that before an individual takes a vacation,
disequilibrium is present in his or her cultural-socia-psychological needs. The vacation’s
26
duty is to bring equilibrium back to such needs. Therefore, Crompton’s theory
emphasizes the need to consider the potential traveler’s psychological needs such as self-
exploration, social interaction, sexual arousal, and excitement that need to be satisfied
first before stressing the destinations’ features and its attractions. Therefore, it is rational
and strategic to analyze target markets’ psychological needs before researching and
portraying the supply components of a destination.
2.4.3.6 Scmidhauser’s work on sociological fulfillment through travel
Schmidhauser (1989) has identified major sociological functions fulfilled by participating
in tourism-related activities. The four sociological functions are the following:
i. The compensation for major deficits that evolve from one’s daily working routine.
The mentioned deficits are the following: social, climatic, sport activities,
closeness to nature, enjoyment of scenery, participation in outdoor activities,
discovery and change, luxury or prestige, and lack of freedom.
ii. The need to recover from physical and physiological stress and keeping physical
and mental well being.
iii. Widening one’s horizons, satisfying one’s curiosity and increasing the feeling of
one’s own value.
iv. Self-reward and indulgence.
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2.4.3.7 Lifestyle and Tourist’s Behaviour
Oppedijk van Veen and Verhallen (1986) have looked at lifestyle in determining a
tourist’s behaviour. The authors stress the fact that demographic and socio-economic
variable are no longer adequate to explain and understand tourist’s behaviour. As an
illustration, an individual’s social position and age do not provide the absolute picture of
why a person goes on holidays and chooses specific destinations.
For such reason, a psychologically oriented form of market research has emerged as an
approach to group individual into different categories of lifestyles. In a psychographic
oriented research, lifestyles are defined as “distinctions in people’s behaviour” and are
classified through tourists’ responses to “lifestyle items” (Lowyck, Van Langenhove and
Bollaert, 1992). Such lifestyle items then can be used as independent variables in a
research project that has the objective of discovering its relationships with other variables
or behavioural characteristics (Lowyck, Van Langenhove, and Bollaert, 1992)
2.4.3.8 Cohen’s Types of Tourists
Cohen (1972) states that there are four types of tourists that range from seeking novelty
to pursuing familiarity in their travel experiences. The segments that he has identified are
the following:
i. The organized mass tourist
ii. The individual mass tourist
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iii. The explorer
iv. The drifter.
The first two segments are categorized as the “institutionalized” type and the last two are
categorized as the “non-institutionalized” type. The “institutionalized” type more prefers
package tours and itemized itineraries. But the individual mass type tends to be slightly
more open to novelty than the organized mass one.
Meanwhile, the “non-institutionalized” segment tends to be more enthusiastic to explore
the local culture and embraces more novelty. The drifter type tends to shy away
completely from “institutionalized” type of tourism. Therefore he or she is someone who
embraces extreme novelty in the travel experience.
2.4.3.9 AIO, Vacation Travel and Demographic Characteristics
Perreault, Darden, and Darden (1977) have undertaken a research project that consists of
three segments: (1) vacation behaviour, (2) socio-economic characteristics, and (3)
activities, interests and opinions (AIO) with regard to leisure time, vacation activities,
and general behaviour predispositions.
Five distinct groups with different types of vacation orientation have been identified
through the statistical technique of cluster analysis. The groups are budget travellers,
adventurers, homebodies, vacationers, and moderates. The research revealed that budget
29
travellers tend to have medium income, seek travel information and tend to be economy-
oriented with a high interest in camping. Meanwhile adventurers tend to be money-
oriented, have high income, and are well educated. On the other hand, homebodies enjoy
relaxing and show no interest in vacation travel and therefore tend not to seek
information related to travel and are not adventurous. They have good incomes. The
research also discovered that vacationers tend to plan their vacations ahead of time and
dedicate a fair amount of thinking about its features. They are considered active and have
lower-paid jobs with less education. Finally, moderates have a good level of interest in
travel but do not prefer weekend travel or sports. Thus, they have no active lifestyle.
2.4.3.10 Mill and Morrison’s Travel Motivation Theory
Mill and Morrison (1985) looked at travel as a way through which an individual’s need or
want is satisfied. According to Mill and Morrison, an individual may have a need that he
or she is not aware of which gets to be translated into a want. For example, an individual
is having a need for affection that gets translated into wanting to visit family and friends.
According to Mill and Morrison, motivation is defined as a phenomenon that takes place
when an individual seeks to satisfy a need. The authors recognize an interrelationship
between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and travel motivations. For example, the need to
travel with the objective to escape or relieve tension is regarded as a means to satisfy
basic physiological needs. Meanwhile, travelling for health reasons is regarded as a way
to satisfy one’s needs for safety. Mill and Morrison (1985) give a clear explanation of
motivation by stating that “motivation occurs when an individual wants to satisfy a need”.
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2.4.3.11 American Express’s Cross-cultural study on Travel Motivation
In a study sponsored by American Express (1989), 6500 adults in the United States of
America, former West Germany, the United Kingdom and Japan were interviewed.
Specific four countries were selected due to the fact that they spend the most on tourism
and their citizens are the most international travellers worldwide. The findings of the
study presented five types of travellers where each type seeks unique experiences. The
interesting feature of the findings is that members in each group share the same needs
regardless of their origin, destination, or the frequency of their travel. The groups are the
following:
i. Adventurers;
ii. Worriers;
iii. Dreamers;
iv. Economizers;
v. Indulgers.
Adventurers are found to be independent and confident. They like to meet new people,
interact with different cultures and undertake new activities. Findings revealed that the
members of this group tend to be more educated and more affluent. Travel plays a central
role in their lives. They are mostly males and younger than other travellers. The second
segment pinpointed is the worriers. According to the findings, they tend to be easily
stressed due to travel decisions and arrangements and experience fear of flying. It was
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observed that individuals in the mentioned segment tend to be less educated and less
affluent than others. They also tend to lean more on domestic travel and are considered
the least travellers. Individuals in this segment are predominantly females and are older
than other travellers.
The third group is labelled as dreamers. Findings discovered that they are more inclined
to relaxation than adventures and are fascinated by travel. But they tend to talk more
about travel than they actually get involved in. Individuals in this group have a modest
level of income and education, and consist mostly of women aged 50 and older.
Dreamers are heavy consumers of travel guides and books when exposed to new
destinations. The fourth group found is the economizers. From the findings, they look at
travel as a means for relaxation but do not attach a meaningful connotation to it.
Economizers are price conscious and portray reluctant behaviour to pay more for extra
amenities and services. They have average income level and below average in education.
They consist more of women than men and tend to be older.
Finally, the fifth group found is labelled as the indulgers. Findings revealed that this
segment is considered as wealthier than others and portrays willingness to pay for extra
comfort and level of service. Individuals in this segment tend to be more inclined to stay
in large hotels and resorts due to their appreciation of being pampered. This segment is
ranked second after adventurers in regard to the frequency of their trips, and they are
equally divided among women and men.
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2.4.3.12 Wanderlust and Sunlust
Gray (1970) has identified through his research two reasons for pleasure travel:
“wanderlust” and “sunlust”. “Sunlust” is associated to the interest of travel with the
purpose to search for different or better amenities than those existing at one’s local
destination. “Wanderlust” is linked with the human being’s nature to desire to leave the
familiar and discover different cultures and destinations. Gray (1970) has listed some of
the attributes that “wanderlusters” and “Sunlusters” look for when they travel as shown in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Attributes of Wanderlusters and Sunlusters
Wanderlust Sunlust
May visit several countries Usually visit only one country at a time
More interest in foreign travel More interest in domestic travel
Travel is an essential component
throughout the visit
Travel is a minor component after one’s
arrival at the destination
Usually have an interest in educational
programs
More interest either in rest and relaxation
or being extremely active
Interested in staged-artificial physical
attributes (climate is unimportant)
More interest in nature-made attributes
(climate is important)
Searches for different cultures, institutions
and authentic cuisine
Seeks domestic amenities and lodging
facilities
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2.4.3.13 Mcintosh and Goeldner’s Study on Travel Motivation
Mcintosh and Goeldner’s (1990) study on travelers’ motivations generated four basic
motivation categories: (1) physical, (2) cultural, (3) interpersonal, and (4) status and
prestige. Study discovered that the category of physical motivation emphasizes one’s
quest to travel for physical-related purposes such as rest, recreation, health and fitness,
and sports. Meanwhile, the category of cultural motivation directs its focus on one’s
curiosity to find out the features of different cultures, societies, destinations, and
environments. The category of interpersonal motivation portrays the desire to establish
relationships with new individuals and maintain links and relationships with current
friends and relatives as well as to escape. Study also discovered that the category of status
and prestige motivation deals with an individual’s efforts to strengthen his or her self-
esteem and personal development through educational and informative settings such as
business meetings, conventions and educational seminars.
2.4.3.14 Iso-Ahola’s Model of Social Psychological Theory of Tourism Motivation
Iso-Ahola (1982) suggested that the individual seeks to fulfill personal and interpersonal
needs by capturing rewards related to such needs (intrinsic rewards) as well as by
escaping the daily life problems related to such needs. According to Iso-Ahola, rewards
and escape are the two main determinants of tourism behaviour. The above mentioned
scholar specified the rewards of self-determination, sense of competence or mastery,
challenge, learning, exploration and relaxation as those linked to personal rewards. On
34
the other hand, social interaction is linked to interpersonal rewards. His Seeking and
Escaping Dimensions Model make up of two dimensions: Seeking and Escaping. The
model has four quadrants. Iso-Ahola (1989) states that each quadrant by itself or along
with other quadrants is the force that drives an individual to travel. The model’s four
quadrants are as follows:
Quadrant I: Need to escape interpersonal environment (such as friends)
Quadrant I: Desire to seek personal rewards (such as rest and relaxation)
Quadrant II: Desire to seek intrinsic rewards
Quadrant III: Need to escape personal problems (such as personal problems and
difficulties)
Quadrant III: Desire to seek interpersonal rewards (such as cultural or group activities)
Quadrant IV: Desire to get away from everyday environment
2.4.3.15 Push/Pull Factors of Travel Motivation
Uysal and Hagan (1993) pinpointed the significant role that push and pull factors play in
travel motivations. The mentioned authors have looked at push and pull factors as
internal and external “forces” that play an essential role in people’s travels. Push factors
are interpreted as the “socio- psychological constructs of tourists and their environments
that help explain the desire to travel” (McGhee, Loker-Murphy, and Uysal, 1996). In
other words, push factors help interpret “how individuals are pushed to make a travel
decision”, whereas pull factors clarify how “they are pulled or attracted by the destination
35
area” (Uysal and Hagan, 1993). Push factors tend to be more of intrinsic nature such as
the desire to escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social
interaction (Uysal and Hagan, 1993). In addition, Uysal and Hagan (1993) stressed the
importance of understanding the factors that push an individual to travel. Such
understanding is believed to aid destinations in developing suitable marketing strategies
and opportunities that meet a particular segment’s push factors. The importance of
considering pull factors has emerged due to above justifications.
Smith (1983) stated that pull factors consist of tangible components such as beaches,
recreation facilities, and cultural attractions as well as travellers’ perceptions and
expectations that may consist of novelty, benefit expectation, and marketed image of
destinations. Thus, pull factors are assumed as the supply components of a tourism
system that cater to and also support the motivational factors of push factors.
(Uysal and Hagan, 1993) provided a model which portrays examples of push and pull
factors with their influence on the traveller as shown in Figure 2.2. According to the
authors, push factors consist of the following variables: 1. Motivations (AIO), 2. Socio
economic and demographic, and 3. Market knowledge. Pull factors consist of the
following variables: 1. Destination attributes and type of facilities, 2. Accessibility, and 3.
Marketed image.
36
The Push and pull factors model encourage the marketers, researchers and promoters of
destinations strive to understand the implications of a match between push and pull
factors.
Figure 2.2: Model of Push and Pull Travel Motivations
2.4.3.16 Consumption Behaviour
Tourism expenditure is defined as the total consumption expenditure made by a tourist or
on behalf of a tourist for and during his or her trip and stay at a destination. Tourism
PUSH FACTOR
TOURISTS PULL FACTOR
MOTIVATIONS (AIO)
ESCAPE REST AND RELAXATION SELF-ESTEEM PRESTIGE HEALTH AND FITNESS ADVENTURE SOCIAL INTERACTION BENEFITS INTERESTS BENEFIT EXPECTATIONS SOCIOECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AGE, GENDER, INCOME, EDUCATION, FAMILY LIFE-CYCLE AND SIZE, RACE/ETHNIC GROUP, OCCUPATION, SECOND HOME OWNERSHIP MARKET KNOWLEDGE
DESTINATIONS ATTRIBUTES AND TYPE OF FACILITIES
CLIMATE HISTORY SITES SCENIC BEAUTY SUNSHINE BEACHES SNOW CULTURAL EVENTS RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES ACCESSIBILITY MARKETED IMAGE FORMED NEGATIVE/ POSITIVE DESTINATION IMAGES QUALITY OF SERVICES QUALITY OF FACILITIES
37
expenditure is considered to occur at the time at which the tourist purchases the product
or service (Odunga, 2005). Several previous studies revealed that demographic,
socioeconomic, and travel-related characteristics impact the visitor’s intention to visit and
willingness to spend money on vacations (Dardis et al., 1981; Cai, Hong, and Morrison,
1995; Fish and Waggle, 1996; Agarwal and Yochum, 1999; Jang, et al., 2003).
