Five Eras of Media Five Eras of Media TheoriesTheories

Baran & DavisBaran & Davis

Chapter 2Chapter 2

At the end of this lesson you should be At the end of this lesson you should be able to learn the following topics:able to learn the following topics:

Five eras of media theories.Five eras of media theories. The Mass Society TheoryThe Mass Society Theory Mass Culture TheoryMass Culture Theory Scientific Perspectives on Mass Scientific Perspectives on Mass

CommunicationCommunication Limited Effects ParadigmLimited Effects Paradigm Cultural Criticism Cultural Criticism Moderate Effects Perspective Moderate Effects Perspective

Society ------------ Media Society ------------ Media

Mass Society ----- Rise of MediaMass Society ----- Rise of Media

Theory Industries Theory Industries

A.A. Mass Society & Mass Society & Mass Mass CultureCulture That the new industrial technology disrupt That the new industrial technology disrupt

peaceful rural communities forcing people to peaceful rural communities forcing people to live in urban areas merely to serve the live in urban areas merely to serve the workforce in large factories / bureaucracies workforce in large factories / bureaucracies etc.etc.

Mass media symbolized everything that was Mass media symbolized everything that was wrong with 19wrong with 19thth century urban life. century urban life.

Mass media is responsible for changing the Mass media is responsible for changing the cultural norms – the old social order based on cultural norms – the old social order based on landed aristocracy was crumbling so as its landed aristocracy was crumbling so as its cultures & politics.cultures & politics.

The dominant perspective during this The dominant perspective during this period is the Mass Society Theory. period is the Mass Society Theory.

Mass society theory deals with ideas Mass society theory deals with ideas that held strong appeal for any that held strong appeal for any social social eliteselites whose power was threatened whose power was threatened by change. E.g. the ‘Penny Press’ by change. E.g. the ‘Penny Press’ were a convenient target for elites’ were a convenient target for elites’ criticism. criticism.

The essential argument of mass society The essential argument of mass society theory is that media undermining the theory is that media undermining the traditional social order.traditional social order.

They favored all forms of technological They favored all forms of technological development including that of mass media. development including that of mass media. Technology was good. It facilitate control Technology was good. It facilitate control over the physical environment, expand over the physical environment, expand human productivity & generate new form of human productivity & generate new form of material wealth.material wealth.

While on one hand this is encouraging but While on one hand this is encouraging but industrialization brought about other industrialization brought about other

other problems such as other problems such as exploitation of workers, pollution exploitation of workers, pollution & social unrest (These arguments & social unrest (These arguments is captured in chpt. 3,4,5).is captured in chpt. 3,4,5).

B.B. Scientific Perspective Scientific Perspective of mass Communicationof mass Communication This is the view that the media is not as This is the view that the media is not as

powerful as previously imagined. But rather powerful as previously imagined. But rather audience had numerous ways resisting audience had numerous ways resisting media influence.media influence.

This perspective view that media is This perspective view that media is reinforcing existing social trends & reinforcing existing social trends & strengthening rather than threatening the strengthening rather than threatening the status quo.status quo.

Lazarsfeld, Berelson, Gaudet (1940’s)Lazarsfeld, Berelson, Gaudet (1940’s)

C.C. Limited Effects Limited Effects ParadigmParadigm The mass society theories was again The mass society theories was again

under attack as ‘unscientific’ or under attack as ‘unscientific’ or ‘irrational’.‘irrational’.

Mass communication scholars stopped at Mass communication scholars stopped at looking at the powerful media effects but looking at the powerful media effects but rather look into the ‘limited effects rather look into the ‘limited effects theories.’ Such as the ‘elite pluralism theories.’ Such as the ‘elite pluralism theories – that the theory asserting that theories – that the theory asserting that the media use by sophisticated audiences the media use by sophisticated audiences enriches the process of democracy. enriches the process of democracy.

