FIRST WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE 1857

Sepoy mutiny on 10th May 1857 in Meerut was not the first sign of trouble for the British. There were many small uprisings or revolts in different parts of India before this also like :

i)Soldiers and peasants of Rangpur, Dinajpur, Birbhum, Bishnupur and Sambalpur in Eastern India.

ii) Sanyasis and Fakirs of Bengal.

iii) Polygar rebellion. (Tamil Nadu)

iv)Zamindars of Ramanathapuram and Shivaganga in Travancore in 1808-29. (Kerala) v)Rani Chennamma of Kittur in 1824-1829.(Karnataka) vi) Vellore sepoy mutiny in 1806. (Tamil Nadu)

CAUSES OF THE REVOLT OF 1857 Following were the causes for the Revolt of 1857 : 1) Economic 2) Political 3) Social and Religious 4) Military 5) Immediate

1)ECONOMIC CAUSES. i) Raw material like cotton was bought in India from the farmers at cheap prices decided by the British. This was a loss for the farmers. ii) Finished product like cloth was sold in India at cheaper rates. The expensive products of the Indian artisans were not bought. This way the artisans also suffered. iii) In 1720 the British banned sale of Indian calico (cloth) and silk in Britain. More tax was charged on Indian cloth and silk exported to Britain to discourage its sale. British goods were free to enter and be sold in India. iv) Industrial town of Dhaka, Murshidabad and Surat had craftsmen and weavers lose their livelihood.

v) Revenue and land reforms by Lord William Bentick made the zamindars lose their lands and thereby their source of income also. vi) Peasants suffered due to high taxes, natural calamities.Moneylenders exploited them. vii) Corrupt officials and police made the situation from bad to worse. viii) Due to all these there was large scale unemployment. ix) Nothing was done to reduce the burden of the farmer as they suffered at the hands of the British , landlord and the moneylender.

2)POLITICAL CAUSES. The political might and interference of the British increased in the daily affairs of the Indian rulers which was disliked. The Indian rulers were afraid of losing their kingdom to the British on the flimsiest of excuses. i ) S u b s i d i a r y A l l i a n c e . Lord Dalhousie used Subsidiary Alliance which was a clever way of conquering more Indian territory without fighting wars or spending money. A British Resident was always present who kept a check on the internal and external policies of the Indian ruler. The Indian rulers had lost their sovereignty to the British power.

ii) D o c t r i n e O f L a p s e .

Lord Dalhousie also used the Doctrine of Lapse as a trump card to capture eight states the main among them being Jhansi, Satara, Nagpur and Sambalpur. A ruler who died without a natural heir , his kingdom would automatically come under British rule. The birthright of a king to adopt a son of his choice was taken away. a)Under this Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao I was not given his pension. b)Likewise the adopted son of Rani of Jhansi was also not recognised by the British.

iii)Unjust Takeover of Oudh (Awadh).

(Oudh) Awadh was also dealt with harshly. The Nawab had always been submissive and done the bidding of the British. The British went back on their word and took over Awadh on the grounds of maladministration (misgovernment). The Nawab was exiled. People were unhappy, and the subjects and soldiers lost their jobs.

iv) I n s u l t T o M u g h a l K i n g .

The Mughal king was also not spared.To add insult to injury Lord Dalhousie declared that the king and his sons would no longer have right :

a) to their ancestral palace.

b) to use the royal title of king.

This was a serious blow not only to the Mughal king but also to the Muslim community. The Muslim community took this matter to heart and never forgave the British. Later the Muslim community did their best to bring about downfall of the British.

3)SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES.

i) Interference in Social Customs.

The British began to interfere in the social customs of the Indians in a very big way. Though it was for the good of the society. The people disliked this and were afraid to lose their caste and religion due to such interferences. The British passed bills and laws which banned female child infanticide and sati. Widow remarriage was made legal. ( By a law passed in 1829 sati was abolished and in 1856 widow remarriage was made legal)

ii) C h r i s t i a n M i s s i o n a r i e s .

The Christian Missionaries spread their religion. But when they became critical of the Hindu and Muslim religious customs and practices , the people were hurt and unhappy. Bible was translated into local language and people were also converted into Christianity.

iii) M i s s i o n a r y s c h o o l s .

Missionary schools were also opened which gave Western education and taught their way of living, dressing and eating. The culture of the locals was now under direct threat.

iv) P o s t a n d T e l e g r a p h .

Though the post and telegraph was a good way of communication it was looked upon as a messenger of evil which was feared and disliked.

v) I n h e r i t a n c e o f A n c e s t r a l P r o p e r t y .

The last injustice was when in 1850 the British passed a law by which a person who converted into Christianity could also inherit his ancestral property. This made the conversion easier and led to further fear and uncertainty.

4) MILITARY CAUSES

i) S e p o y V s . B r i t i s h e r .

