Firefighting - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/12/2019 Firefighting - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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8/4/2014 Firefighting - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting

Firefighters at a major fire involving an

abandoned convent in Canada, 2006

Firefighting in Jyvskyl, Finland

FirefightingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Firefightingis theact of extinguishing fires. A firefighter

suppresses and extinguishes fires to prevent loss of life, and/or

destructionof property and the environment. Firefighting is a

highly technical skill that requires professionals who have spent

ears training inboth general firefighting techniques andspecialized areas of expertise.

Contents

1 History

1.1 Ancient Rome

1.2 United Kingdom1.3 United States

2 Firefighters' duties

2.1 Firefighter Skills

2.2 Specialized Skills

2.3 Shift Hours

2.4 Other Fire Services

3 Hazards caused by fire

4 Reconnaissance and reading the fire

5 Science of extinguishment

6 Use of water

6.1 Open air fire

6.2 Closed volume fire

7 Asphyxiating a fire

8 Tactical ventilation or isolation ofthe fire

9 Categorising fires

9.1 USA

10 Appendix: calculating the amount of water required

to suppress a fire in a closed volume

10.1 Volume computation

11 Notes

12 See also

13 References
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting 2

Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s

14 External links

History

Ancient Rome

There was no public fire-fighting in the Roman Republic. Instead, private

individuals would rely upon their slaves or supporters to take action. This

action could involve razing nearby buildings to prevent the spread of fire

as well as bucket brigades. The very wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus

was infamous for literal fire sales. He would buy burning buildings, and

those adjacent to them at low prices, and rebuild them using his team of

500 slaves. However there is no mention of the men extinguishing the

fires. There was not an organized fire-fighting force in ancient Rome until

Augustus's era.[1]

United Kingdom

Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organise rudimentary firefighting

After much of London was destroyed, the first fire insurance was introduced by a man named Nicholas Barbon. T

reduce the cost, Barbon formed his own Fire Brigade, and eventually there were many other such companies. By

the start of the 1800s, those with insurance were given a badge or mark to attach to their properties, indicating tha

they were eligible to utilize the services of the fire brigade. Other buildings with no coverage or insurance with a

different company were left to burn [2]unless they were adjacent to an insured building in which case it was often i

the insurance company's interest to prevent the fire spreading.

In 1833, companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment.

Steam powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed

onto a fire.

The steam powered appliances were replaced in the early 1900s with the invention of the internal combustion

engine.

United States

As early as January of 1608, Jamestown, Virginia, saw a fire destroy many of the colonists' provisions and

lodgings. The early colonial cities of Boston, New York and Philadelphia faced fires, and volunteer companies soo

formed.[3]In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became standard

for volunteer fire company organization. Two tools were very important to firemen; salvage bags and a bed key. A

bed key was used to break down the wooden frame of a bed to get it out safely and salvage bags were used to g

any valuables out and to safety.[3]
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A hose team training to fight an

aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft

carrier, 2006

The first attempt at fire insurance was a bust after a large fire in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1736. Franklin the

organized the "Philadelphia Contributorship" to insure houses from loss by fire in 1740. This ended up being a

success. They adopted "fire marks" to show as easy identification for fire insurance. Firefighting started to become

formalized with rules to provide buckets, ladders, hooks, and the formation of volunteer companies. The chain of

command fell into place.[3]

Firefighters' duties

Firefighters' goals are to save lives, property and the environment. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many

lives; however, with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe is usually, but not always, avoided. To prevent fire

from starting, a firefighter's duties can include public education about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of

locations for their adherence to local fire codes.

Firefighter Skills

Because firefighters are often the first responders to people in critical conditions, firefighters may provide many

other valuable services to the community they serve, such as:

Emergency medical services, as technicians or as licensed paramedics, staffing ambulances;

Vehicle rescue/extrication;

Defensive Hazardous materials mitigation (HAZMAT);

Community disaster support.