Oppermann (1992) uses five variables of the intra-national tourist’s behaviour of the
tourists, namely length of stay in the country (LS), number of overnight destinations
(OD), number of different types of accommodation (A) and transportation (T) used and
travel organization (TO) to measure consumption behaviour. The length of stay is one of
key aspects, since the longer staying tourists generally visit more places (Agarwal and
Yochum, 1999).
As a result, the tourists may spend more money because the tourists have to use hotel
rooms more often, have more meals, and use more transportation services. Fish and
Waggle (1996) state that in macroeconomics the higher household income are clearly
expected to have higher trip expenditures than lower household income. They conclude
that family decisions regarding vacation and pleasure travel are based on their income.
Collins and Tisdell (2002) stated that other factors such as marital status, family size, and
employment status will influence the tourist expenditure during a vacation.
2.5. Destination Marketing
The marketing viewpoint concentrates on the market, aiming at “first identifying and then
satisfying human needs and desires” (Fridgen, 1991). Kotler (1994) stated that “the heart
38
of modern strategic marketing can be described as ….segmenting, targeting and
positioning”, with segmentation being the essential first step in the direction of a target
marketing approach. Kotler (1997) also defined marketing as a “social and managerial
process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through
creating and exchanging products and value with others”. Middleton (1998) suggested
that segmentation may be defined as “a process of dividing a total market, such as all
tourists into manageable sub-groups…. (permiting) more cost effective marketing,
through the design, promotion and delivery of purpose built products aimed at satisfying
the identified needs of target groups.”
Destination marketing can be considered as a specific form of “Marketing of Place”.
Kotler (1994) discussed this domain, reflecting on how to attract investment, industry,
and tourism to cities, states and nations. He suggested a sequence of “infrastructure
attractions people image marketing “, meaning that place have to first work on their
fundamental features before promoting a corresponding image. The author defended the
specificity of place marketing, which he defined as “a process whereby local activities are
related as closely as possible to the demands of target customers”.
A targeted market-approach is particularly sufficient for cultural destinations, as segment
can be perceived as opportunities. “A destination with limited resources needs to pick
only the best opportunities to pursue” (Beane and Ennis, 1987). To be useful, these
segments should be as follows (Kotler, 1997):
39
• Measurable (in terms of size, purchasing power and profile),
• Accessible (“effectively reached and served” via some kind of marketing
vehicle),
• Substantial (constituting “the largest possible homogeneous group worth going
after with a tailored marketing-program”)
• Differentiable (that is conceptually distinguishable, responding differently to
different marketing-mix elements and programs),
• Actionable (meaning that “effective programs can be formulated for attracting
and serving the segments”)
• Viable (implying long run projected revenues to exceed cost of target marketing,
also in the context of destinations’ sustainability), and
• Appropriate (requiring compatibility between simultaneously served segments
as well as between different offerings of the same company, in the context of
destinations not to forget compatibility with community interests)
• Durable (a period of time which would be permit return on investment. This is
extremely important for tourist destinations, which realize important investments
in developing a complex supply-system, closely linked to global regional
development)
• Competitive (a far as the organization is capable of offering something distinct
or unique, which best fits the needs of the particular target segment)
Moutinho (2000) stated that integral planning, long-term thinking and consistent action is
paramount for the success of destination marketing. An integrated marketing approach
40
should involve everybody organizing and providing supply. Lundberg (1990) defines
integrated destination marketing as : “the overall effort to identify what is a destination
has to offer, what groups of people would have time , money and desire both to travel to
and to enjoy the destination (the target markets), and how best to reach and convince
those people to come to the destination .” Thus, destination marketing integrated into
overall planning aims at a match between the destination and tourist market.
2.5.1 Destination Image
The term “image” is often associated to the domain of marketing, reflecting the approach
in which the public views products, brands, the company and its representatives. “Image”
in that sense is suggested to have an impact on tourist’s behaviour in terms of preference,
choice and satisfaction. This is particularly true for products with one or several of the
following characteristics (Kastenholz , 2002):
• Imply a high level of risk;
• Are difficult to judge;
• Are of public usage and of high status value;
• Are of relatively high personal importance;
• Are services, being marked by inseparability, variability, intangibility, and lack of
ownership
• Have a lack of “search quality”, being rather determined by “experience” and
credence qualities”.
41
Destination image studies in tourism have been undertaken since the 1970s (Mercer,
1971, Hunt, 1975, Goodrich, 1978, Scott, et al.., 1978, Crompton, 1979). Destination
image has been identified as a concept with “vague and shifting meanings, used in a large
number of contexts and disciplines….”, such as psychology, behavioural geography and
marketing (Jenkins, 1999).
Individuals may have images of destination even if they have never visited it. One may
distinguish images before and after the visit. Besides that, images after the first visit
should differ from those after repeat visits.
Accumulation of mental images about a tourist destination: organic image (mainly based on
non-commercial information from a variety of sources)
Modification of images by further (mainly commercial) information: induced image
Decision to take a holiday
Travel to the destination
Holiday experience at the destination
Return home
Modification of images based on experience: (more realistic, complex and differentiated image)
Fig 2.3: Gunn’s Model of Image Formation
42
Gunn’s “stage theory” implies that images held by potential visitors, non-visitors, first-
time and repeat visitors differ. Empirical evidence shows that images held by repeat
visitors tend to be more realistic, complex and differentiated. (Pearce, 1982, Chon, 1990).
On the other hand, Phelps (1986) shows that images may fade or revert over time,
especially if intervening visits to similar destinations confuse memory.
Chon (1990) uses the term “image building” in the sense of modifying induced images,
which should particularly take place through travel experience. Similar to Gunn (1988a),
also this author analyzes the evolution of image formation along the travel experience.
1. “Primary image construction”, influenced by both “push-motive” as well as
destination’s “pull factors”. This image determines decision based on the
perceived likelihood of satisfying needs through a destination visit.
2. “Anticipation”, marked by accumulation of organic images, information
search, modification of image and performance expectancy.
3. “Travel decision” considering images of alternatives
4. “Travel to destination”, “experience on-site”, “travel back home” leading
to an accumulation of new images.
5. “Recollection” and further image modification, through comparisons between
images and perceived reality, resulting in different congruity conditions and
corresponding satisfaction levels.
One aspect of the marketing-mix, which very much relies on image, is market
communication or promotion. Weaver and McCleary (1984) stress the need to adopt
43
communication to the target-market. “Since most advertising consists of printed material
aimed at building an image, it is important for travel marketers to target their message
and use illustrations and photographs which are compatible with the values of the various
potential target segments and elicit positive feelings from those segments.”
Several researches have studied the role of tourist information in destination image
formation. Woodside and Lysoriski (1989) consider tourist information particularly
determinant for cognitive destination image. Dilley (1986) stresses the significance of
international tourist brochures as a medium for the formation of images in the context of
overseas travel. Besides that, sources of information such as guidebooks, internet, tour
guide, newspapers and magazines also play an important role in forming the destination
image. Gunn (1988a) and Gartner (1993) distinguish different types of tourist information,
leading to different stages in destination image construction.
According to Fakeye and Crompton (1991) “the primary goal in promoting a destination
is to project images of the destination to potential tourists, so it becomes desirable to
them”. Consequently, tourism promotion has the function to start or change purchase
behaviour through information, persuasion or reminding. These authors propose different
types of promotion content and images, according to the tourist’s stage in the image-
building process as shown in Table 2.2:
44
Table 2.2
Fakeye & Crompton’s (1991) model of promotion type depending on image stage
Image Stage Type of Promotion Tourist Type
Organic
Induced
Complex
---Informative
---Persuasive
---Reminding
--- Non-Visitors
---First timers
---Repeater
2.5.2 Marketing Mix
Marketing strategy has been defined by Dibb, et al., (1997) as “a strategy indicating the
specific target markets and the types of competitive advantages that are to be developed
and exploited”. Kotler (1997) distinguishes between the strategic marketing plan, which
“develops the broad marketing objectives and strategy based on an analysis of the current
market situation and opportunities”, and the tactical marketing plan, which “outlines
specific marketing tactics, including advertising, merchandising, pricing, and channels
services. Usually segmentation leads to target-market-selection, and positioning are
referred to as strategic marketing tools (Kotler 1994). McCarthy classifies these
marketing tools into four broad groups that he calls the four Ps of marketing: product,
price, place, and promotion.
• Product: with a complex range of offering and experiences, including further
“physical evidence” of the product, corresponding to the definition of an
“augmented product” as suggested by Kotler (1999);
45
• Price: however difficult to determine, as different products as services are sold to
different prices and also the overall travel cost must be considered;
• Promotion: depending more than other products and services on “uncontrollable”
communication, such as literature, films, tourists’ “story telling… etc”(“organic
image building”), but simultaneously relying a lot on destination image projection
for market success;
• Place: both of distribution and experience, being the second of a particular
relevance and closely linked to the product itself, with “physical evidence” of the
place playing an important role;
Service marketing by Dibb, et. al.., (1997), Jansen-Verbeke (1996) refers to the extension
of the traditional “four Ps” of the marketing mix to include further:
• Place (of tourist experience in a wider sense)
• People (personnel, tourists and residents)
• Partners (among suppliers)
• Politics (defining frameworks)
Principally, image creation and projection are highlighted as major components (Laws,
1995), with an important strategic role (Seitz and Meyer, 1995). Buck (1993) for example,
states that “tourism is an industry based on imagery. Its overriding concern is to construct
an imagery (of the destination) that entices the outsider to place himself or herself into
the symbol-defined space…”. Identified marketing mix from the above should therefore
46
be utilized at producing and sustaining an attractive and well positioned destination
image in the eyes of the target market.
2.6 Future of Cultural Tourism in Malacca
Cultural tourism industry in Malacca holds huge potential and has generated employment
opportunities, more income for businesses and helped improve the livelihood of locals. In
Malacca there has been a marked pressure for tourism development since year 2000. The
number of tourists has risen from 2.5 million in 2001 to 6 million in 2007. Domestic
tourists made up the bulk of the total numbers of tourists visiting Malacca historic city.
Malacca is expecting continuous growth in tourist numbers and extrapolations indicate
the number will reach 8.2 million by 2010. Malacca Chief Minister Datuk Seri Mohd Ali
Rustam noted that, in ensuring the cultural tourism sector progressed for the benefit of
the state and its people, the state is in the midst of implementing several new high impact
tourism projects. Among them is the development of Sungai Melaka at a cost of
RM320mil as a new growth centre that will parallel San Antonio River in the United
States for its beauty and cleanliness. Several value-added projects are to be established
along the banks of Sungai Melaka, among others the Casa Del Rio Boutique Hotel worth
RM85mil, the Customs, Immigration and Quarantine (CIQ) Complex valued at RM35mil
and a marina worth RM25mil. Besides that, archaeological works on the Malacca Fort
walls are being undertaken with an allocation of RM12.8mil from the Federal
Government.
47
The Malacca government through Tourism Malaysia, the Malacca State Tourism Action
Committee and relevant agencies are always working out new ideas to turn Malacca into
a compelling tourism centre in the world. The state is giving emphasis to tourism events
of international stature and is working closely with United Nations Education, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) to promote Malacca as one of world heritage sites to
international tourists. With the recognition from Unesco, Malacca will remain as a
tourism destination of choice for local and foreign tourists.
Besides that, Malacca should exploit its famous local traditional food such as nyonya
food, portugal ikan bakar, and chicken rice ball to attract the cultural tourists to visit the
state. This food not only delicious but it is also important to note that this food can only
be found in Malacca. The art of cooking this delicious food can also be used as attraction
tool for cultural tourists. In addition, Malacca is also well known for its dessert such as
ais kacang, cendol, and coconut pudding.
Accommodation is of no problem because there are 5096 hotel rooms, 2458 resort hotel
rooms, 484 chalets and 136 homestay rooms. Thus Malacca’s tourism industry will
continue to prosper, bringing greater prosperity to the state and its people.
2.7 Summary
At the beginning of this chapter, definition for tourism industry and international and
domestic tourists was analyzed. By having a clear understanding of tourism industry
48
definition, it would be must easier to differentiate the following cultural tourism
definition from tourism industry definition. From the World Tourism Organization
definition, cultural tourism can be clearly defined as as the movements of persons for
essentially cultural motivations such as study tours, performing arts and cultural tours.
Next, this chapter focuses on the importance of understanding of tourist’s behavior and
the various factors that motivate or lead to such behavior. Different theories and concepts
on tourist’s behavior and motivations were presented. For example, Means-End theory,
the attribution theory, Mill and Morrison’s travel motivation theory and push/pull factors
of travel motivation were among the few theories and concepts discussed. In addition, the
importance of analyzing the demographic profile of tourist visiting a tourism destination
was also being argued. The tourist’s behavior dimension forms of the theoretical base of
this study.
The following important topic being discussed in this chapter is destination marketing.
Subtopics such as destination image and marketing mix were reviewed in order to get the
clearer picture of destination marketing. By understanding the fundamental strategy of
destination marketing, a comprehensive marketing proposal can be established at the end
of this study to help Malaysia government to promote Malacca as cultural tourism
destination. Finally, some initiatives taken by local authorities to promote Malacca as
cultural tourism destination were also highlighted. The following chapter presents the
methodology of the study.
49
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Theoretical Framework
The preceding chapters presented the proposed area of research for this study and
relevant research in the areas of cultural tourism. This study is to explore the differences
between domestic and foreign cultural tourist behaviour visiting Malacca. After obtaining
the differences, a marketing mix to promote Malacca as cultural tourism spot is proposed.