D.D. Cultural CriticismCultural Criticism

This is the notion that the media This is the notion that the media enable the dominant social elites enable the dominant social elites to secure their power. Media to secure their power. Media provide the ruling elite with a provide the ruling elite with a convenient, subtle, yet highly convenient, subtle, yet highly effective means of promoting effective means of promoting worldviews favorable to their worldviews favorable to their interest.interest.

e.g. The British cultural studies e.g. The British cultural studies focus heavily on mass media in focus heavily on mass media in their role promoting a hegemonic their role promoting a hegemonic (dominant ideas that is imposed (dominant ideas that is imposed on society) worldview and on society) worldview and dominant culture among various dominant culture among various subgroups in the society. subgroups in the society.

E.E. Moderate Effects Moderate Effects PerspectivePerspective The moderate media effects The moderate media effects

perspectives support the idea of perspectives support the idea of communication science, social communication science, social semiotics & media literacy. semiotics & media literacy.

That is research that integrates That is research that integrates all research approaches grounded all research approaches grounded in qualitative, empirical & in qualitative, empirical & behavioral research methods.behavioral research methods.

Social Semiotics theory attempted to Social Semiotics theory attempted to integrate communication science, critical integrate communication science, critical & cultural studies focusing on audience & cultural studies focusing on audience activity to understand how audience activity to understand how audience members make sense of media members make sense of media messages.messages.

Media literacy is the ability to access, Media literacy is the ability to access, analyze evaluate & communicate media analyze evaluate & communicate media messages. messages.

PART IPART I

The Mass Society The Mass Society TheoryTheory

Background:Background:

That the new industrial technology disrupt peaceful rural That the new industrial technology disrupt peaceful rural communities forcing people to live in urban areas merely to communities forcing people to live in urban areas merely to serve the workforce in large factories / bureaucracies etc.serve the workforce in large factories / bureaucracies etc.

Mass society theory deals with a review about the media in Mass society theory deals with a review about the media in particular the roles of newspapers.particular the roles of newspapers.

For many social thinkers at that time (19For many social thinkers at that time (19thth century- 1840’s- century- 1840’s-1850’s) mass media symbolized everything that was wrong 1850’s) mass media symbolized everything that was wrong in the 19in the 19thth century urban life. century urban life.

Media was singled out for providing severe criticism and Media was singled out for providing severe criticism and was charged with supporting the lower class taste, was charged with supporting the lower class taste, instigating political unrest, or violating important cultural instigating political unrest, or violating important cultural norms of that time. norms of that time.

The social order at that time were The social order at that time were controlled by landed aristocracy (land controlled by landed aristocracy (land owners) who were experiencing decay owners) who were experiencing decay & crumbling including their culture & crumbling including their culture and their politics. and their politics.

That dominant thinking emerged That dominant thinking emerged during this period is referred to as the during this period is referred to as the

Mass Society TheoryMass Society Theory

The social order present at that time was The social order present at that time was that the aristocracy is crumbling including that the aristocracy is crumbling including their culture & politics. their culture & politics.

The monarchy at that time wanted to The monarchy at that time wanted to maintain the old political order by which maintain the old political order by which the monarch controls the society. But the the monarch controls the society. But the revolutionaries wanted to impose radical revolutionaries wanted to impose radical changes & reject the control by monarchy.changes & reject the control by monarchy.

The mass society ideas held strong The mass society ideas held strong appeal for any social elites whose appeal for any social elites whose power was threatened by new power was threatened by new change of the social order in the change of the social order in the society.society.

Media industries like the Media industries like the Penny Penny PressPress (1840s & 1850s) were the (1840s & 1850s) were the target for elite's criticism. The press target for elite's criticism. The press were supporting the revolutionary's were supporting the revolutionary's movement and not the elite. movement and not the elite.

Note: Note: 1. 1. EliteElite referred to people occupying referred to people occupying

or in the privileged positions in a social or in the privileged positions in a social system whose power was based on the system whose power was based on the industrial revolution.industrial revolution.