Fire risk assessments

Specialized Skills

There are specialized area of fire and rescue operations that are considered special operations. These areas may

require schools and classes to be attended for subject specific training.[4][5]

Aircraft/airport rescue;

Wildland fire suppression;

Search and rescue;

Offensive Hazardous materials technician (HAZMAT);

Shipboard and military fire and rescue;

Tactical paramedic support ("SWAT medics");

Tool hoisting;

High-angle rope rescue;

Swift water rescue.

Trench rescue

Confined space rescue

Building collapse
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Structure fire in Grand Rapids,

Michigan, US

Cold-water rescue

Shift Hours

Firefighters usually follow the 24 hour shift schedule. They usually report to work around 0700 and leave the

following day at 0700. Some fire departments work 8 or 12 hour shifts but the 24 hour shift is far more common.[

Australian firefighters work a 10/14 shift in which the day shift works 10 hours and the night shift works 14

hours.[7]

Other Fire Services

In the US, firefighters also serve the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as urban search and rescu

(USAR) team members.

Hazards caused by fire

One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is thetoxic environment created by combusting materials. The four major

hazards associated with these situations are as follows:[8]

Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the rise

in synthetic household materials.

Oxygen deficient atmosphere, 21% O2is normal, 19.5% O2is

considered oxygen deficient.

Elevated temperaturesToxic atmospheres

To combat these potential effects, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA; an open-circuit

positive pressure compressed air system) to prevent smoke inhalation. These are not oxygen tanks; they carry

compressed air. SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending upon the size of the tank and the rate of

consumption during strenuous activities.

Obvious risks are associated with the immense heat. Even without direct contact with the flames (direct flame

impingement), conductive heat can create serious burns from a great distance. There are a number of comparably

serious heat-related risks: burns from radiated heat, contact with a hot object, hot gases (e.g., air), steam and hotand/or toxic smoke. Firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistan

clothing (Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI)) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the bod

No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of allfire conditions.

Heat can make flammable liquid tanks violently explode, producing what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid

expanding vapor explosion).[9]Some chemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode.

Explosions can cause physical trauma or potentially serious blast or shrapnel injuries.
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Heat causes human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, causing potentially severe medical problems.

Depending upon the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second.

Additional risks of fire include the following:

smoke can obscure vision, potentially causing a fall, disorientation, or becoming trapped in the fire;

structural collapse.

According to a University News Bureau Life Sciences article reported by News Editor Sharita Forest and

photographed by L. Brian Stauffer, from the Website of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,: "Three

hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function in firefighters, according to a new study by Bo

Fernhall, a professor in the department of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health

Sciences, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institute. The conditions (observed in

healthy male firefighters) are "also apparently found in weightlifters and endurance athletes..." [10]

Reconnaissance and reading the fire

The first step of a firefighting operation is a reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire (which may not be

obvious for an indoor fire, especially when there are no witnesses), and identification of the specific risks and any

possible casualties. Any fire occurring outside may not require reconnaissance; on the other hand, a fire in a cellar

or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may require a long reconnaissance to identify

the seat of the fire.

The "reading" of the fire is the analysis by the firefighters of the forewarnings of a thermal accident (flashover,

backdraft, smoke explosion), which is performed during the reconnaissance and the fire suppression maneuvers.

The main signs are:

Hot zones, which can be detected with a gloved hand, especially by touching a door before opening it;

Soot on windows, which usually means that combustion is incomplete and thus there is a lack of air;

Smoke going in and out around a door frame, as if the fire breathes, which usually means a lack of air to

support combustion;

Spraying water on the ceiling with a short pulse of a diffused spray (e.g., cone with an opening angle of 60

to test the heat of the smoke:

When the temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound of rain,

When the temperature is high, it vaporizes with a hiss this can be the sign of an extremely

dangerous impending flashover

Ideally, part of reconnaissance is to consult an existing preplan for the building. This provides knowledge of existin

structures, firefighter hazards, and can include strategies and tactics.