The British army discriminated between a British soldier and a sepoy. The better benefits,salaries and promotions were reserved for the British soldier and the Indian sepoy could not get promoted beyond the post of a Subedar.

ii) R e m o v a l o f C a s t e R e s t r i c t i o n s .

The upper caste sepoys were made to share their work, equipment, living area and food alongside those who were of low caste. The upper caste sepoys were afraid to lose their caste which was most sacred to them. They disliked it the most.

iii) G e n e r a l E n l i s t m e n t A c t .

The high caste sepoys held their caste to be the most sacred thing. There was a taboo that by travelling overseas one would lose his caste. They were given extra allowances when going on such overseas journey like during the Afghan and Burmese wars. Lord Canning passed The General Enlistment Act which was disliked by the sepoys as :

a) They had to serve wherever they were posted.

b) The extra allowance of the overseas journey was cancelled.

5) IMMEDIATE CAUSES.

Greased Cartridges in Lee Enfield Rifles

i) There was a rumour amongst the sepoys that the Britishers had deliberately supplied cartridges which had used cow fat and pig fat. The mechanism of the Lee Enfield rifles in the armoury required the soldiers to chew off the paper covering of the bullet and in the process they would be tasting the animal fat.

This would lead to loss of their religion and caste and caused fear and uncertainty in the sepoys. The Hindus considered cow as holy while the Muslims looked upon pig as being evil.

ii) Mangal Pandey a sepoy in Barrackpore near Calcutta openly disobeyed the order of his superiors and killed two British officers.This event took place on 29th March 1857. Mangal Pandey was arrested, tried and executed. His contingent was disbanded (sent off). This news spread like wildfire to other parts and ignited the spark in other places as well.

iii) In Meerut 85 sepoys of the cavalry (horsemen) refused to obey the orders to use the greased cartridges and were sentenced to 2 to 10 years of imprisonment. As a result on the next day i.e. 10th May 1857 three regiments broke into open rebellion, killed their superior British officers, and by force freed their colleagues who had been imprisoned. The entire group marched towards Delhi on the way being joined by the common people.

SPREAD OF REVOLT

DELHI

The events in Delhi had a mixture of sepoys and civilians. The civilians were led by Bakht Khan. Within two days Delhi was captured and Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared as the emperor. Now the revolt had thrown up a symbolic leader none other than the Mughal emperor himself which was a great blow to British power. The capital had been lost by the British. The people were jubiliant of having taken over the capital.

A Britisher John Nicholson besieged Delhi for 4 months and recaptured it. Bahadur Shah Zafar had taken shelter in Humayun’s tomb from where he was captured. His two sons and grandsons were killed. The Emperor was exiled to Rangoon alongwith his wife to Rangoon where he expired in 1862.

KANPUR

In June 1857 Nana Saheb the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, who had been denied the pension of his father retaliated by imprisoning some Britishers with their families. However an angry mob killed the Britishers who wanted to take revenge of Indians being killed by General O’ Neil in Allahabad , and the blame fell on Nana Saheb.

On 17th June 1857 General Havelock took back Kanpur. In November 1857 Tantya Tope the right hand of Nana Saheb helped him to recapture Kanpur once again. The tables turned once again in favour of the British when in December 1857 General Campbell defeated both, making Nana Saheb flee to Nepal while Tantya Tope took refuge in Kalpi.

LUCKNOW

In the capital of Awadh, the wife of the deposed and exiled Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, Begum Hazrat Mahal led from the front. Hindu and Muslim talukdars, commoners under her leadership killed the Britishers and besieged the Residency in which Sir Henry Lawrence and General O’ Neil had taken refuge. Commander-in-chief Colin Campbell freed Lucknow from the rebels in March 1858.

CENTRAL INDIA AND BUNDELKHAND

Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi posed a stiff challenge from Gwalior and Jhansi. Sir Hugh Rose by bribing the soldiers took over the fort of Jhansi. She escaped to Kalpi, joined hands with Tantya Tope and the duo was able to capture the Gwalior Fort. From 11th to 16th June 1858 the opponents fought tooth and nail.

The heroic efforts of Laxmibai were no match to the British power. Even Sir Hugh Rose who defeated her, paid the ultimate tribute as being ‘the bravest and the best of the military leaders of the rebels’.Tantya Tope was betrayed by his friend Man Singh and hanged by the British on 18th April 1858.

BIHAR

Kunwar Singh an 80 year old Zamindar of Jagdishpur, Bihar also rose against the British might and was done away with in April 1858.

FAIZABAD

Maulavi Ahmadullah gathered the population in Awadh and Rohilkhand. However he was betrayed and killed. Bareilly also became an important centre of the revolt.

WHY WAS THE REVOLT OF 1857 A FAILURE ?