The figure below shows the theoretical framework of my research project.
Figure 3.1: Theoretical Framework
Tourist Behaviour on Motivation
Tourist Behaviour on Destination
Choice
Tourist Behaviour on Source of Information
Tourist Behaviour on Consumption
Behaviour
Demographics (Domestic / Foreign Tourist)
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
50
3.2 Development of Research Questions
As an exploratory research project, the research questions are developed base on the
objectives of the research, intensive literature review and theoretical framework. The
following are the research questions:
1. What are the motivations that influence cultural tourist to visit
Malacca?
2. What are the expenditures and consumption behaviour of domestic and
foreign tourist visited Malacca?
3. What are the demographics of domestic and foreign visiting Malacca?
4. What variety of destination choice do these domestic and foreign seek
while visiting Malacca?
5. What source of information do these domestic and foreign seek before
visiting Malacca?
6. What are the major differences among the domestic and foreign in
term of tourist behaviour?
7. What is the marketing mix to propose in order to promote Malacca as
a destination choice for cultural tourism?
3.3 Selections of Measures
This research paper uses part of an international research project – the “Atlas Cultural
Tourism” project global survey 2004. This was coordinated by ATLAS (Association for
51
Tourism and Leisure Education). It was found relevant to address exploring the
differences between domestic and foreign cultural tourist behaviour. The dimensions of
the tourist behaviour that explored are motivation, destination choice, consumption
behaviour, and sources of information.
Table 3.1
Tourist Behaviour Statements and Reference Sources
Statements Reference Source
MOTIVATION
Motivation to travel
- Exploration - Relaxation - Escape from a perceived ordinary
environment - Prestige - Going back hometown - Enhancement of kinship relationship - Self evaluation of Self realization
Fodness (1994), McIntosh & Goeldner
(1990), Crick (1989), Fridgen (1991),
Crompton (1970), Schmidhauser (1989),
Krippendorf (1987), Hallab (1999) ,Uysal
and Hagan (1993)
Travelling with
- Alone - Partner - Friends - Family - Tour group
Jang (2003), Dardis, Soberon-Ferrer, and
Patro (1994)
Destination Choice
- Monuments - Historic sites - Religious sites - Museums - Heritage/crafts centres - Art galleries
Atlas (2004), Uysal and Hagan (1993),
Smith (1983)
52
- Traditional festivals - Theatres - Dance events - Classical music events - Cinema
Times visited Malacca Gunn (1988), Phelps (1986), Pearce
(1982)
Consumption Behaviour
Length of stay
- One night - Two to Three nights - Four to seven nights - Eight to fourteen nights - More than 14 nights
Oppermann (1992), Agarwal and Yochun (1999), Jang (2003)
Type of accommodation
- Hotel - Second Residence - With family and friends - Self catering accommodation - Caravan/tent - Youth hostel - Bed & breakfast/room in private
house - Own home
Atlas (2004), Oppermann (1992), Um and Crompton, (1990)
Form of transport
- Own car - Rental car - Local transport (bus, metro, taxi) - Aeroplane - Bicycle - Motorcycle - Train
Atlas (2004), Oppermann (1992), Prideaux (2000), Mayo and Jarvis (1981), Um and Crompton (1990)
Sources of Information
Source of information - Family/friends - Local brochures
Gunn (1988), Gartner (1993), Woodside & Lysoriski (1989)
53
- Guidebooks - Tourist information centre - Internet - TV/Guide - Tour guide - Tour operator information - Newspapers/Magazines
Type of Travel arrangement
- All-inclusive package - Travel and accommodation booked
separately - Nothing booked in advance
Atlas (2004), Oppermann (1992), Um and Crompton (1990), Baloglu (1996)
Travel booking - Book in person at travel agency - Book via internet - Book direct (by phone, fax or email)
Atlas (2004), Chon (1990), Baloglu (1996)
Accommodation booking - Book in person at travel agency - Book via internet - Book direct (by phone, fax or email)
Atlas (2004), Chon (1990), Baloglu (1996)
This exploratory study is conducted through survey method using questionnaire. The
questionnaire is limited to six pages due to short-time duration that respondents would be
willing to spend on the questionnaire. The overall questionnaire was adopted from the
various literatures as per above Table 3.1 and discussed in Chapter Two. The
questionnaire has 62 items and is constructed to measure five constructs where Part 1
identifies some demographic profile of respondents; Part 2 illustrates the motivation of
tourist behaviour. Furthermore, Part 3 is the destination choice of tourist while Part 4 is
consumption behaviour of tourist visited Malacca. Lastly, Part 5 is the sources of
information.
54
Respondent to the statements set in section 2, 3 4 and 5 are measured by using the five-
point Likert Scales. The scale is rated from 1 to 5 such as 1= Never, 2= Occasionally, 3=
Sometimes, 4= Often and 5= Regularly. For the respondent demographic profile ordinal
scales are used.
The questionnaires are written in English as most of tourist will understand English. The
samples of the questionnaires are included in the Appendix 1.
3.4 Sampling Design
In order to obtain relevant data on a public place, a structured quantitative approach is
considered more appropriate. A convenient sampling approach was adopted, which was a
quick and relatively inexpensive method.
Sampling can be defined as the “deliberate choice of a number of people, the sample,
who are to provide you with data from which you will draw conclusions about some
larger group, the population, whom these people represent” (Jankowicz, 1995). In this
present study, the population of interest is defined as tourists visiting cultural areas in
Malacca for a holiday in December 2008. However apart from representation of the
population, additional aspects such as a balanced number of responses of the domestic
and foreign tourists are considered in research design.
A pilot study was conducted to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.
Validity looks at the relationship between a construct and its measures while reliability is
55
a means to examine the observations’ degree of consistency and stability (Rosenthal and
Rosnow, 1984). The first draft of the questionnaire was circulated to 30 selected tourists
at the Old Fort A Famosa, for input regarding features such as wording, layout and
comprehension of the listed items. The questionnaire was revised based on their input.
Then, over 350 questionnaires in English were distributed. As a rule, the larger the
sample size the higher the reliability, the lower the error and the greater the confidence
one can place on the findings reflecting the characteristics of the population as a whole.
3.5 Data Collection Procedure
A self-administered questionnaire was distributed and collected for the month of
December 2008. Respondents are selected on a convenient sampling method and were
kindly asked to participate in the survey. The population consisted of tourists at Old Fort
A Famosa. Old Fort A Famosa is chosen as a distribution spot because it is one of the
state’s most important and popular cultural site, with wide range of tourists. Here, tourists
may participate in several cultural activities and visit interesting monument.
A respondent has to be at least 18 years old and consist of both females and males. A
total of 350 respondents are randomly selected. At the end of the December 2008, a data
collection rate of 85.71% (300 questionnaires) was achieved from the target of 350
questionnaires.
56
The sample data collected was not identifiable to any individual tourist as the analysis
was done on a collective sample.
3.6 Data Analysis Techniques
Data analysis is conducted utilizing the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
software and the relevant statistical procedures. As the SPSS software has a multitude of
tests available, only relevant tests are selected. The tests used are influenced by the
research questions and parametric versus non-parametric types tests based on the
measurements such as nominal, ordinal, and interval/ratio data. The analysis consists of
the following steps:
i. Detect error and missing data values.
ii. Descriptive analysis of all variables and data cleaning based on frequency
distribution of variables. Subsequently measures mean and standard
deviation of the research. Then skewness and kurtosis of the variable are
examined to assess the normality of the distribution of the data.
iii. Finally, the main statistical analyses used are mean. In order to compare the
differences between local and foreign tourists, test of Chi-square is used.
This is because of large sample (350) that is more than 50. Based on the
analysis, the study can be considered significance when the value of Chi-
square test or p-Value is less than significant value, 0.05.
57
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH RESULTS
4.1 Pilot Study
The questionnaire was pre-test by using pilot study to determine the reliability. The
reliability of a measure indicated the extent to which it is without bias and hence ensures
consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument.
(Sekaran, 2003) Thus a total of 30 questionnaires were distributed as a pilot study in the
Old Fort A Famosa .
The following were the outcome of the pilot study:
1. The respondents managed to fill out the questionnaire within 10 to 15 minutes.
2. Each of the question items in the questionnaire are understandable to the
respondents therefore no amendment to the questions were needed.
3. Finally, reliability analysis was carried out to measure the stability and
consistency of instrument. Since Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.69 or higher
are found for all measured items, the instrument were considered acceptable.
4.2 Final Study
The respondents consisted of domestic and foreign tourist at the point of exit in Old Fort
A Famosa. The tourists were approached at the gate area before or after their visit of Old
58
Fort A Famosa. The tourists were approached and kindly asked for his or her
participation after the reasons of the survey were clearly explained. The questionnaire
took tourist approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete. The criteria for respondents are
they must be over 18 and be a tourist in Malacca. All questionnaires were collected on
site. The analysis were run based on 300 questionnaires that were answered by local and
foreign tourists at the main gate of A Famosa Malacca.
4.3 Analyses of Measures
The independent variables are made of various statement items and measured using a five
Likert’s scale. The scale is rated from 1 to 5 such as 1= Never, 2= Occasionally, 3=
Sometimes, 4= Often and 5= Regularly. Then it is further analysed by using reliability
analysis.
Assessment of the reliability is done for each dimension in this research project to
determine the Cronbach’s alpha value. The following Table 4.1 shows the value of the
Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted and reliability test for each dimension :-
Table 4.1
Reliability Analysis
Name of Dimension and Measure Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted
Reliability Test
Motivation Exploration Relaxation
0.672
0.661
0.696
59
Escape from a perceived ordinary environment Prestige Going back hometown Enhancement of kinship relationship Self evaluation of Self realization
Travelling - Alone Travelling – Partner Travelling – Friends Travelling – Family Travelling – Tour Group
0.669
0.674
0.685
0.652
0.663
0.721
0.668
0.676
0.686
0.699 Destination Choice Monuments Historic sites Religious sites Museums Heritage/crafts centres Art galleries Traditional festivals Theatres Dance events Classical music events Cinema Number of time visited Malacca
0.811
0.806
0.811
0.806
0.801
0.800
0.799
0.803
0.802
0.803
0.834
0.835
0.823
60
Consumption Behaviour Duration of stay – One night Two to Three nights Four to Seven nights Eight to fourteen nights More than 14 nights Accommodation- Hotel Second residence With family and friends Self catering accommodation Caravan/tent Youth hostel Bed & breakfast in private house Own home Transport- Own car Rental Car Local transport (bus, metro, taxi) Aeroplane Bicycle Motorcycle Train
0.759
0.732
0.718
0.736
0.742
0.758
0.728 0.723
0.730
0.736
0.739
0.731
0.732
0.767
0.741
0.737
0.731
0.743
0.739
0.72
0.747
61
Sources of Information Family/friends Local brochures Guidebooks Tourist information centre Internet TV/Guide Tour guide Tour operator information Newspapers/Magazines
0.841
0.831
0.832
0.832
0.828
0.841
0.834
0.836
0.839
0.845
Travel arrangement All- inclusive package Travel and accommodation booked separately Nothing booked in advance If Travel Booking Book in person at travel agency Book via Internet Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) If Accommodation booking Book in person at travel agency Book via internet Book directly (by phone, fax, or email)
0.845
0.837
0.850
0.844
0.837
0.839
0.838
0.835
0.837
62
All the dimension of independent variables score a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of more
than 0.69 with the motivation part being the lowest among all the scoring dimension. The
values about 0.7 are considered acceptable however values about 0.8 are preferable
(Pallant, 2007). The column of “Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted” as shown in Table
4.1 means the impact of removing each item form the scale(Pallant,2007). Even though
there are a few items show the Cronbach’s Alpha higher than the reliability value, we can
assume all the items can be accepted and reliable because of smallest number of
differences.
4.4 Descriptive Analysis
In descriptive analysis, the assessment of the central tendency such as mean and standard
deviation is done for each variable in this study. Next, the normality of the distribution is
examined using skewness and kurtosis. The distribution is exactly normal if the values
for skewness and kurtosis are zero (Hair et.al., 1998). The distribution of the
measurement scores is normal with the skewness near to zero.
Most of the skewness value are closely to zero that indicates the assumption of normality
have been fulfilled for this study. These skewness values indicate that the assumption of
normality had been fulfilled.
63
4.4.1 Motivation
The measures of variable Motivation are analysed for central tendency and normality.
These results are listed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2
Statistics for Measures of Motivation
Measures Mean Std.
Deviation Skewness
Motivation
Exploration Relaxation Escape from a perceived ordinary environment Prestige Going back hometown Enhancement of kinship relationship Self evaluation of Self realization
Travelling - Alone Travelling – Partner Travelling – Friends Travelling – Family Travelling – Tour Group
3.13
3.68
3.11
2.09
2.63
2.94
2.57
2.05
2.92
3.18
3.4
2.24
1.066
0.949
1.085
1.009
1.472
1.074
1.178
1.237
1.420
1.194
1.216
1.191
-0.145
-0.621
-0.214
-0.485
-0.272
-0.141
-0.264
0.915
-0.141
-0.269
-0.400
0.705
Note: 1= Never; 5 = Regularly
64
From the analysis above, the five variable of Motivation which scored the highest mean
are relaxation, travelling with family, travelling with friends, exploration and escape from
a perceived ordinary environment.
While the variables like travelling alone, prestige, travelling with tour group, self
evaluation of self realization and going back hometown scored the lowest five in
motivation.