Science of extinguishment

Fire elements[11]
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A fire helicopter is used to fight a

wildfire

There are four elements needed to start and sustain a fire and/or flame. These elements are classified in the fire

tetrahedron and are:

1. Reducing agent (fuel)

2. Heat

3. Oxidizing agent (oxygen)

4. Chemical Reaction

The reducing agent, or fuel, is the substance or material that is being oxidized or burned in the combustion process

The most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen. Heat is the energy

component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for

ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can

continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The self-sustained chemical chain reaction is a

complex reaction that requires a fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An

oxidizing agent is a material or substance that when the proper conditions exist will release gases, including oxygen

This is crucial to the sustainment of a flame or fire.

A fire can be extinguished by taking away any of the four components of

the tetrahedron.[11]One method to extinguish a fire is to use water. The

first way that water extinguishes a fire is by cooling, which removes heat

from the fire. This is possible through waters ability to absorb massive

amounts of heat by converting water to water vapor. Without heat, the

fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel to sustain the fire.

The second way water extinguishes a fire is by smothering the fire. When

water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this

conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air with water vapor,

thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can

also be done with foam.

Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseou

fuel or by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire. Another way to accomplish this is to allow the fire to burn until al

the fuel is consumed, at which point the fire will self-extinguish.

One final extinguishing method is chemical flame inhibition. This can be accomplished through dry chemical and

halogenated agents. These agents interrupt the chemical chain reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective o

gas and liquid fuels because they must flame to burn.

Use of water

Often, the main way to extinguish a fire is to spray with water. The water has two roles:

in contact with the fire, it vaporizes, and this vapour displaces the oxygen (the volume of water vapour is

1,700 times greater than liquid water, at 1,000 F (540 C) this expansion is over 4,000 times); leaving the

fire with insufficient combustive agent to continue, and it dies out.[9]

the vaporization of water absorbs the heat; it cools the smoke, air, walls and objects that could act as furthe
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USMC firefighters neutralize a fire

during a training exercise

fuel, and thus prevents one of the means that fires grow, which is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources t

start new fires, which then combine.

The extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but

the cooling is the most important element to master a fire in a closed area.

Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers,

delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from aircraft tankers in fightingforest fires. An armoured vehicle (firefighting tank) may be used where

access to the area is difficult.

Open air fire

For fires in the open, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray:

the cooling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" by vapor, and

reduces the amount of water required. A straight spray is used so the

water arrives massively to the seat without being vaporized before. A

strong spray may also have a mechanical effect: it can disperse thecombustible product and thus prevent the fire from starting again.

The fire is always fed with air, but the risk to people is limited as they can move away, except in the case of

wildfires or bushfires where they risk being easily surrounded by the flames.

Spray is aimed at a surface, or object: for this reason, the strategy is sometimes called two-dimensional attack or

2D attack.

It might be necessary to protect specific items (house, gas tank, etc.) against infrared radiation, and thus to use a

diffused spray between the fire and the object.

Breathing apparatus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous gases.

Closed volume fire

Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, so the same strategy that was used for open air

fires was effective. In recent times, fires are now attacked in their development phase as:

firefighters arrive sooner;

thermal insulation of houses confines the heat;modern materials, especially the polymers, produce a lot more heat than traditional materials (wood, plaster

stone, bricks, etc.).

Additionally, in these conditions, there is a greater risk of backdraft and of flashover.

Spraying of the seat of the fire directly can have unfortunate and dramatic consequences: the water pushes air in

front of it, so the fire is supplied with extra oxygen before the water reaches it.
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The most important issue is not the flames, but control of the fire, i.e., the cooling of the smoke that can spread and

start distant fires, and that endangers the lives of people, including firefighters. The volume must be cooled before

the seat is treated. This strategy originally of Swedish (Mats Rosander & Krister Giselsson) origin, was further

adapted by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood following a decade of operational use in the busy West End of

London between 198494[12]and termed three-dimensional attack, or 3D attack.