1. Absence of Nationalistic Goal

2. Absence of Common Ideal

3. Poor Planning, Coordination and Organisation

4. Absence of Middle Class

5. Superior Resources

6. Able British Leadership

1. Absence of Nationalistic Goal

The rebels did not have a Nationalistic goal of fighting for their motherland. Different leaders fought only for their own kingdom or injustice at the hands of the British like forced signing of Subsidiary Alliance, takeover on the grounds of maladministration or takeover on the grounds of Doctrine of Lapse.

2. Absence of Common Ideal

Rulers fought for their kingdom, Sepoys for equal rights and pay, zamindars fought to regain their land, peasants fought against high taxes and exploitation by the moneylenders. So a common ideal was lacking.

3. Poor Planning, Coordination and Organisation

The rebels lacked proper planning coordination and organisation. There was no single authority to handle the uprising. With proper planning the revolt could have been begun in all the places simultaneously which would have taken the British unawares. Some believe that instead of having begun on 31st May it was preponed on 10th May. There was poor communication , planning and execution.

4. Absence of Middle Class

The middle class did not participate so their mental and physical presence was very much missing in the revolt. Had the middle class been proactive then the British would definitely have found the going tougher.

5. Superior Resources

The Britishers had superior financial resources, weapons , techniques, communication and organisational skills which easily gave them the upper hand.

6. Able British Leadership

The British had better and superior leaders like John Nicholson, Sir Hugh Rose, Sir Henry Lawrence, General O’Neil, Collin Campbell who put their experience and determination to good effect. Their quality and quantity was not matched by the leaders of the revolt.

CONSEQUENCE/RESULT/OUTCOME OF THE REVOLT OF 1857

1. End Of The Company Rule.

2. Queen’s Proclamation.

3. Reorganisation of the Army and Policy of Divide and Rule.

4. Passing of The Council Act of 1861.

5. National Awakening.

1. End Of The Company Rule.

As the revolt was a terrible blow to British pride and prestige the British Parliament put an end to the monopoly of The British East India Company. Now the British Crown took over the authority to rule over India. A new governing body by the name of The India Council under The Secretary of the State and 15 members of the Cabinet was created to look after the welfare of the Indian administration. The Governor General was given the additional duty of Viceroy and Lord Canning was made its first Viceroy.

2. Queen’s Proclamation.

To restore the goodwill of British pride and win the trust and support of the Indian public, now Queen Victoria of Britain was declared as the Empress of India. The promise or word of the Queen would not be disobeyed.

The points which she announced were known as her ‘proclamations’ (announcement/declaration) which changed forever the way India would be governed by the British.

Following were the major points of the Proclamation of Queen Victoria :

i) Doctrine of Lapse would be discontinued.

ii) Indian kings and princes could retain their rights and privileges.

iii) People could follow their religious methods and be given equal opportunity for employment.

iv) There would be no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, religion or colour etc.

v) A general amnesty (pardon) was given to all the rebels except those who were guilty of slaying British officials.

3. Reorganisation of the Army and Policy of Divide and Rule.

Since the sepoys had put up a joint front and rebelled the British very cleverly analysed and made the following changes in the army :

i) The number of British soldiers in the army was increased who would be trustworthy and obedient.

ii) Only British officials would be made the head of important departments in the army.

iii) Initially the Indian regiments had great unity as the soldiers came from a particular region like Punjab, Bengal or Awadh. Now the regiments had soldiers of different caste, creed, colour and religion put together. This would keep the soldiers busy settling their squabbles (small differences) and they would not be able to put up a joint front against the British. This was also termed to as the policy of division and counterpoise or the policy of divide and rule. This policy found widespread use by the British in other areas too.

4. Passing of The Council Act of 1861.

The British had to face the revolt as they could not understand what was going on in the minds of the Indians. In order to prevent such upheavals (disturbances) taking place in future they made the Indians give a hand in administration in the Legislative Council. This would keep the British in touch with the needs, problems and wants of the Indians and any other errors which could be rectified. The Council Act of 1861 was passed allowing Indians to be elected in the Legislative Council. Indians would now have a leader to represents themselves.

5. Beginning of National Awakening.

Undoubtedly the Indians had been exploited by the British to the hilt. This had strengthened their resolve to come back even stronger. They had been insulted and looked down upon.

But now the concept of putting up a joint front began to take a vague shape. Gradually there was a national awakening. People never forgot their leaders in Rani of Jhansi, Nana Saheb , Tantya Tope and other unsung heroes. The Indians now began to look within themselves to find their own faults, question about ideas, society, religion, freedom and then there would be no stopping them.

NATURE OF THE REVOLT.

British historians have tried to belittle the revolt by terming it as ‘mutiny of the sepoys’. But some Indians like V.D. Savarkar and Subhash Chandra Bose have described it as ‘the first war of Indian independence’. This theory is credible as alongside the sepoys, commoners in large numbers belonging to Hindu and Muslim community also came forward and participated actively. Anyhow it happened to be a first big reaction against the Britishers and will forever be remembered for its undying zeal and enthusiasm for freedom.