4.4.2 Destination Choice
The descriptive analysis results for the variables of destination choice are listed in Table
4.3.
Table 4.3
Statistics for Measures of Destination Choice
Measures Mean Std.
Deviation Skewness
Destination Choice
Monuments Historic sites Religious sites Museums Heritage/crafts centres
2.75
3.08
2.73
2.93
2.95
1.026
1.003
1.099
0.999
0.942
-0.112
-0.148
0.050
-0.14
-0.14
65
Art galleries Traditional festivals Theatres Dance events Classical music events Cinema Number of time visited Malacca
2.67
2.73
2.22
2.29
2.22
2.59
3.06
1.006
1.074
1.113
1.005
1.004
1.357
1.239
0.77
0.099
0.451
0.409
0.625
0.250
0.124
Note: 1=Never; 5=Regularly
The top three highest destination choice scoring mean are historic sites, heritage/crafts
centres and museums. Meanwhile, the lowest three destination places are classical music
events, dance events and cinema. According to the analysis, majority of tourist are
revisiting Malacca more than 3 to 4 times.
4.4.3 Consumption Behaviour
The consumption behaviour is mainly looked at the behaviour of the tourist during their
stay such as duration of stay and transport/accommodation they chose to take. Analysis
of the consumption behaviour is listed at Table 4.4.
66
Table 4.4
Statistics for Measures of Consumption Behaviour
Measures Mean Std.
Deviation Skewness
Consumption Behaviour Duration of stay – One night Two to Three nights Four to Seven nights Eight to fourteen nights More than 14 nights Accommodation- Hotel Second residence With family and friends Self catering accommodation Caravan/tent Youth hostel Bed & breakfast in private house Own home Transport- Own car Rental Car
2.37
2.69
1.90
1.41
1.39
3.54
1.77
2.79
1.62
1.33
1.42
1.44
1.84
3.22
1.86
1.237
1.118
1.141
0.836
0.974
1.276
0.949
1.324
0.992
0.659
0.852
0.863
1.328
1.528
1.119
0.518
0.224
1.014
2.355
2.665
-0.511
1.132
-0.018
1.494
2.140
2.191
2.223
1.281
-0.251
1.029
67
Local transport (bus, metro, taxi) Aeroplane Bicycle Motorcycle Train
2.72
2.05
1.33
1.32
1.80
1.347
1.277
0.659
0.724
1.094
0.140
0.834
2.140
2.519
1.206
The majority tourists stay in Malacca for two to three nights, while some tourist stay
there only a night. The least group is the tourists who make the decision to stay in
Malacca more than 14 nights.
The highest scoring for type of accommodation the tourist chooses to stay is hotel.
Moreover some tourists choose to stay with family and friends. The two lowest scoring
for type of accommodation are caravan/tent and youth hostel. Own car and local transport
such as bus and taxi are the two highest measures for transportation. Meanwhile, bicycle
and motorcycle are scoring the lowest in measures for transport used.
4.4.4 Sources of Information
The descriptive analysis results for the variables of source of information are listed in
Table 4.5.
68
Table 4.5
Statistics for Measures of Sources of Information
Measures Mean Std.
Deviation Skewness
Sources of Information Family/friends Local brochures Guidebooks Tourist information centre Internet TV/Guide Tour guide Tour operator information Newspapers/Magazines Travel arrangement All- inclusive package Travel and accommodation booked separately Nothing booked in advance If Travel Booking Book in person at travel agency Book via Internet Book directly (by phone, fax, or email)
3.63
2.97
2.80
2.55
3.53
2.37
2.18
2.29
2.84
2.82
2.75
1.81
2.4
2.85
2.7
1.028
1.181
1.158
1.251
1.367
1.142
1.144
1.226
1.193
1.307
1.139
1.187
1.230
1.456
1.290
-0.502
-0.021
0.195
0.365
-0.588
0.383
0.646
0.546
0.008
0.181
0.086
1.187
0.591
0.028
0.100
69
If Accommodation booking Book in person at travel agency Book via internet Book directly (by phone, fax, or email)
2.47
2.82
2.87
1.225
1.428
1.294
0.457
0.016
0.008
The three most common source of information that tourist usually consulted before visit a
destination are family/friend, Internet, and local brochures. On the other hand, the lowest
three scoring are tour guide, tour operator information, and TV/Guide.
Majority tourists prefer to choose all- inclusive package when made a travel arrangement.
Besides that, majority tourists prefer to book their travel and accommodation through
internet or directly by phone, fax, or email. From the analysis, only minority prefer to
book their travel and accommodation through travel agency.
4.4.5 Demographic Profiles
The demographic profiles acquired anonymous information on gender, age, household
income level, place of residence, level of education, and other general information about
the cultural tourists. Details on descriptive statistics such as tables and charts can be
found in Appendix. However the summary of the data is provided in Table 4.6.
70
Table 4.6
Demographic Profiles of Respondents
Demographic Profile Frequency %
%
(Cumulative)
Gender Male
Female
121
179
40.3%
59.7%
40.3%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
Age (years) < 19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
< 60
46
126
75
26
22
5
15.3%
42.0%
25.0%
8.7%
7.3%
1.7%
15.3%
57.3%
82.3%
91.0%
98.3%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
Household
income
< RM 5000
RM 5001-10000
RM 10001-20000
RM 20001-30000
RM 30001-40000
RM 40001-50000
RM 50001-60000
>RM 60000
87
25
22
22
40
17
22
65
29.0%
8.3%
7.3%
7.3%
13.3%
5.7%
7.3%
21.7%
29.0%
37.3%
44.7%
52.0%
65.3%
71.0%
78.3%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
71
Level of
education
Primary school
Secondary school
Vocational
Bachelor degree
Master or PHD
15
77
30
139
39
5.0%
25.7%
10.0%
46.3%
13.0%
5.0%
30.7%
40.7%
87.0%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
Place of
Residence
Malaysia
Other Country
150
150
50.0%
50.0%
50%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
Current
Position
Employed
Self employed
Retired
Housewife/man
Student
Unemployed
163
32
7
11
80
7
54.3%
10.7%
2.3%
3.7%
26.7%
2.3%
54.3%
65.0%
67.3%
71.0%
97.7%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
Occupation al
group
Director or manager
Professional
Technical Professions
Clerical/Administration
Service and Sales
Personnel
Manual or crafts workers
35
114
21
29
35
11
55
11.7%
38.0%
7.0%
9.7%
11.7%
3.7%
18.3%
11.7%
49.7%
56.7%
66.3%
78.0%
81.7%
100.0%
72
Total 300 100.0%
Expenditures < RM 500
RM 501-1500
RM 1501-2500
RM 2501-3500
RM 3501-4500
RM 4501-5500
RM 5501-6500
>RM 6501
95
74
38
21
18
11
13
30
31.7%
24.7%
12.7%
7.0%
6.0%
3.7%
4.3%
10.0%
31.7%
56.3%
69.0%
76.0%
82.0%
85.7%
90.0%
100.0%
Total 300 100.0%
The table above is showing a fully analyzed demographic profile data from a total of 300
respondents. The data show that majority of respondents are respondents which comprise
57.9%. Meanwhile, the male’s respondents only comprise 40.3% from the total sample
size. Difference between female tourists and male tourist is 19.4%.
Respondents were chosen at random from the tourists’ population and it is found that 42%
of the respondents are adults aged between 20-29 years, followed by 25% in the age of
30-39 years. It is interesting to note that the young such as children and teenagers
accounts for 15.3% of the total respondents. While others age group of tourists is less
than 10% of the tourist’s population.
73
In determining the annual household gross income of the tourists group, it is revealing
that the band range “< RM 5000” is 29% of the total respondents. Next, the band range
“RM 5001-10000” accounts 8.3% of the total respondents. Then, it is followed by band
range “RM 10001-20000” and “RM 20001-30000” which have the same percentage 7.3%.
After that, it is followed by the third highest annual household gross income band range
“RM 30001-40000” which account for 13.3%. Subsequently, it is followed by the band
range of “RM 40001-50000” and “RM 50001-60000” which account for 5.7% and 7.3%
respectively. Lastly, it is followed by the second highest annual household gross income
band range of “>RM 60000” which account for 21.7%.
From the data, the highest education background of the cultural tourists is bachelor
degree (46.3%). The second largest group are secondary school which accounts for 25.7%
and followed by master or PHD which accounts for 13.0%. Meanwhile, the vocational
school and primary school account 10% and 5% respectively.
The place of residence of tourist is equally divided into two groups which are domestic
residence and foreign country. Though the current position analysis, majority of the
cultural tourists are employed (54.3%). The second highest group is the student group
which account for 26.7%, and lastly followed by self employed which account for 10.7%.
The most common occupation group of the cultural tourists is professional 38% of them.
There are two occupation group which account of 11.7% that are director or manger and
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service and sales personnel. The remaining cultural tourists such as technical professions,
clerical/administration and manual or crafts workers are less that 10% respectively.
From this analysis, it is found that 31.7% of the respondents are spending less than RM
500 per visit to Malacca. This is followed by 24.7% who are spending RM 500-1500 per
visit. Meanwhile, respondents spending range of RM 1501-2500 and RM 2501-3500
account for 12.7% and 7% respectively. Respondents spending in the ranges of RM
3501-4500, RM 4501-5500 and RM 5501-6500 are found less than 6.0% respectively.
Lastly, 10% of respondents spend in excess of RM 6501 per visit.
4.5 Inferential Analysis
Inferential analysis is used to determine how variables relate to one another or whether
there are any differences between two or more group. In this research project, Chi-Square
method is selected to study the difference between local and foreign cultural tourist’s
behaviour.
4.5.1 Analysis of Variances (Test of Chi-Square)
To identify groups of tourists that differed in terms of demographic profile, a cluster
analysis of the tourists of the Old Fort A Famosa is undertaken. The tourists’ current
places of residence are used as input data for this analysis.
75
Thus test Chi-Square is done on 2 groups, domestic and foreign tourists from the sample
to better characterise the clusters and identify the major differences that existed between
them. These results are included in detail in Appendix 4. The summary of the Chi-Square
Test are shown in table 4.7 and 4.8.
Table 4.7
Differences between the two groups of cultural tourists concerning
demographic profiles
Chi-square tests Place of Residence Level of significance
Chi-square
d.f. Domestic
N=150 (%)
Foreign N=150
(%) Gender Male Female
46.3 52.5
53.7 47.5
No
significance
1.122
1
Age 19 or younger 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 50 or older
37.0 62.0 56.0 19.2 22.7 60.0
63.0 38.0 44.0 80.8 77.3 40.0
(a)
27.945
5
Income (annual household gross income) RM 5000 or less RM 5001-10000 RM 10001-20000 RM 20001-30000 RM 30001-40000 RM 40001-50000 RM50001-60000 More than 60000
48.3 52.0 59.1 45.5 72.5 58.8 59.1 30.7
51.7 48.0 40.9 54.5 27.5 41.2 40.9 69.3
(a)
20.025
7
Educational Level (highest level) Primary School Secondary School Vocational education Bachelor degree
60.0 44.1 46.7 59.7 25.6
40.0 55.9 53.3 40.3 74.4
(a)
16.286
4
76
Master or Doctoral degree Current position Employee Self employed Retired Housewife/man Student Unemployed
62.6 31.3 28.6 72.7 35.0 0.0
37.4 68.7 71.4 27.3 65.0 100.0
(a)
32.571
5
Current occupational group Director or manager Professional (doctor, lawyer, engineer) Technical professions (technician, nursing) Clerical/administration Service and sales personnel Manual or crafts worker Others
37.1 48.2
61.9
69.0 54.3 36.4 47.3
62.9 51.8
38.1
31.0 45.7 63.6 52.7
No
Significance
9.056
6
Expenditures on the trip RM500 or less RM501-1500 RM1501-2500 RM2501-3500 RM3501-4500 RM4501-5500 RM5501-6500 More than 6501
76.8 64.8 36.8 23.8 38.9 18.2 0.0 3.3
23.2 35.2 63.2 76.2 61.1 81.8 100.0 96.7
(a)
86.790
7
(a) P< 0.01
(b) P<0.05
In term of demographic profiles, it is clear that there is a high significance differences
among the two groups of cultural tourists. However there are no significance differences
among the gender group and the occupational group.
The Chi Square test for all the demographic dimensions have alpha values greater than
0.05, thus the assumption that the differences between the domestic and foreign cultural
tourist. The 2-tailed significance for all dimension respectively indicate that p < 0.01 (a)
and p < 0.05 (b) and therefore are significant.
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Table 4.8
Differences between the two groups of cultural tourists concerning
tourists behaviour
Chi-square tests Level of significance
Chi-square
d.f.