Use of a diffused spray was first proposed by Chief Lloyd Layman of the Parkersburg Fire Department, at the Fir

Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) in 1950 held in Memphis.

Using Grimwood's modified 3D attack strategy, the ceiling is first sprayed with short pulses of a diffused spray:

it cools the smoke, thus the smoke is less likely to start a fire when it moves away;

cooler gas become more dense (Charles's law), thus it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a

"backfire" of water vapour;

it creates an inert "water vapour sky", which prevents roll-over(rolls of flames on the ceiling created by the

burning of hot gases).

Only short pulses of water must be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix

instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases (initially at the ceiling) move around the room and the temperature rise

at the ground, which is dangerous for firefighters. An alternative is to cool all the atmosphere by spraying the whole

atmosphere as if drawing letters in the air ("penciling").

The modern methods for an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire

hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire, and to reduc

the smoke. When the flow is too small, the cooling is not sufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn

firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back). Although it may seem paradoxical, th

use of a strong flow with an efficient fire hose and an efficient strategy (diffused sprayed, small droplets) requires a

smaller amount of water: once the temperature is lowered, only a limited amount of water is necessary to suppress

the fire seat with a straight spray. For a living room of 50 m (60 square yards), the required amount of water is

estimated as 60 L (15 gal).

French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: they sprayed water on the hot walls to create a water

vapour atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This method is no longer used because it was risky; the pressure

created pushed the hot gases and vapour towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, and pushed the hot gases

into other rooms where they could start a new fire.

Asphyxiating a fireIn some cases, the use of water is undesirable:

some chemical products react with water and produce poisonous gases, or even burn in contact with water

(e.g., sodium);

some products float on water, e.g., hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then

spread and extend;

in case of a pressurised fuel tank, it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank: the resultin
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decompression may produce a BLEVE;

electrical fires where water would act as a conductor.

It is then necessary to asphyxiate the fire. This can be done in different ways:

some chemical products react with the fuel and stop the combustion;

a layer of water-based fire retardant foam is projected on the product by the fire hose, to keep the oxygen

air separated from the fuel;

using carbon dioxide, halon, or sodium bicarbonate;

in the case of very small fires, &/or in the absence of other extinguishing agents, literal 'blanketing' of the

flames can eliminate oxygen flow to the fire. A simple, and usually effective, way to put out a stove-top pan

whose contents have become ignited is to put a lid on the pan and leave it there.

Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire

One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke: it carries heat and poisonous gases, and obscures vision. In the case o

a fire in a closed location (building), two different strategies may be used: isolation of the fire, or ventilation.

Paul Grimwood introduced the concept of tactical ventilation in the 1980s to encourage a better thought-out

approach to this aspect of firefighting. Following work with Warrington Fire Research Consultants (FRDG 6/94)

his terminology and concepts were adopted officially by the UK fire services, and are now referred to throughout

revised Home Office training manuals (199697).

Grimwood's original definition of his 1991 unified strategy stated that, "tactical ventilationis either the venting, or

containment (isolation) actions by on-scene firefighters, used to take control from the outset of a fire's burning

regime, in an effort to gain tactical advantage during interior structural firefighting operations."

Ventilation affects life safety, fire extinguishment, and property conservation. First, it pulls fire away from trapped

occupants when properly used. In most cases of structural firefighting a 4x4 foot opening is cut into the roof direct

over the fire room. This allows hot smoke and gases to escape through the opening returning the conditions of the

room to normal. It is important that ventilation is coordinated with interior fire attack as the opening of a ventilation

hole will give the fire air. It may also "limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allows fire

fighters to safely attack the fire" as well as limit smoke, heat, and water damage.[13]

Positive pressure ventilation (PPV) consists of using a fan to create excess pressure in a part of the building; this

pressure will push the smoke and the heat out of the building, and thus secure the rescue and fire fighting operationIt is necessary to have an exit for the smoke, to know the building very well to predict where the smoke will go, an

to ensure that the doors remain open by wedging or propping them. The main risk of this method is that it may

accelerate the fire, or even create a flashover, e.g., if the smoke and the heat accumulate in a dead end.