2. 2. Penny PressPenny Press (1840 & 1850) is the (1840 & 1850) is the newspaper that sold for one penny newspaper that sold for one penny (cent) & earned sale through the sale (cent) & earned sale through the sale increased numbers of readers to increased numbers of readers to advertisers. advertisers.

yellow journalismyellow journalism (the use of (the use of sensationalism 1880’s & 1890’s).sensationalism 1880’s & 1890’s).

This is the era where newspapers This is the era where newspapers were monopolistic and employed were monopolistic and employed unethical practices like unethical practices like sensationalism to instigate mass sensationalism to instigate mass audience (readers) to sell audience (readers) to sell newspapers.newspapers.

The Theory:The Theory:

The argument of Mass Society Theory The argument of Mass Society Theory is based on the idea that the media is based on the idea that the media undermine the traditional social order undermine the traditional social order (aristocracy) of the time. (aristocracy) of the time.

Proponents of this theory supports the Proponents of this theory supports the drastic social order of change must drastic social order of change must takes place. The debate - who should takes place. The debate - who should do these changes was an interesting do these changes was an interesting one? The aristocrats or the urban one? The aristocrats or the urban elites? elites?

The media were viewed as having the The media were viewed as having the power to shape people’s perceptions of the power to shape people’s perceptions of the social world and to manipulate our actions social world and to manipulate our actions in subtle but effective ways. This theory in subtle but effective ways. This theory assumed that media influence must be assumed that media influence must be controlled.controlled.

This theory appear in the late 19This theory appear in the late 19thth century century as various social elites are struggling to as various social elites are struggling to make sense of the whole idea on make sense of the whole idea on modernization. The monarchy, the clergy modernization. The monarchy, the clergy and the upper class politicians lost power to and the upper class politicians lost power to the revolutionaries.the revolutionaries.

For the monarchy, clergy & upper class For the monarchy, clergy & upper class politicians, considered the media as politicians, considered the media as ‘symbolic‘symbolic’ of what was wrong with modern ’ of what was wrong with modern society. Mass newspapers of society. Mass newspapers of yellow journalismyellow journalism (the use of sensationalism 1880’s & 1890’s) (the use of sensationalism 1880’s & 1890’s) era was gigantic, monopolistic, that employed era was gigantic, monopolistic, that employed unethical practices to instigate mass audience. unethical practices to instigate mass audience. E.g. leaders in education and religion resented E.g. leaders in education and religion resented media’s power using contents they media’s power using contents they considered objectionable & sinful.considered objectionable & sinful.

The rise of the mass press posed a direct The rise of the mass press posed a direct threat to the political & business threat to the political & business establishment. establishment.

The perceptions of the The perceptions of the MediaMedia

1. That the media is malignant for criticizing 1. That the media is malignant for criticizing the aristocracy & supporting the the aristocracy & supporting the revolutionary therefore it must be revolutionary therefore it must be structured (Marcuse 1969, 1978)structured (Marcuse 1969, 1978)

2. Media have the power to reach out & 2. Media have the power to reach out & directly influence the minds of average directly influence the minds of average people (Davis 1978). This was debated people (Davis 1978). This was debated since 1940s. Average citizen is helpless & since 1940s. Average citizen is helpless & can be manipulated by media. can be manipulated by media.

3. Once people’s mind were corrupted by 3. Once people’s mind were corrupted by the media it creates social problems the media it creates social problems (Marcuse 1941) Social problems often were (Marcuse 1941) Social problems often were link with the media.link with the media.

4. Average people are vulnerable to media 4. Average people are vulnerable to media because they have been cut off from because they have been cut off from traditional social institutions that traditional social institutions that previously protect them from previously protect them from manipulation. The theory idealized the manipulation. The theory idealized the past & romantic visions of what life must past & romantic visions of what life must be like in the medieval Europe.be like in the medieval Europe.