Motivation Exploration Relaxation Escape from a perceived ordinary environment Prestige Going back hometown Enhancement of kinship relationship Self evaluation of Self realization Travelling – Alone Travelling- Partner Travelling- Friends Travelling- Family Travelling- Tour Group
No Significance (b) (b)
No Significance No Significance
(a) (a)
No Significance No Significance
(a) (a) (a)
6.096 10.370 11.639 3.345 8.138 16.954 23.253 8.130 7.907 23.186 27.205 15.374
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4
Total – Motivation No Significance 46.888 37 Destination Choice Monuments Historic sites Religious sites Museums Heritage/crafts centres Art galleries Traditional festivals Treatres Dance events Classical music events Cinema Number of time visited Malacca
(a) (a)
No Significance (a)
No Significance (a)
No Significance (a) (b) (b)
No Significance No Significance
17.375 16.130 6.763 17.978 8.091 20.919 5.677 13.461 10.163 12.527 9.310 8.377
4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Total Destination Choice (b) 60.015 37 Consumption Behaviour Duration of stay- One night Two or Three nights Four to Seven nights Eight to fourteen nights More than 14 nights
(a) (a) (b)
No Significance (b)
29.475 19.871 10.479 8.340 9.911
4 4 4 4 4
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Accommodation- Hotel Second residence With family and friends Self catering accommodation Caravan/tent Youth hostel Bed & breakfast in private house Own home Transport- Own car Rental Car Local transport (bus, metro, taxi) Aeroplane Bicycle Motorcycle Train
(b) (a)
No Significance (a) (a) (b) (b)
No Significance
(a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)
10.568 14.357 9.249 15.931 21.563 12.851 13.356 9.181
41.990 56.602 59.836 23.272 36.124 16.192 21.022
4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Total Consumption Behaviour (a) 76.230 42 Sources of Information Family/friends Local brochures Guidebooks Tourist information centre Internet TV/Guide Tour guide Tour operator information Newspapers/Magazines Travel arrangement All-inclusive package Travel and accommodation booked separately Nothing booked in advance If Travel Booking Book in person at travel agency Book via Internet Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) If Accommodation booking Book in person at travel agency Book via internet
No Significance
(a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)
(a) (a)
No Significance
(a) (a) (b)
(a) (a)
2.826 14.804 19.442 33.247 16.168 14.127 26.184 41.228 16.262
29.805 14.412 2.680
38.921 16.166 12.212
39.386 16.246
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
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Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) (b) 12.129 4 Total Source of information (a) 96.975 52
(a) P< 0.01
(b) P<0.05
The Chi Square test for independence or relatedness applies to the analysis of the
relationship between two categorical variables. To interpret the chi-square printout,
which in the Table 4.8, Motivation has a value of 46.888 with a significance of greater
than 0.05. This significance value is well above the alpha level of .05. Thus, the
differences in motivation scores between domestic and foreign cultural tourists behaviour
is not significant.
The Chi Square test for the Destination Choice dimension has a value of 60.015 with
alpha value of lower than 0.05, thus assumption that there are differences between the
domestic and foreign cultural tourist while choosing the destination choice. The 2-tailed
significance for Destination Choice indicate that p < .05 and therefore significant. The
details of the Destination Choice dimension are shown in the Table 4.8.
The Chi Square test for the consumption behaviour and source of information dimension
has a value of 76.230 and 96.975. The 2-tailed significance for consumption behaviour
and source of information indicate that p < .01 and therefore significant. Therefore, the
differences in consumption behaviour and source of information scores between domestic
and foreign cultural tourists behaviour are significant. The details of both dimensions are
shown in the Table 4.8.
80
4.6 Summary
This chapter presented and discussed the study’s results. A pilot study was conducted
first to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. From the results of Cronbach’s
alpha coefficients, the questionnaire was determined to be suitable for the final study. In
this study, a total of 300 questionnaires were distributed to the local and foreign tourists
visiting Malacca. First test conducted for this study was analyses of measures. Analyses
of measures were used to assess the reliability for each dimension in this research project
by determining the Cronbach’s alpha value.
Descriptive analysis was used to assess the central tendency such as mean and dispersion
of data such as standard deviation for each variable in this study. The variables in this
study can be grouped into five dimensions that are motivation, destination choice,
consumption behaviour, sources of information and demographic profiles. From the
result of descriptive analysis, all the variable distributions are normal with the skewness
near to zero.
Meanwhile, inferential analysis is used to determine whether there are any differences
between local and foreign cultural tourist’s behaviour. Chi-Square test was used for this
inferential analysis. Table 4.7 and 4.8 show the inferential analysis results for
demographic profiles and tourist’s behaviour. Two significant levels are being used to
determine the level of differences between local and foreign tourists. The significant
81
levels are 0.01 and 0.05. In next chapter, discussion and conclusion for this study will be
revealed.
82
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Discussion on Research Questions
In this section, interesting facts about motivation, destination choice, and consumption
behaviour, source of information and demographic profile of cultural tourists visiting
Malacca will be discussed and revealed. All of these dimensions from descriptive
analysis are considered significant in various degrees when studying behaviour of the
tourist. The following are seven important analytical descriptions of cultural tourists
visiting Malacca.
1. What are the motivations that influence cultural tourist to visit Malacca?
Most scholars have looked at the term “motive” as a collection of internal forces and
external goals that guide, direct, and integrate an individual’s behavioural pattern for the
ultimate goal of a future satisfactory outcome (Murray, 1964; Atkinson and Raynor, 1975;
Iso-Ahola, 1982; Hoyenga and Hoyenga, 1984; Pyp and Uysal, 1990). Based on the
statement items measured for the variable motivation and after running reliability
analysis, twelve dimensions of motivation uncovered. These dimensions are divided into
two questions. Firstly, tourist motivation such as exploration, relaxation, escape from a
perceived ordinary environment, prestige, going back hometown, enhancement of kinship
relationship and self evaluation or self realization are measured. Next, the motivation
dimension measures the tourists’ companion preference when they travel to Malacca. It is
measured through five different types of travel companion that are alone, partner, friends,
83
family and tour group. Majority scholars acknowledge that these few dimensions are vital
in understanding what motivates and attracts cultural tourists to visit a particular place
(Schmidhauser, 1989). Understanding motivation can lead to creating better innovative
products and services.
Descriptive analysis method unveils important findings related to central tendency and
normality of the statistics results in chapter four. The statistics for measures of motivation
in Table 4.2 describes that the highest motivation of travelling is for relaxation and
followed with exploration, escape from a perceived ordinary environment, enhancement
of kinship relationship, going back hometown, self evaluation or self realization, and
prestige. Meanwhile, the most preferred travelling measure is with family members.
The reason for this analysis is to determine which dimension of motivation, when
fulfilled for the cultural tourism, would lead to better understanding of tourist
requirement. This would help to predict the satisfaction of tourists with different
motivations or reasons to explore cultural and historical sites in Malaysia. Among
measure of motivation, relaxation ranks the highest with mean of 3.68. Mean for
exploration and escape from a perceived ordinary environment is 3.13 and 3.11
respectively. Mean for prestige ranks the lowest, 2.09. From the statistics, it is
understandable that their primary reason to visit Malaysia is for relaxation and
exploration. Therefore, a prestige holiday package to tourist may not be significantly
appealing to the tourist compared to relaxation or exploration.
84
Other interesting results are the tourist prefers to visit Malacca with family and friends
which show mean of 3.4 and 3.18 respectively. Mean of travelling with partner is 2.92
and tour group is 2.24. These dimensions indicate that the tourists prefer to travel to
Malacca with family members more than with the tour group. It may be due to the
contribution from the local tourists.
In general, there are some minor significant differences between domestic and foreign
tourists for motivations that influenced them to visit Malacca. From the Chi-Square
analysis, there are significance differences in tourist motivation dimension for relaxation,
escape from a perceived ordinary environment, enhancement of kinship relationship and
self evaluation or self realization. Foreign tourists prefer to visit Malacca for relaxation
and escape from a perceived ordinary environment compared to domestic tourists. In
addition, not many domestic tourists prefer to go Malacca for enhancement of kinship
relationship or self evaluation of self realization.
Domestic tourists prefer to visit Malacca with their family members and friends but
foreign tourists prefer to come to Malacca with tour group. Therefore, foreign tourists no
need to worry about their accommodation and food because it all included in the tour
package.
85
2. What are the expenditures and consumption behaviour of domestic and foreign
tourist visited Malacca?
In term of duration of visits, most of tourists stay for about two to three nights in Malacca
with mean 2.69. Subsequently, it is followed by mean for one night stay which is 2.37.
From Chi-Square analysis, domestic tourist prefers to stay one night or two to three
nights. Meanwhile, foreign tourists prefer to stay there at least two to three nights or four
to seven nights. There is similarity on the consumption whereby both the foreign and
domestic tourists prefer to stay in hotel instead of other mode of accommodation with
mean 3.54. Next, staying with family and friends has mean 2.79 and contributed by
domestic tourists. The most popular mode of transportation is by own car with mean 3.22
followed with mean for local transport (bus, metro, taxi) and aeroplane contributing 2.72
and 2.05 respectively. Most of domestic tourists visit Malacca by their own car.
Therefore there is a significance difference in Chi-Square analysis. In general, foreign
tourists prefer to travel around Malacca using rental car or local transport. Therefore there
is major difference among domestic and foreign tourists for transportation choices.
Staying in hotel provides convenient and security to the tourists and offer more relaxation
especially those travelling with family members. Most of the hotels in Malacca package
their offerings with breakfast and they can spend more quality time outside the hotel to
explore the tourist attraction sites. Further away from their home country, food taste may
be strange for foreign tourists and hotels provide quality food compared with other places.
Hotels in Malacca provide very competitive rate to attract the tourists and it is
comparable to other major cities in Malaysia.
86
In term of transportation, domestic tourists prefer to travel in own cars due to convenient
especially travelling with family members and friends. Obviously, foreign tourists, with
the exception of Singaporean, come to Malaysia with airplane and travel by local
transport to Malacca. Foreign tourists mostly travel locally with tour buses as part of their
travel package and it is not only convenient but also provides punctuality and in more
organized manner.
In this research project, it is found that the overall expenditure of the cultural tourists in
Malacca are from these two groups; less than RM500 (31.7%) and RM 501 – 1500
(24.7%). Descriptive analysis indicates that most of the tourists are employed (54.3%)
and students (26.7%). Among those who are employed, 38% of them are professional.
High numbers of professionals and students among the tourists coming to Malacca
correlate positively with high numbers of internet usage for obtaining information and
travel booking.
There is a significance differences among the domestic and foreign in term of
expenditure. Majority of domestic tourists only spend approximately RM 500. However
foreign tourists spend more than RM 1500 during their visit to Malacca. It is important to
take note that most foreign tourists stay longer compared to domestic tourists. This is one
of the reasons that contribute to large expenditure by the foreign tourists in Malacca.
87
3. What are the demographics of domestic and foreign visiting Malacca?
Female tourists (59.7%) outnumber male tourists (40.3%). Though, this scenario can
easily be associated to the fact that they travel in groups and with family members.
However, this will need to be substantiated by another more specific research. Cultural
tourists visiting Malaysia vary in age groups, but the largest number of them are within
the age band of 20 to 29 years (40%), followed by the age band of 30 to 39 years (25%).
However there is a significance difference among the domestic and foreign tourists. The
age bands of majority domestic tourist are from 20 – 39. Then the foreign tourists are
from bands “19 or younger”, “40 – 49” and “50 or older”.
These young cultural tourists are likely to come from a well educated background, with
most of them graduates (46.3%) or with high school qualifications (25.7%). Thus there
are significant differences in the educational levels between the domestic and foreign
tourists. Domestic tourists are lower education level compared to the foreign tourist.
According to of Chi-Square analysis, majority of the domestic tourists are employee and
housewife/man. However the foreign tourists are mainly self employed, retired and
student.
A note of interest is that teenagers also account for a small percentage (15.3%) of cultural
tourists to Malaysia. This demographic could be a potential for relevant agencies to
explore the promotion of tourist catered for the young. The understanding of this
relationship can help government agencies and local authority to cater services
88
specifically to a demographic group in order to increase their satisfaction, or reduce their
dissatisfaction.
4. What variety of destination choice do these domestic and foreign seek while visiting
Malacca?
Descriptive analysis can identify predictors in motivation dimension that give statistics of
destination choice. Historical sites in Malacca has mean of 3.08, followed with
Heritage/Crafts Centre and Museums with mean 2.95 and 2.93 respectively. The
respondent reveals mean of 3.06 for number of time visiting Malacca. It shows there is
high degree of satisfaction among the tourists who choose to come to Malacca more than
once.
In general, there is differences between domestic and foreign when it to come choosing
destination choice. Foreign tourists prefer to go to monument, historic sites, museums
and art galleries but domestic tourists view that it is not very important to visit this places.
However there is no significance difference among these two groups when it come to
religious sites, heritage crafts centres and traditional festivals. These places have low
response compare to monument or historic sites.
From the statistics, tourists show significant tendency to visit Malacca’s historical sites
which is part of cultural tourism. High association between visting historical site and
foreign tourists could be due to holiday package offered to them. Having a long
associations with the past colonisers like the Britain, Dutch, Japan, and Portugal,
89
Malacca does have attractive and diversified cultural products that can be attractive.
When cultural tourists arrive in Malacca for sight-seeing while relaxing more than once,
their intentions are backed by satisfactions that meet their expectations. If these
motivators and expectations are fulfilled or their perceptions towards these motivators are
reinforced, their levels of satisfaction will greatly appreciate.
5. What source of information do these domestic and foreign seek before visiting
Malacca?
This research study finds that major source of information is through family and friends
with mean value 3.67. In marketing, words of mouth are the most effective form of
promotion. Thus there is no significance difference among the domestic or foreign
tourists. Both groups think that source of information through family and friends are very
important. Hence, satisfaction among the existing cultural tourists to Malacca will
indirectly help to promote Malacca as a destination to the potential cultural tourists.
Internet forms the second most popular source of information followed with local
brochures. The mean for internet and brochure is 3.53 and 2.97 respectively.
Besides the words of mouth, internet show significant influence on source of information
perhaps due to the advent of technology. With the availability of internet access, people
around the world could easily access to the information faster and they are conveniently
able to do it at their home. Malaysia’s Ministry of Tourism has placed greater emphasis
on dissemination of information through the internet, namely through official website
www.virtualmalaysia.com.my and www.tourism.com.my.