Hydraulic ventilation is the process of directing a stream from the inside of a structure out the window using a fog

pattern.[9]This effectively will pull smoke out of room. Smoke ejectors may also be used for this purpose.

Categorising fires
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USA

In the US, fires are sometimes categorised as "one alarm", "all hands", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires.

There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably, though it always refers to the level response by the

local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to

the fire. In others, the number counts the number of "dispatches" for additional personnel and equipment.[14][15]

Alarms are generally used to define the tiers of the response by what resources are used.

Example:

Structure fire response draws the following equipment:

3 Engine/Pumper Companies

1 Truck/ladder/aerial Company

Heavy Rescue

This is referred to as an Initial Alarm or Box Alarm.

Working fire request (for the same incident)

Air/Light Units

Other specialized rescue units

Chief Officers/Fireground Commanders (if not on original dispatch)

Note: This is the balance of a First Alarm fire.

Second and subsequent Alarms:

2 Engine Companies

1 Truck Company

The reason behind the "Alarm" is so the Incident Commander doesn't have to request each apparatus with the

dispatcher. He can say "Give me a second alarm here", instead of saying "Give me a truck company and two engin

companies" along with requesting where they come from.

Keep in mind that categorization of fires varies between each fire department. A single alarm for one department

may be a second alarm for another. Response always depends on the size of the fire and the department.

Appendix: calculating the amount of water required to suppress a

fire in a closed volume

In the case of a closed volume, it is easy to compute the amount of water needed. The oxygen (O 2) in air (21%) is

necessary for combustion. Whatever the amount of fuel available (wood, paper, cloth), combustion will stop when

the air becomes "thin", i.e. when it contains less than 15% oxygen. If additional air cannot enter, we can calculate:
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The amount of water required to make the atmosphere inert, i.e., to prevent the pyrolysis gases to burnth

is the "volume computation"

The amount of water required to cool the smoke, the atmospherethis is the "thermal computation"

These computations are only valid when considering a diffused spray that penetrates the entire volume. This is not

possible in the case of a high ceiling: the spray is short and does not reach the upper layers of air. Consequently th

computations are not valid for large volumes such as barns or warehouses: a warehouse of 1,000 m (1,200 squar

ards) and 10 m high (33 ft) represents 10,000 m3. In practice, such large volumes are unlikely to be airtight

anyway.

Volume computation

Fire needs air; if water vapour pushes all the air away, the fuel can no longer burn. But the replacement of allthe a

by water vapour is harmful for firefighters and other people still in the building: the water vapour can carry much

more heat than air at the same temperature (one can be burnt by water vapour at 100 C (212 F) above a boiling

saucepan, whereas it is possible to put an arm in an ovenwithout touching the metal!at 270 C (520 F)

without damage). This amount of water is thus an upper limitthat should not be reached.

The optimal, and minimum, amount of water to use is the amount required to dilute the air to 15% oxygen: below

this concentration, the fire cannot burn.

The amount used should be between the optimal value and the upper limit. Any additional water would just run on

the floor and cause water damage without contributing to fire suppression.

Let:

Vrbe the volume of the room,

Vvbe the volume of vapour required,

Vwbe the volume of liquid water to create the Vvvolume of vapour,

then for an air at 500 C (773 K, 932 F, best case concerning the volume, probable case at the beginning of the

operation), we have[1]

and for a temperature of 100 C (373 K, 212 F, worst case concerning the volume, probable case when the fire

suppressed and the temperature is lowered):[2]

For the maximum volume, we have:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis


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considering a temperature of 100 C. To compute the optimal volume (dilution of oxygen from 21 to 15%), we

have[3]

for a temperature of 500 C. The table below show some results, for rooms with a height of 2.70 m (8 ft 10 in).