5. The social chaos initiated by the media 5. The social chaos initiated by the media will inevitably resolved by establishing a will inevitably resolved by establishing a totalitarian order.totalitarian order.

6. That mass media brings higher forms of 6. That mass media brings higher forms of culture, bringing about general decline in culture, bringing about general decline in civilization.civilization.

Mass Society Theory in Mass Society Theory in Early TimesEarly Times Among the early originators of the Mass Among the early originators of the Mass

Society Theory was Ferdinand Tonnies Society Theory was Ferdinand Tonnies (German sociologist)(German sociologist)

He attempted to explain the critical He attempted to explain the critical differences between social organization differences between social organization & European society existed in the late & European society existed in the late 1919thth century. century.

He proposed a simple dichotomy He proposed a simple dichotomy between folk community & modern or between folk community & modern or industrial society.industrial society.

In a folk community people were In a folk community people were bound together by institutions / bound together by institutions / traditional folk cultures such as traditional folk cultures such as strong family ties, traditions, strong family ties, traditions, marriage and social roles. marriage and social roles.

Norms are largely unwritten and individuals Norms are largely unwritten and individuals were bound to one another as mutual were bound to one another as mutual interdependence (Fukyyama,1999).interdependence (Fukyyama,1999).

N the case of marriage were defined as N the case of marriage were defined as lifelong commitments that ended with the lifelong commitments that ended with the death of spouses.death of spouses.

Marriage partners were chosen by heads of Marriage partners were chosen by heads of the families using criteria determined by the families using criteria determined by tradition & family needs. If you violated the tradition & family needs. If you violated the marriage vows the couple will be ostracized marriage vows the couple will be ostracized by the community. by the community.

They often find life in modern society to They often find life in modern society to troublesome and without meaning.troublesome and without meaning.

Durkheim (French sociologist) offered Durkheim (French sociologist) offered the same dichotomy like Tonnies with the same dichotomy like Tonnies with a different interpretation of modern a different interpretation of modern social order.social order.

According to Durkheim folk community According to Durkheim folk community are like machines forced by are like machines forced by collective collective consensusconsensus to perform traditional social to perform traditional social roles. People are bounded by this roles. People are bounded by this consensus known as ‘consensus known as ‘mechanical mechanical solidaritysolidarity’.’.

Durkheim compared modern society to Durkheim compared modern society to animals rather than machines. As they animals rather than machines. As they grow, animals undergo profound changes in grow, animals undergo profound changes in their physical form. They begin life as their physical form. They begin life as babies and progress through several babies and progress through several developmental stages of adulthood & old developmental stages of adulthood & old age.age.

In modern life people perform specialized In modern life people perform specialized tasks for their personal survival and are tasks for their personal survival and are capable of using mental processes to capable of using mental processes to anticipate threats & cope with them known anticipate threats & cope with them known as ‘as ‘organic solidarityorganic solidarity’ referring to culturally ’ referring to culturally negotiated social ties that bound modern negotiated social ties that bound modern social order together.social order together.

Social orders in Social orders in ‘organic solidarity‘organic solidarity’ are ’ are characterized by specialization, division characterized by specialization, division of labor and interdependence.of labor and interdependence.

With this Durkheim’s also introduce the With this Durkheim’s also introduce the concept of concept of ‘‘Information Superhighway’Information Superhighway’ referring to to the idea that worldwide referring to to the idea that worldwide are connected with digital data network are connected with digital data network where to certain extend people can where to certain extend people can directly able to decide what they want directly able to decide what they want government to do for them.government to do for them.

Mass Social Theory in Mass Social Theory in Contemporary TimesContemporary Times In our modern life the basic In our modern life the basic

assumptions that the corrupting assumptions that the corrupting media & helpless audience have media & helpless audience have never completely disappeared.never completely disappeared.