90
Cultural vibrancy is clearly manifested in the ongoing and successful “Malaysia: Truly
Asia” promotional drive by the country’s promotion arm, Tourism Malaysia. In this
promotion, Malaysia boasts to host a wide variety of Asian ethnic groups that making it
into a little Asia. Malaysia also has distinctive multicultural architectural heritage with
strong Islamic, Chinese and Western influences. Tourism promotions through internet
and newspaper as well as magazines, which have mean value of 2.84, give significant
impact on tourist’s selecting destination to visit.
Tourists prefer to make travel arrangement in all-inclusive package, which score mean
value of 2.82. The second arrangement is to book travel and accommodation separately
and the mean value is 2.75. With all-inclusive package, the tourists need not to worry
about other unexpected costs. Normally, the all-inclusive package includes
accommodation in hotel and it explains the popularity of hotel accommodation among the
tourists coming to Malacca.
Once again, booking through internet is more popular booking method compared with
booking directly through telephone or fax. Travel booking through internet has mean of
2.85 against 2.7 if booking by telephone or facsimile. The popularity of internet should
not be underestimated and it is statistically proven way to disseminate information and
attract tourists to visit Malacca. However, the tourists have slightly greater tendency to
book accommodation directly using telephone or facsimile compared to through the
91
internet. The reason could be the tourists have more confident of obtaining the confirmed
booking through traditional way.
In conclusion, there is significance different in choosing sources of information among
the domestic and foreign tourists.
6. What are the major differences among the domestic and foreign in term of tourist
behaviour?
Major differences among domestic and foreign in term of tourist behaviour are identified
based on Chi-Square method as shown in subchapter 4.5.1. In Motivation dimension, it
can be observed that local tourists prefer to visit Malacca with their family members and
friends. Meanwhile, foreign tourists prefer to visit Malacca through tour group. One of
reasons behind it is local tourists do not face any language barrier when visiting Malacca
heritage sites. Besides that, local tourists are also quite familiar with history of
establishment of Malacca city since they study about it during their schooling times. So,
they do not require any tour guide to bring them around and explain the significant of the
heritage sites.
For Destination Choice dimension, likelihood of foreign tourists visiting heritage sites
such as monuments, museum, historic sites and art galleries are higher compare to local
tourists. From the statistics, most of foreign tourists visit Malacca by engaging tour
agency. Under agency cultural tourism package, visiting heritage sites shall include the
above stated places.
92
From the Expenditure dimension perspective, foreign tourists are bigger spender compare
to local tourists. Most foreign tourists spend more than RM 5000 during their visitation
period Malacca. Meanwhile, the local tourists only spend around RM500. The
expenditure budgets for foreign tourists are higher because they include all the expenses
incurred for their visit to Malacca. Government agency such as Tourism Ministry should
take note of this statistics and plan more promotions to encourage more foreign tourists to
visit Malacca.
Consumption Behaviour dimension shows that foreign tourists would stay in Malacca for
a duration of two days to one week. On the other hand, local tourists normally would
choose to visit Malacca for a single day trip. Besides that, local tourists prefer to visit
Malacca using their own transport. Meanwhile, foreign tourists use rental car, local
transport, aeroplane and train as mode of transport. Since the most of local tourists only
visit Malacca for single day trip, it would be more convenient for them to travel in their
own transport.
Source of information plays one of most important parts to attract more tourists to
Malacca. In this research project, it is found that foreign tourists prefer to book their
travel package through their travel agency compare to local tourists. Foreign tourists also
prefer all inclusive packages for their travelling package. All inclusive packages are more
convenient for foreign tourists because they do not need to worry about their
accommodation and transport when they reach Malacca. In addition, foreign tourists also
93
prefer to visit the information centre to get source of information concerning available
heritage sites in Malacca. Tourism Ministry should take steps to make centre tourists
friendly by hiring more personnel which able to converse in foreign languages. Besides
that, information centre should prepare more brochures and pamphlets in different
languages in order to assist the foreign tourists.
7. What is the marketing mix to propose in order to promote Malacca as a destination
choice for cultural tourism?
4 Ps marketing mix is used to promote Malacca as a destination choice for cultural
tourism. The 4 Ps marketing mix are products, place, promotion and price. By using 4 Ps
marketing mix, competitive advantages that need to be developed for Malacca to be a
destination choice can be easily identified. The following is the proposed 4 Ps marketing
mix:
A. Products
Coupled with the growth in tourism industry, the booming interest in the cultural tourism
helps tourism agency and tour operators to develop more products in order to promote the
cultural tourism among the tourists. Currently, cultural tourism has emerged as a
significant form of alternative tourism among both international tourists as well as local
tourists. Cultural tourism in Malaysia has generated great publicities among cultural
tourists with the result of increasing in the number of incoming tourists annually.
Malacca has marvellous cultural tourism resources that are readily available to be
explored such as the existence of multi-cultural ethnics, historical buildings, colourful
94
lifestyles and friendly atmosphere. These cultural tourism resources should be utilized as
attraction tool to draw more cultural tourists to Malacca.
B. Place
Visitations to places of historical significance have gained much importance in the trend
of cultural tourists. Buildings, sites and items of significant historical background intrigue
these tourists. Such emerging trends have enhanced the inherent value of historic
buildings, prompting the authorities to upkeep and preserve their heritage assets. Cultural
tourists assume a different approach in their travelling behaviour. Their expectations
differ from those travelling solely for leisure. They demand much more than visiting a
place for the sake of visiting. Rather than observing cultures confined within galleries,
these tourists prefer living, and experiencing the local cultures and indulging in the sense
of the place with the local community.
The cultural heritage tourism segment in Malaysia reflects the need for continuously
stronger government commitment and leadership to enforce effective regulations to
protect cultural heritage from development threats. Several initiatives have been
employed including fairs, exhibitions, seminars and workshops to gather more public
awareness on the importance of cultural heritage conservation for tourism.
Innovative preservation of historic sites, public art programs and special cultural events
are the essential ingredients of a successful agenda for cultural heritage tourism.
Nonetheless, planning and management of cultural heritage tourism in Malacca have met
95
with several shortcomings. The major challenge has been to work effectively with all
stakeholders in cultural heritage to understand the needs and constraints of the host
communities, whilst at the same time upholding the principles of conserving cultural
heritage.
Besides that, government should improve on accessibility to heritage sites in Malacca.
Since most of local tourists are using own transport to travel to Malacca, better
accessibility such as more parking spaces and traffic control will enable more tourists to
visit heritage sites especially during the weekends and public holidays. In addition, local
authorities should put up signboard in multiple foreign languages such as English,
Japanese, Arabic, and Mandarin to help foreign tourists to explore the heritage sites
themselves.
C. Promotion
In order to heighten public awareness, programs and projects on awareness-building and
cultural heritage appreciation should be set up at the local level to inculcate strong
heritage values amongst the community. Cultural heritage properties, particularly old
buildings, historical sites and others of architectural value should be revitalized and
revive to ensure that the buildings are economically viable and enhance the city’s
character. The public sector, NGOs and citizens groups play an instrumental role in
pioneering conservation-related initiatives, generating ideas, fostering civic pride, as well
as assisting in financial investments. All stakeholders should learn to deal with conflicts
96
and to explore the creative use of partnerships to share knowledge, as well as risks, in
cultural heritage tourism development.
The high interests among the younger tourists to search information through internet are
quite interesting phenomena where the authority should look into to further improve
dissemination of more information through the internet. Besides that, the authority also
can advertise their promotions in the websites which are commonly visited by the
potential tourists.
D. Price
From the above statistics, it can be deduced that the largest portion of tourist budget goes
to accommodation. Measure such as introducing income tax rebate to local hotelier is one
form of incentive to local tourism industry so that the hotel price will be competitive and
low. In addition, government can also provide tax break to the private companies which
interested to develop new hotels in Malacca. Besides that, government should work
together with local tourism participants such as hoteliers, handicraft makers and tour
operators in order to keep the price under control.
5.2 Conclusions
There is ample space for future improvement on the aspects of promotions of cultural
tourism and the distinct requirements of tourists should be seriously looked into because
the needs and wants of tourists from local and foreign are difference. Besides doing more
97
promotions to attract more cultural tourists to Malacca, Malaysia government should
make known their blueprint of preserving and developing the existing cultural and
heritage sites in Malacca to the stakeholders such as tour operators, hotel owners, local
authority and public. This blueprint will guide the stakeholders to work together to
preserve and develop the heritage sites in Malacca. By preserving the sites, the more
incoming cultural tourists can continue to experience the unique cultural and heritage that
only exist in Malacca.
5.3 Suggestion for Future Research
In order to enhance the cultural tourism in Malaysia, there should be more researches being
conducted to understand the cultural tourist’s behaviour. For future research project
concerning with cultural tourism, the following recommendation are proposed:
1. Dividing local and foreign tourists into smaller subgroups
In this research project, the respondents are divided into two groups that are local and
foreign. For future researches, studies can be conducted to analysis the tourist’s
behaviour according to places the tourists come from. For example, local tourists can
be divided into subgroups such as urban, semi urban and rural tourists. Meanwhile,
foreign tourists can be divided into different continents such as South East Asia, East
Asia, Europe, Middle East, the United States, and Africa. Having these subgroups
will help us to better understand the tourist’s behaviour visiting the cultural sites in
Malaysia such as Malacca.
98
2. More detail researches on the tourist’s behaviour
In this research project, tourist’s behaviour such as motivation, consumption
behaviour, destination choice and source of information are being studied. Future
researches could use more tourists’ behaviour variables in seeking to understand
further the segment’s tourist behaviour. For example, accessibility, marketed image,
formed negative/positive destination images, and quality of services issues could be
added for such a purpose.
3. To do research study in Penang
The promotion of culture and heritage is rather new. Recently, Malaysia has being
awarded two world heritage sites by UNESCO in Malacca and Penang. It is
interesting though, to compare tourists’ behaviour between the tourists visiting
heritage sites in Penang and Malacca.
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APPENDICES
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109
PART 1 – DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
Please tick ( the relevant box and fill in the blanks when necessary.
1. Please indicate your gender Male Female
2. Please indicate your age group 19 or younger 30 - 39 50 or 59 20 – 29 40 - 49 60 or older
3. Which category best describe your annual household gross income group? RM 5000 or less RM 30,001 – 40,000 RM 5001 – 10,000 RM 40,001 – 50,000 RM 10,001 – 20,000 RM 50,001 – 60,000 RM 20,001 – 30,000 More than 60,000
4. What is your highest level of educational qualification? Primary school Bachelor degree Secondary school Master or Doctoral degree Vocational education
5. Where is your current place of residence? Malaysia Other Country
6. Which of the following categories best describes your current position? Employed Housewife/man Self employed Student
Retired Unemployed
7. Please indicate your current (or former) occupational group Director or manager Professional (doctor, lawyer, engineer, teacher, etc.) Technical professions (technicians, nursing) Clerical/administration Service and sales personnel Manual or crafts worker Others
110
8. Please estimate your overall expenditures on this trip? RM 500 or less RM 3,501 – 4,500
RM 501 – 1,500 RM 4,501 – 5,500
RM 1,501 – 2,500 RM 5,501 – 6,500
RM 2,501 – 3,500 More than 6,501ICS
PART 2 – MOTIVATION
Please read each statement below and CIRCLE ONE on each item that best describes your
choices. Using the scale below, i.e. 1 = Never, 2 = Occasionally, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 =
Regularly.
Why do you travel? Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
1. Exploration 1 2 3 4 5
2. Relaxation 1 2 3 4 5
3. Escape from a perceived ordinary
environment 1 2 3 4 5
4. Prestige 1 2 3 4 5
5. Going back hometown 1 2 3 4 5
6 Enhancement of kinship relationship 1 2 3 4 5
7 Self evaluation or Self realization 1 2 3 4 5
When you go travelling, who do you travel
with? Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
8. Alone 1 2 3 4 5
9. Partner 1 2 3 4 5
10. Friends 1 2 3 4 5
11. Family 1 2 3 4 5
12. Tour group 1 2 3 4 5
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PART 3 – DESTINATION CHOICE
Which cultural attractions or events do
you usually visit?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
13. Monuments 1 2 3 4 5
14. Historic sites 1 2 3 4 5
15. Religious sites 1 2 3 4 5
16. Museums 1 2 3 4 5
17. Heritage/crafts centres 1 2 3 4 5
18. Art galleries 1 2 3 4 5
19. Traditional festivals 1 2 3 4 5
20. Theatres 1 2 3 4 5
21. Dance events 1 2 3 4 5
22. Classical music events 1 2 3 4 5
23. Cinema 1 2 3 4 5
Never
(0)
Occasionally
(1 ‐ 2 times )
Sometimes
(3 –4 times)
Often
(5‐6
times)
Regularly
(> 6 times)
24. How many times have you visited to
Melaka in the past? 1 2 3 4 5
PART 4 – CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOUR
How many nights do you usually stay for
your trip?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
25. One night 1 2 3 4 5
26. Two to Three nights 1 2 3 4 5
27. Four to seven nights 1 2 3 4 5
28. Eight to fourteen nights 1 2 3 4 5
29. More than 14 nights 1 2 3 4 5
112
What type of accommodation would you
choose to stay in?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
30. Hotel 1 2 3 4 5
31. Second residence 1 2 3 4 5
32. With family and friends 1 2 3 4 5
33. Self catering accommodation 1 2 3 4 5
34. Caravan/tent 1 2 3 4 5
35. Youth hostel 1 2 3 4 5
36. Bed & breakfast/room in private house 1 2 3 4 5
37. Own home 1 2 3 4 5
Which form of transport do you use on a
trip?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
38. Own car 1 2 3 4 5
39. Rental Car 1 2 3 4 5
40. Local transport (bus, metro, taxi) 1 2 3 4 5
41. Aeroplane 1 2 3 4 5
42. Bicycle 1 2 3 4 5
43. Motorcycle 1 2 3 4 5
44. Train 1 2 3 4 5
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PART 5 – SOURCES OF INFOMATION
What sources of information do you usually consulted before you visit a destination?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
45. Family/friends 1 2 3 4 5
46. Local brochures 1 2 3 4 5
47. Guidebooks 1 2 3 4 5
48. Tourist information centre 1 2 3 4 5
49. Internet 1 2 3 4 5
50. TV/Guide 1 2 3 4 5
51. Tour guide 1 2 3 4 5
52. Tour operator information 1 2 3 4 5
53. Newspapers/Magazines 1 2 3 4 5
What type of travel arrangement do you prefer?