Amount of water required to suppress the firevolume computation

Area of the room Volume of the room VrAmount of liquid water Vw

maximum optimal

25 m (30 yd) 67.5 m 39 L (9.4 gal) 5.4 L (1.3 gal)

50 m (60 yd) 135 m 78 L (19 gal) 11 L (2.7 gal)

70 m (84 yd) 189 m 110 L (26 gal) 15 L (3.6 gal)

Note that the formulas give the results in cubic meters, which are multiplied by 1,000 to convert to liters.

Of course, a room is never really closed, gases can go in (fresh air) and out (hot gases and water vapour) so the

computations will not be exact.

Notes

^indeed, the mass of one mole of water is 18 g, a liter (0.001 m) represents one kilogram i.e. 55.6 moles,

and at 500 C (773 K), 55.6 moles of an ideal gas at atmospheric pressure represents a volume of 3.57 m

^same as above with a temperature of 100 C (373 K), one liter of liquid water produces 1.723 m of

vapour

^we consider that only Vr- Vvof the original room atmosphere remains (Vvhas been replaced by water

vapour). This atmosphere contains less than 21% of oxygen (some was used by the fire), so the remaining

amount of oxygen represents less than 0,21(Vr-Vv). The concentration of oxygen is thus less than 0,21(V

Vv)/Vr, and we want this fraction to be 0.15 (15%).

See also

Glossary of firefighting list of firefighting terms and acronyms, with descriptions

Glossary of firefighting equipment expansion of Glossary of firefighting

Glossary of wildfire terms expansion of Glossary of firefighting

Index of firefighting articles alphabetical list of firefighting articles

Outline of firefighting structured list of firefighting topics, organized by subject area
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_firefighting_articleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_wildfire_termshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_firefighting_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)


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Wikimedia Commons has

media related to

Firefighting.

Look up firefightingin

Wiktionary, the free

dictionary.

References

1. ^Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (2005).Ancient Rome: From the

EarlyRepublic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar

(http://books.google.com/?

id=wHEGcPZZmHwC&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&dq=ancient+roman+fire+sale#v=onepage&q=ancient%20roman%2

fire%20sale&f=false). ISBN 9780415224581.2. ^History UK Fire Service Resources (http://www.fireservice.co.uk/history)

3. ^ abchttp://firehistory.org/?p=130

4. ^Cityof Fort Lauderdale (April 2011). "Fire-Rescue - Special Operations Command"

(https://www.fortlauderdale.gov/fire-rescue/special_operations.htm). fortlauderdale.gov.

5. ^Tommy Tine (January 2014). "City of Dallas:Dallas Fire-Rescue Department"

(http://dallasfirerescue.com/special_operations.html). City of Dallas.

6. ^Jobmonkey (January 2014). "Firefighter Schedules and Work Life"

(http://www.jobmonkey.com/firefighting/schedule.html). jobmonkey.com.

7. ^FireRescue NSW Annual report.

http://www.fire.nsw.gov.au/gallery/files/pdf/annual_reports/annual_report_2012_13.pdf

8. ^Essentials of Fire Fighting and Fire Department Operations 5th Edition. 2008.

9. ^ abcThomson Delmar Learning. The Firefighter's Handbook: Essentials of Fire Fighting and Emergency

Response. Second Edition. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishers, 2004.

10. ^Firefighting stiffens arteries, impairs heart function

(http://news.illinois.edu/news/11/0803firefighting_GavinHorn_BoFernhall.html)

11. ^ abHall, Richard. Essentials of Fire Fighting. Fourth Edition. Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications, 1998:

12. ^http://www.firetactics.com www.firetactics.com13. ^Bernard Klaene. Structural Firefighting: Strategies and Tactics. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2007. ISBN 0-

7637-5168-5, ISBN 978-0-7637-5168-5

14. ^NBC4.com (http://www.nbc4.com/money/9208480/detail.html)

15. ^Thevillager.com (http://www.thevillager.com/villager_39/fouralarmfire.html)

External links

CDC- NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention

Program (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Firefighting&oldid=618909437"

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