Attacks on pervasive, Attacks on pervasive, dysfunctional power of the media dysfunctional power of the media have persisted as long as the have persisted as long as the dominant elites find their power dominant elites find their power being challenged by the media & being challenged by the media & we see this every day in ‘news’. we see this every day in ‘news’.

The ongoing concern of the erosion of The ongoing concern of the erosion of ‘traditional values‘traditional values’ of the average ’ of the average people comes from new communication people comes from new communication technologies. technologies.

FirstFirst, rapid diffusion of Internet & World , rapid diffusion of Internet & World Wide Web. New form of media means Wide Web. New form of media means new form of communication which new form of communication which means the development of new means the development of new relationship and the creation of new relationship and the creation of new centers of power & influence. centers of power & influence.

SecondSecond, the media industries when , the media industries when facing challenges from new facing challenges from new technologies the media undergo technologies the media undergo rapid restructuring. E.g merger & rapid restructuring. E.g merger & acquisition of media industries to acquisition of media industries to ensure their survival in competition ensure their survival in competition like telephones, cellular like telephones, cellular communication, cable TV & internet communication, cable TV & internet markets. That the concentration of markets. That the concentration of ownerships are in the as hands of the ownerships are in the as hands of the few as what happens in US today.few as what happens in US today.

SummarySummary

The dominant perspective during The dominant perspective during this period (late 19this period (late 19thth century) is the century) is the period of Mass Society Theory. period of Mass Society Theory. Mass society ideas held strong Mass society ideas held strong appeal for any social elites whose appeal for any social elites whose power was threatened by change. power was threatened by change. E.g. the ‘Penny Press’ were a E.g. the ‘Penny Press’ were a convenient target for elites’ convenient target for elites’ criticism. criticism.

And that the media are corrupting And that the media are corrupting the influences that undermine the the influences that undermine the social order through their social order through their influence over ‘defenseless influence over ‘defenseless average people’.average people’.

The essential argument of mass society The essential argument of mass society theory is that media undermining the theory is that media undermining the traditional social order.traditional social order.

They favored all forms of technological They favored all forms of technological development including that of mass development including that of mass media. Technology was good. It media. Technology was good. It facilitate control over the physical facilitate control over the physical environment, expand human environment, expand human productivity & generate new form of productivity & generate new form of material wealth.material wealth.

While on one hand this is While on one hand this is encouraging but industrialization encouraging but industrialization brought about other problems brought about other problems such as exploitation of workers, such as exploitation of workers, pollution & social unrest (These pollution & social unrest (These arguments is captured in chpt. arguments is captured in chpt. 3,4,5).3,4,5).

Strength & Strength & weaknesses of Mass weaknesses of Mass Society TheorySociety Theory STRENGTHSTRENGTH 1. Speculates about important 1. Speculates about important

effects of mass media effects of mass media 2. Newspapers were to highlights 2. Newspapers were to highlights

important structural changes & important structural changes & conflicts in modern cultures.conflicts in modern cultures.

3.Draws attention to issues of 3.Draws attention to issues of media ownership & ethicsmedia ownership & ethics

WEAKNESSESWEAKNESSES 1. Is unscientific1. Is unscientific 2.Is unsystematic2.Is unsystematic 3. Concentrate on elites interest in 3. Concentrate on elites interest in

preserving power over societypreserving power over society 4. Underestimate intelligence & 4. Underestimate intelligence &

competence of the average people competence of the average people (readers).(readers).

5. Underestimate personal, social 5. Underestimate personal, social & cultural barriers to direct media & cultural barriers to direct media influence.influence.

PART 11PART 11

The Rise of Media The Rise of Media IndustriesIndustries For more than a century now, the role For more than a century now, the role

of the media has been continuously of the media has been continuously debated.debated.

Both conservatives & liberals fear the Both conservatives & liberals fear the power of the media system into our power of the media system into our society of all sorts (e.g. freedom of society of all sorts (e.g. freedom of expression, advertising, ownerships, expression, advertising, ownerships, new technology, protecting software, new technology, protecting software, impact, etc.)impact, etc.)