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
54. All- inclusive package 1 2 3 4 5
55. Travel and accommodation booked separately 1 2 3 4 5
56. Nothing booked in advance 1 2 3 4 5
If you made a travel booking, did you Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
57. Book in person at travel agency 1 2 3 4 5 58. Book via Internet 1 2 3 4 5 69. Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) 1 2 3 4 5
If you made a accommodation booking did you
Never Occasionally Sometimes Often Regularly
60. Book in person at travel agency 1 2 3 4 5
61. Book via Internet 1 2 3 4 5
62. Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) 1 2 3 4 5
Thank you for your time and effort in completing the questionnaire.
114
APPENDIX 2: RELIABILTY TEST
Section 1: Motivation
Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 296 98.7 Excluded(a) 4 1.3 Total 300 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.696 12 Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if
Item Deleted
Exploration 30.74 40.063 .375 .672Relaxation 30.20 39.650 .480 .661Escape from a perceived ordinary environment 30.77 39.723 .392 .669
Prestige 31.77 40.557 .366 .674Going back hometown 31.25 38.668 .298 .685Enhancement of kinship relationship 30.93 38.273 .520 .652
Self evaluation or Self realization 31.30 38.619 .429 .663
Alone 31.82 44.129 .038 .721Partner 30.95 37.577 .388 .668Friends 30.70 39.731 .344 .676Family 30.49 40.563 .276 .686Tour Group 31.63 41.955 .187 .699
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Section 2: Destination Choice Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 295 98.3 Excluded(a) 5 1.7 Total 300 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.823 12 Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if
Item Deleted
Monuments 29.52 48.822 .454 .811Historic Sites 29.20 48.147 .519 .806Religious sites 29.55 48.167 .457 .811Museums 29.34 48.177 .523 .806Heritage/crafts centres 29.33 47.670 .601 .801Art galleries 29.62 47.093 .600 .800Traditional festivals 29.56 46.336 .603 .799Theatres 30.06 46.639 .554 .803Dance events 29.99 47.422 .569 .802Classical music events 30.07 47.722 .557 .803Cinema 29.69 49.698 .249 .834How many times have u visited to melaka in the past 29.23 51.098 .208 .835
Section 3: Consumption Behaviour Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 296 98.7 Excluded(a) 4 1.3 Total 300 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
116
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.747 20 Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if
Item Deleted
One night 37.34 79.155 .055 .759Two to Three nights 37.02 73.291 .384 .732Four to Seven nights 37.82 70.227 .547 .718Eight to fourteen nights 38.30 76.069 .352 .736More than 14 nights 38.32 76.653 .251 .742Hotel 36.19 78.378 .083 .758Second residence 37.94 73.688 .449 .728With family and friends 36.93 69.832 .463 .723Self catering accommodaton 38.11 73.964 .421 .730Caravan/tent 38.39 77.038 .384 .736Youth hostel 38.29 76.748 .294 .739Bed & breakfast/room in private house 38.27 74.871 .426 .731
Own home 37.86 71.749 .370 .732Own Car 36.49 78.420 .042 .767Rental Car 37.85 75.499 .265 .741Local Transport (bus, metro, taxi) 36.99 72.651 .321 .737
Aeroplane 37.66 71.899 .386 .731Bicycle 38.39 78.699 .237 .743Motorcycle 38.41 77.408 .316 .739Train 37.92 71.501 .503 .722
Section 4: Sources of Information Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 296 98.7 Excluded(a) 4 1.3 Total 300 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
117
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.845 18 Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if
Item Deleted
Family/friends 45.05 126.191 .370 .841Local brochures 45.70 119.518 .574 .831Guidebooks 45.88 119.843 .578 .832Tourist information centre 46.11 118.994 .558 .832Internet 45.13 115.647 .624 .828TV/Guide 46.30 124.897 .376 .841Tour guide 46.48 121.369 .520 .834Tour operator information 46.38 121.287 .480 .836Newspapers/Magazines 45.84 123.192 .423 .839All-inclusive package 45.84 125.549 .292 .845Travel and accommodation booked separately 45.93 122.788 .462 .837
Nothing booked in advance 46.86 131.412 .134 .850Book in person at travel agency 46.27 125.884 .303 .844Book via internet 45.81 119.071 .463 .837Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) 45.98 122.295 .417 .839
Book in person at travel agency 46.20 122.752 .425 .838Book via Internet 45.84 118.392 .495 .835Book directly (by phone, fax or email) 45.81 121.123 .458 .837
118
APPENDIX 3: NORMALITY TEST
Section 1: Motivation Statistics
N Mean
Std. Deviation Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness Valid Missing
Exploration 300 0 3.13 1.066 -.145 .141Relaxation 300 0 3.68 .949 -.621 .141Escape from a perceived ordinary environment
299 1 3.11 1.085 -.214 .141
Prestige 297 3 2.09 1.009 .485 .141Going back hometown 300 0 2.63 1.472 .272 .141
Enhancement of kinship relationship
300 0 2.94 1.074 -.141 .141
Self evaluation or Self realization
299 1 2.57 1.178 .264 .141
Alone 300 0 2.05 1.237 .915 .141Partner 300 0 2.92 1.420 -.141 .141Friends 300 0 3.18 1.194 -.269 .141Family 300 0 3.40 1.216 -.400 .141Tour Group 300 0 2.24 1.191 .705 .141
119
Section 2: Destination Choice Statistics
N Mean
Std. Deviation Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness Valid Missing
Monuments 300 0 2.75 1.026 -.112 .141Historic Sites 300 0 3.08 1.003 -.148 .141
Religious sites 298 2 2.73 1.099 .050 .141
Museums 300 0 2.93 .999 -.014 .141Heritage/crafts centres 300 0 2.95 .942 -.014 .141
Art galleries 299 1 2.67 1.006 .077 .141Traditional festivals 300 0 2.73 1.074 .099 .141
Theatres 299 1 2.22 1.113 .451 .141Dance events 300 0 2.29 1.005 .409 .141
Classical music events 300 0 2.22 1.004 .625 .141
Cinema 300 0 2.59 1.357 .250 .141How many times have u visited to melaka in the past
299 1 3.06 1.239 .124 .141
Section 3: Consumption Behaviour Statistics
N Mean
Std. Deviation Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness Valid Missing
One night 299 1 2.37 1.237 .518 .141Two to Three nights 299 1 2.69 1.118 .224 .141
Four to Seven nights 300 0 1.90 1.141 1.014 .141
Eight to fourteen nights 300 0 1.41 .836 2.355 .141
120
More than 14 nights 300 0 1.39 .974 2.665 .141
Hotel 300 0 3.54 1.276 -.511 .141Second residence 299 1 1.77 .949 1.132 .141
With family and friends 300 0 2.79 1.324 -.018 .141
Self catering accommodation
300 0 1.62 .992 1.494 .141
Caravan/tent 300 0 1.33 .659 2.140 .141Youth hostel 300 0 1.42 .852 2.191 .141Bed & breakfast/room in private house
299 1 1.44 .863 2.223 .141
Own home 300 0 1.84 1.328 1.281 .141Own Car 300 0 3.22 1.528 -.251 .141Rental Car 300 0 1.86 1.119 1.029 .141Local Transport (bus, metro, taxi)
299 1 2.72 1.347 .140 .141
Aeroplane 300 0 2.05 1.277 .834 .141Bicycle 300 0 1.33 .659 2.140 .141Motorcycle 300 0 1.32 .724 2.519 .141Train 300 0 1.80 1.094 1.206 .141
Section 4: Source of Information Statistics
N Mean
Std. Deviation Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness Valid Missing
Family/friends 300 0 3.63 1.028 -.502 .141Local brochures
299 1 2.97 1.181 -.021 .141
Guidebooks 299 1 2.80 1.158 .195 .141Tourist information centre 300 0 2.55 1.251 .365 .141
Internet 299 1 3.53 1.367 -.588 .141TV/Guide 300 0 2.37 1.142 .383 .141Tour guide 300 0 2.18 1.144 .646 .141Tour operator information 300 0 2.29 1.226 .546 .141
121
Newspapers/Magazines 300 0 2.84 1.193 .008 .141
All-inclusive package 300 0 2.82 1.307 .181 .141
Travel and accommodation booked separately 299 1 2.75 1.139 .086 .141
Nothing booked in advance 299 1 1.81 1.064 1.187 .141
Book in person at travel agency 300 0 2.40 1.230 .591 .141
Book via internet 300 0 2.85 1.456 .028 .141
Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) 300 0 2.70 1.290 .100 .141
Book in person at travel agency 300 0 2.47 1.225 .457 .141
Book via Internet 300 0 2.82 1.428 .016 .141
Book directly (by phone, fax or email) 300 0 2.87 1.294 .008 .141
122
Section 5: Demographic Profiles of Respondents Respondent's gender
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Male 121 40.3 40.3 40.3 Female 179 59.7 59.7 100.0 Total 300 100.0 100.0
Respondent's age group
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid 19 years or
below 46 15.3 15.3 15.3
20-29 years 126 42.0 42.0 57.3 30-39 years 75 25.0 25.0 82.3 40-49 years 26 8.7 8.7 91.0 50-59 years 22 7.3 7.3 98.3 60 years or
above 5 1.7 1.7 100.0
Total 300 100.0 100.0 Respondent's annual household gross income group
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid RM 5000 or less 87 29.0 29.0 29.0 RM 5001-10000 25 8.3 8.3 37.3 RM10001-20000 22 7.3 7.3 44.7 RM 20001-30000 22 7.3 7.3 52.0 RM 30001-40000 40 13.3 13.3 65.3 RM 40001-50000 17 5.7 5.7 71.0 RM 50001-60000 22 7.3 7.3 78.3 More than RM
60000 65 21.7 21.7 100.0
Total 300 100.0 100.0
123
Highest level of educational qualification
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Primary school 15 5.0 5.0 5.0 Secondary school 77 25.7 25.7 30.7 Vocational education 30 10.0 10.0 40.7 Bachelor degree 139 46.3 46.3 87.0 Master or Doctoral
degree 39 13.0 13.0 100.0
Total 300 100.0 100.0 Current Place of residence
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Malaysia 150 50.0 50.0 50.0 Other
Country 150 50.0 50.0 100.0
Total 300 100.0 100.0 Current Position
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Employed 163 54.3 54.3 54.3 Self employed 32 10.7 10.7 65.0 Retired 7 2.3 2.3 67.3 Housewife/m
an 11 3.7 3.7 71.0
Student 80 26.7 26.7 97.7 Unemployed 7 2.3 2.3 100.0 Total 300 100.0 100.0
Current Occupational group
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Director or manager 35 11.7 11.7 11.7 Professional (doctor,
lawyer,engineer, teacher,etc,)
114 38.0 38.0 49.7
124
Technical professions (technicians,nursing) 21 7.0 7.0 56.7
Clerical/administration 29 9.7 9.7 66.3 Service and sales
personnel 35 11.7 11.7 78.0
Manual or crafts worker 11 3.7 3.7 81.7
Others 55 18.3 18.3 100.0 Total 300 100.0 100.0
Estimate your overall expenditures on this trip
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid RM 500 or
less 95 31.7 31.7 31.7
RM 501-1500 74 24.7 24.7 56.3 RM 1501-
2500 38 12.7 12.7 69.0
RM 2501-3500 21 7.0 7.0 76.0
RM 3501-4500 18 6.0 6.0 82.0
RM 4501-5500 11 3.7 3.7 85.7
RM 5501-6500 13 4.3 4.3 90.0
More than 6501 30 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total 300 100.0 100.0
125
APPENDIX 4: CHI-SQUARE TEST
Section 1: Demographic Profile Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Respondent's gender
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Respondent's gender Crosstabulation Count
Respondent's gender Total
Male Female Male Current Place of residence
Malaysia 56 94 150Other Country 65 85 150
Total 121 179 300 Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided)
Exact Sig. (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.122(b) 1 .290
Continuity Correction(a) .886 1 .346
Likelihood Ratio 1.123 1 .289 Fisher's Exact Test .346 .173
Linear-by-Linear Association 1.118 1 .290
N of Valid Cases 300 a Computed only for a 2x2 table b 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 60.50.