Controversy over media influence can have Controversy over media influence can have far reaching consequences.far reaching consequences.

Mass Society Theory propagate the idea Mass Society Theory propagate the idea that media are corrupting influences that that media are corrupting influences that undermine the social order through their undermine the social order through their influences over defenseless average people.influences over defenseless average people.

Media are viewed as having the power to Media are viewed as having the power to shape our perceptions of social world & to shape our perceptions of social world & to manipulate our actions in subtle but highly manipulate our actions in subtle but highly effective ways.effective ways.

This the theory assumes that the media This the theory assumes that the media influence must be controlled.influence must be controlled.

Media entrepreneurs embraced the Media entrepreneurs embraced the press freedom as stated in the First press freedom as stated in the First Amendment to the constitution of Amendment to the constitution of America as the road to democracy.America as the road to democracy.

First Amendment guarantees freedom of First Amendment guarantees freedom of speech, press, assembly & religion. This speech, press, assembly & religion. This amendment led an aggressive catalyst amendment led an aggressive catalyst for the development of mass media. for the development of mass media.

This constitutional freedom they This constitutional freedom they argued is fundamental to argued is fundamental to democracy. democracy.

BACKGROUND:BACKGROUND: Media was among many technologies Media was among many technologies

that shaped the modern era.that shaped the modern era. An industrial social order needed fast An industrial social order needed fast

& efficient distribution for & efficient distribution for information.information.

During the 1860’s telegraph (wire During the 1860’s telegraph (wire services) was badly needed for services) was badly needed for sending information.sending information.

In the middle & late 19In the middle & late 19thth century century popular demand for cheap media popular demand for cheap media content drove the development of new content drove the development of new media such as – the Penny Press ( 1 media such as – the Penny Press ( 1 cent), the Nickel Magazine (5 cents) & cent), the Nickel Magazine (5 cents) & the Dime novel (book sold at 10 cents). the Dime novel (book sold at 10 cents).

High speed printing press & Linotype High speed printing press & Linotype machines made it practical to mass machines made it practical to mass produce printing word at low cost. produce printing word at low cost.

Urban newspapers boomed. Urban newspapers boomed. When war broke out –Yellow Journalism When war broke out –Yellow Journalism

(sensationalism often related to (sensationalism often related to irresponsible journalism) was created. irresponsible journalism) was created. This was the irresponsible side of the This was the irresponsible side of the penny press. penny press.

By increasing accessibility through lower By increasing accessibility through lower prices, new mass newspapers were able prices, new mass newspapers were able to serve the people who had never to serve the people who had never before had easy access to print media. before had easy access to print media.

The rise of the Yellow Journalism causes The rise of the Yellow Journalism causes credibility problem for the media such as credibility problem for the media such as reporting inaccuracy, over-dramatized, reporting inaccuracy, over-dramatized, stories were over coverage etc. stories were over coverage etc. Sensationalism journalism Sensationalism journalism (irresponsible) widely used. (irresponsible) widely used.

These papers were successful because These papers were successful because they attracted large numbers of readers they attracted large numbers of readers in urban areas & it is cheap. in urban areas & it is cheap.

Intense competition resulted in the Intense competition resulted in the growth of many small-circulation growth of many small-circulation newspapers and more specialized print newspapers and more specialized print media were created.media were created.

The rise of media industries also led to The rise of media industries also led to the rise of capitalism which the rise of capitalism which entrepreneurs had the right to earn entrepreneurs had the right to earn profits by producing & distributing media profits by producing & distributing media content. content.

The most notable entrepreneur of them The most notable entrepreneur of them all is Hearst – the press lord. He all is Hearst – the press lord. He demonstrated that news business could demonstrated that news business could be as profitable as railroads, steel or oil. be as profitable as railroads, steel or oil. Like most yellow journalism Hearst had Like most yellow journalism Hearst had little respect for reporting accuracy.little respect for reporting accuracy.