126
Case Processing Summary Cases Valid Missing Total N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Respondent's age group
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Respondent's age group Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of residence Total
MalaysiaOther
Country MalaysiaRespondent's age group
19 years or below 17 29 46
20-29 years 78 48 126
30-39 years 42 33 75
40-49 years 5 21 26
50-59 years 5 17 22
60 years or above 3 2 5
Total 150 150 300 Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 27.945(a) 5 .000
Likelihood Ratio 29.166 5 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 4.494 1 .034
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.50.
127
Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Respondent's annual household gross income group
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Respondent's annual household gross income group Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of
residence Total
MalaysiaOther
Country Malaysia Respondent's annual household gross income group
RM 5000 or less
42 45 87
RM 5001-10000 13 12 25 RM10001-20000 13 9 22 RM 20001-30000 10 12 22 RM 30001-40000 29 11 40 RM 40001-50000 10 7 17 RM 50001-60000 13 9 22 More than RM 60000 20 45 65 Total 150 150 300
128
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.025(a) 7 .006
Likelihood Ratio 20.586 7 .004Linear-by-Linear Association 1.659 1 .198
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.50. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Highest level of educational qualification
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Highest level of educational qualification Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of residence Total
MalaysiaOther
Country MalaysiaHighest level of educational qualification
Primary school 9 6 15
Secondary school 34 43 77
Vocational education 14 16 30
Bachelor degree 83 56 139
Master or Doctoral degree
10 29 39
Total 150 150 300
129
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.286(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.732 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association .163 1 .687
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.50. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Current Position
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Current Position Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of
residence Total
MalaysiaOther
Country MalaysiaCurrent Position
Employed 102 61 163
Self employed 10 22 32
Retired 2 5 7 Housewife/
man 8 3 11
Student 28 52 80 Unemploye
d 0 7 7
Total 150 150 300
130
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 32.571(a) 5 .000
Likelihood Ratio 35.739 5 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 18.148 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 4 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.50. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Current Occupational group
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Current Occupational group Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of
residence Total
Malays
ia Other
Country Malaysia Current Occupational group
Director or manager 13 22 35
Professional (doctor, lawyer,engineer, teacher,etc,) 55 59 114
Technical professions (technicians,nursing) 13 8 21
Clerical/administration 20 9 29
131
Service and sales personnel 19 16 35
Manual or crafts worker 4 7 11
Others 26 29 55 Total 150 150 300
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 9.056(a) 6 .170
Likelihood Ratio 9.211 6 .162Linear-by-Linear Association .247 1 .619
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.50. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * Estimate your overall expenditures on this trip
300 100.0% 0 .0% 300 100.0%
132
Current Place of residence * Estimate your overall expenditures on this trip Crosstabulation Count
Current Place of residence Total
MalaysiaOther
Country MalaysiaEstimate your overall expenditures on this trip
RM 500 or less 73 22 95
RM 501-1500 48 26 74
RM 1501-2500 14 24 38
RM 2501-3500 5 16 21
RM 3501-4500 7 11 18
RM 4501-5500 2 9 11
RM 5501-6500 0 13 13
More than 6501 1 29 30
Total 150 150 300 Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 86.790(a) 7 .000
Likelihood Ratio 100.794 7 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 78.878 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.50.
133
Section 2: Motivation Current Place of residence * Exploration Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)Pearson Chi-Square 6.096(a) 4 .192
Likelihood Ratio 6.160 4 .188 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.937 1 .015
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.50. Current Place of residence * Relaxation Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.370(a) 4 .035
Likelihood Ratio 11.345 4 .023Linear-by-Linear Association 2.902 1 .088
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.00. Current Place of residence * Escape from a perceived ordinary environment Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
11.639(a) 4 .020
Likelihood Ratio 11.897 4 .018Linear-by-Linear Association 10.966 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.95.
134
Current Place of residence * Prestige Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 3.345(a) 4 .502
Likelihood Ratio 4.504 4 .342Linear-by-Linear Association .115 1 .734
N of Valid Cases 297
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.49. Current Place of residence * Going back hometown Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.138(a) 4 .087
Likelihood Ratio 8.268 4 .082Linear-by-Linear Association 1.884 1 .170
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.00. Current Place of residence * Enhancement of kinship relationship Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square
16.954(a) 4 .002
Likelihood Ratio 17.322 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 10.402 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.50.
135
Current Place of residence * Self evaluation or Self realization Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 23.253(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 24.858 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 20.595 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.47. Current Place of residence * Alone Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.130(a) 4 .087
Likelihood Ratio 8.621 4 .071Linear-by-Linear Association 5.893 1 .015
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.00. Current Place of residence * Partner Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 7.907(a) 4 .095
Likelihood Ratio 8.234 4 .083Linear-by-Linear Association .874 1 .350
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.00.
136
Current Place of residence * Friends Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 23.186(a) 5 .000
Likelihood Ratio 24.848 5 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 10.811 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50. Current Place of residence * Family Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided) Pearson Chi-Square 27.205(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 30.705 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 17.462 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.00. Current Place of residence * Tour Group Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 15.374(a) 4 .004
Likelihood Ratio 15.979 4 .003Linear-by-Linear Association 9.927 1 .002
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.00.
137
Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * motivation
296 98.7% 4 1.3% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * motivation Crosstabulation Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 46.888(a) 37 .130
Likelihood Ratio 59.548 37 .011Linear-by-Linear Association 5.060 1 .024
N of Valid Cases 296
a 53 cells (69.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50. Section 3: Destination Choice Current Place of residence * Monuments Crosstabulation Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 17.375(a) 4 .002
Likelihood Ratio 18.131 4 .001Linear-by-Linear Association 15.516 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.00.
138
Current Place of residence * Monuments Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 17.375(a) 4 .002
Likelihood Ratio 18.131 4 .001Linear-by-Linear Association 15.516 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.00. Current Place of residence * Historic Sites Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.130(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.822 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 10.761 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.50. Current Place of residence * Religious sites Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 6.763(a) 5 .239
Likelihood Ratio 7.243 5 .203Linear-by-Linear Association .855 1 .355
N of Valid Cases 298
a 2 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50.
139
Current Place of residence * Museums Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 17.978(a) 4 .001
Likelihood Ratio 18.330 4 .001Linear-by-Linear Association 17.316 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.50. Current Place of residence * Heritage/crafts centres Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.091(a) 4 .088
Likelihood Ratio 8.164 4 .086Linear-by-Linear Association 4.345 1 .037
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.50. Current Place of residence * Art galleries Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
20.919(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 21.310 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 15.414 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 1 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.98.
140
Current Place of residence * Traditional festivals Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 5.677(a) 4 .225
Likelihood Ratio 5.753 4 .218Linear-by-Linear Association 3.145 1 .076
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.50. Current Place of residence * Theatres Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 13.461(a) 4 .009
Likelihood Ratio 15.461 4 .004Linear-by-Linear Association .282 1 .596
N of Valid Cases 299
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.49. Current Place of residence * Dance events Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.163(a) 4 .038
Likelihood Ratio 11.767 4 .019Linear-by-Linear Association 5.023 1 .025
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.00.
141
Current Place of residence * Classical music events Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 12.527(a) 4 .014
Likelihood Ratio 12.750 4 .013Linear-by-Linear Association 11.901 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.00. Current Place of residence * Cinema Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 9.310(a) 4 .054
Likelihood Ratio 9.416 4 .051Linear-by-Linear Association .876 1 .349
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 15.00. Current Place of residence * How many times have u visited to melaka in the past Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 8.377(a) 4 .079
Likelihood Ratio 8.424 4 .077Linear-by-Linear Association 2.991 1 .084
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.95.
142
Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * destination
295 98.3% 5 1.7% 300 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 60.015(a) 37 .003
Likelihood Ratio 72.628 37 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 8.337 1 .004
N of Valid Cases 295
a 50 cells (65.8%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .49. Section 4: Consumption Behaviour Current Place of residence * One night Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 29.475(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 30.386 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 19.889 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.47.
143
Current Place of residence * Two to Three nights Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 19.871(a) 4 .001
Likelihood Ratio 20.275 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association .087 1 .769
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.97. Current Place of residence * Four to Seven nights Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.479(a) 4 .033
Likelihood Ratio 10.605 4 .031Linear-by-Linear Association 6.928 1 .008
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.50. Current Place of residence * Eight to fourteen nights Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 8.340(a) 4 .080
Likelihood Ratio 8.703 4 .069Linear-by-Linear Association .936 1 .333
N of Valid Cases 300
a 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.50.
144
Current Place of residence * More than 14 nights Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 9.911(a) 4 .042
Likelihood Ratio 12.648 4 .013Linear-by-Linear Association 5.623 1 .018
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.50. Current Place of residence * Hotel Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.568(a) 4 .032
Likelihood Ratio 10.819 4 .029Linear-by-Linear Association 3.787 1 .052
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.00. Current Place of residence * Second residence Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.357(a) 4 .006
Likelihood Ratio 14.568 4 .006Linear-by-Linear Association 1.519 1 .218
N of Valid Cases 299
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.49.
145
Current Place of residence * With family and friends Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 9.249(a) 4 .055
Likelihood Ratio 9.334 4 .053Linear-by-Linear Association 1.387 1 .239
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 15.50. Current Place of residence * Self catering accommodaton Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 15.931(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.273 4 .003Linear-by-Linear Association 10.240 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.50. Current Place of residence * Caravan/tent Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 21.563(a) 3 .000
Likelihood Ratio 22.768 3 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 3.711 1 .054
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.50.
146
Current Place of residence * Youth hostel Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 12.851(a) 4 .012
Likelihood Ratio 13.117 4 .011Linear-by-Linear Association 6.989 1 .008
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.50. Current Place of residence * Bed & breakfast/room in private house Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 13.356(a) 4 .010
Likelihood Ratio 13.801 4 .008Linear-by-Linear Association 1.231 1 .267
N of Valid Cases 299
a 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.49. Current Place of residence * Own home Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 9.181(a) 4 .057
Likelihood Ratio 9.385 4 .052Linear-by-Linear Association 1.181 1 .277
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.00.
147
Current Place of residence * Own Car Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 41.990(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 44.257 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 35.194 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 17.00. Current Place of residence * Rental Car Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 56.602(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 61.273 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 53.717 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.50. Current Place of residence * Local Transport (bus, metro, taxi) Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 59.836(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 63.338 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 47.937 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 16.94.
148
Current Place of residence * Aeroplane Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 23.272(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 24.090 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 22.979 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.50. Current Place of residence * Bicycle Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 36.124(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 39.268 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 27.603 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50. Current Place of residence * Motorcycle Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.192(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 17.511 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 5.342 1 .021
N of Valid Cases 300
a 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.00.
149
Current Place of residence * Train Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 21.022(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 21.457 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 16.080 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.00. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * asc
296 98.7% 4 1.3% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Consumption Behaviour Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 76.230(a) 42 .001
Likelihood Ratio 92.142 42 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 16.405 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 296
a 63 cells (73.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50. Section 5: Source of Information
150
Current Place of residence * Family/friends Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 2.826(a) 4 .587
Likelihood Ratio 2.920 4 .571Linear-by-Linear Association .315 1 .574
N of Valid Cases 300
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.00. Current Place of residence * Local brochures Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.804(a) 4 .005
Likelihood Ratio 15.052 4 .005Linear-by-Linear Association 11.098 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 15.45.
151
Current Place of residence * Guidebooks Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 19.442(a) 4 .001
Likelihood Ratio 20.018 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 13.964 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.96. Current Place of residence * Tourist information centre Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 33.247(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 34.577 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 26.225 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.50.
152
Current Place of residence * Internet Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.168(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.417 4 .003Linear-by-Linear Association 12.478 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.45. Current Place of residence * TV/Guide Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.127(a) 4 .007
Likelihood Ratio 14.300 4 .006Linear-by-Linear Association .092 1 .762
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.00. Current Place of residence * Tour guide Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 26.184(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 26.681 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 20.158 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.00.
153
Current Place of residence * Tour operator information Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 41.228(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 43.698 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 36.340 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.00. Current Place of residence * Newspapers/Magazines Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.262(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.960 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 13.171 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.50. Current Place of residence * All-inclusive package Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 29.805(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 30.710 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 4.684 1 .030
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.00.
154
Current Place of residence * Travel and accommodation booked separately Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.412(a) 4 .006
Likelihood Ratio 14.822 4 .005Linear-by-Linear Association 8.747 1 .003
N of Valid Cases 299
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.47. Current Place of residence * Nothing booked in advance Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 2.680(a) 4 .613
Likelihood Ratio 2.726 4 .605Linear-by-Linear Association .010 1 .922
N of Valid Cases 299
a 2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.49. Current Place of residence * Book in person at travel agency Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 38.921(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 40.414 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 10.196 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.00.
155
Current Place of residence * Book via internet Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.166(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.567 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 9.087 1 .003
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 18.50. Current Place of residence * Book directly (by phone, fax, or email) Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
12.212(a) 4 .016
Likelihood Ratio 12.439 4 .014Linear-by-Linear Association 3.368 1 .066
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.00. Current Place of residence * Book in person at travel agency Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
39.386(a) 4 .000
Likelihood Ratio 41.241 4 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 27.865 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.00.
156
Current Place of residence * Book via Internet Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.246(a) 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 17.001 4 .002Linear-by-Linear Association 10.203 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 15.50. Current Place of residence * Book directly (by phone, fax or email) Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 12.129(a) 4 .016
Likelihood Ratio 12.328 4 .015Linear-by-Linear Association 1.792 1 .181
N of Valid Cases 300
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 17.00. Case Processing Summary
Cases Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent Current Place of residence * source
296 98.7% 4 1.3% 300 100.0%
Current Place of residence * Source of Information
157
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 96.975(a) 52 .000
Likelihood Ratio 123.946 52 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 26.581 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 296
a 88 cells (83.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .50.