The rise of mass media in 1900’s The rise of mass media in 1900’s followed by the industrial development followed by the industrial development in media technology. Old technology is in media technology. Old technology is replacing by new technology which is replacing by new technology which is known as known as functional displacementfunctional displacement (e.g. (e.g. analogue replacing by digital) etc.analogue replacing by digital) etc.

Functional displacementFunctional displacement – means that – means that when the functions of the existing when the functions of the existing medium are replaced by a newer medium are replaced by a newer technology, the older medium finds technology, the older medium finds new functions.new functions.

The success of new media technology The success of new media technology often brings along strong criticism often brings along strong criticism (like expansive) especially when new (like expansive) especially when new technology adopted uses technology adopted uses questionable competitive strategies questionable competitive strategies to produce media content , such as to produce media content , such as better quality reproduction (2G,3G) better quality reproduction (2G,3G) out-class the old reproduction out-class the old reproduction methods of production. methods of production.

New media industries often do New media industries often do specialize in giving people what specialize in giving people what they want even if the long term they want even if the long term consequences might be negative. consequences might be negative. For example new technology will in For example new technology will in the long run replace the old the long run replace the old established set up. Or reading established set up. Or reading habits were replace by watching habits were replace by watching habits. habits.

As new technologies developed As new technologies developed other related industries grew around other related industries grew around them ensuring the stable supplies or them ensuring the stable supplies or support system made available. E.g support system made available. E.g the existence of cellular phones the existence of cellular phones encourages growth to the related encourages growth to the related industries displacing earlier industries displacing earlier industries & other forms of industries & other forms of communication. communication.

Social roles and relationships Social roles and relationships were seriously disrupted as were seriously disrupted as people adjusted to the new media people adjusted to the new media and their content. E.g. the and their content. E.g. the existence of TV reduces existence of TV reduces discussion as a means of social discussion as a means of social interactions. TV sometimes interactions. TV sometimes known as an anti-social box. known as an anti-social box.

As media industries grew -competition As media industries grew -competition gives away to oligopoly – that is the gives away to oligopoly – that is the concentration of increasing numbers concentration of increasing numbers of media business in the hands of the of media business in the hands of the few large companies. few large companies.

As the industries expand issues on As the industries expand issues on morality & ethical also grew. Censorship morality & ethical also grew. Censorship were debated. Government control were debated. Government control frequently advocated. Industry code of frequently advocated. Industry code of ethics & practices like self-censorship ethics & practices like self-censorship were proposed were proposed

Computers, internet & World Wide Computers, internet & World Wide Web posed a threat to the survival Web posed a threat to the survival of news papers and broadcast of news papers and broadcast media. media.

Old media habits break down & new Old media habits break down & new media habits emerge. People have media habits emerge. People have more choices of different media. more choices of different media.

Media ownership are Media ownership are concentrated in few hands. concentrated in few hands.

PART 111PART 111Social Scientific TheorySocial Scientific Theory These theories are based on and These theories are based on and

guided by empirical (based on guided by empirical (based on observations or experiments) observations or experiments) research. They permit statements research. They permit statements (hypotheses) about nature, (hypotheses) about nature, working, and effects of mass working, and effects of mass communications.communications.

These statements are tested and These statements are tested and their results are confirmed. their results are confirmed.

Social Scientific Theory seek Social Scientific Theory seek prediction and control.prediction and control.

Limited Effects - Limited Effects - Theories / PerspectivesTheories / Perspectives This is a view of media as This is a view of media as

reinforcing existing social trends reinforcing existing social trends and strengthening rather than and strengthening rather than threatening the status quothreatening the status quo

Cultural Criticism -Cultural Criticism -TheoriesTheories These theories are concerned These theories are concerned

with the conflict of interests in with the conflict of interests in society and the ways society and the ways communication perspectives communication perspectives domination of one group over domination of one group over another. another.