Florida Gulf Coast University Thesis

APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

Dayanira Lopez

Approved: 17 January 2019

_______________________________

Committee Chair/Advisor

_______________________________

Committee Member 1

_______________________________

Committee Member 2

_______________________________

Committee Member 3

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Outside FGCU Committee

Member

The final copy of this thesis [dissertation] has been examined by the signatories, and we find that both the

content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards of scholarly work in the above-mentioned

discipline.

THE EFFECTS OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID ON HUMAN AND SUS SCROFA REMAINS:

AN EXAMPLE OF PREFERENTIAL DESTRUCTION TO THE HEAD AND EXTREMITIES

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences

Florida Gulf Coast University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

By

Dayanira Lopez

2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... 5

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ 7

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 10

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 11

Previous Research ................................................................................................................................. 13

The Case of Tricia Todd ....................................................................................................................... 14

The Romanov Imperial Family (1918) ................................................................................................ 16

The Murders of Frank Griga and Krisztina Furton (1995) .............................................................. 17

The Murders of Eva Bourseau and Chief Gordon Semple ............................................................... 18

Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 20

MATERIALS .............................................................................................................................................. 21

Sample Size ............................................................................................................................................ 21

Equipment ............................................................................................................................................. 21

Variables ................................................................................................................................................ 23

METHODS ................................................................................................................................................. 23

Experiment 1: Human Remains .......................................................................................................... 23

Experiment 2: Pig Remains .................................................................................................................. 24

Experiment 3: Human Fingers ............................................................................................................ 26

Neutralization and Disposal Methods ................................................................................................. 27

Statistical Analyses ................................................................................................................................ 28

RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................... 31

Experiment 1: Human Cadaver........................................................................................................... 31

Quantitative Variables ...................................................................................................................... 31

Qualitative Variables ........................................................................................................................ 33

Experiment 2: Pig Carcass ................................................................................................................... 34

Quantitative Variables ...................................................................................................................... 34

Qualitative Variables ........................................................................................................................ 36

Experiment 3: Isolated Human Fingers .............................................................................................. 38

Quantitative Variables ...................................................................................................................... 38

Qualitative Variables ........................................................................................................................ 40

CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................................... 42

DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 45

Revisiting Previous Research ............................................................................................................... 45

Other Chemical Dissolution Methods ................................................................................................. 47

Recommendations ................................................................................................................................. 48

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................. 51

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................. 60

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 81

List of Figures Figure 1: Over the counter muriatic acid, Munsell Soil Color Chart, and plastic sliding calipers used

throughout all experiments. ........................................................................................................................ 51

Figure 2: Digital bathroom scale (left), Healthometer standard physician’s scale (center) and Brecknell

electronic precision balance (right) used for experiments 1, 2, and 3, respectively. .................................. 51

Figure 3: Photograph of the container used in experiment 1 (left) and of the container and plastic shield

used in experiment 2 (right). ....................................................................................................................... 52

Figure 4: Anterior view of the skull at 13 hours (left) and superior-posterior view of the cranium (right)

at 32 hours after initial submersion in HCl showing the acid dissolving the skull from anterior to posterior

and eroding the cranial vault. ...................................................................................................................... 52

Figure 5: Anterior view of the skull (left) and lateral view of the skull (right) at 32 hours after initial

submersion in HCl. ..................................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 6: Photograph of the cross section of the left femora 1hour (left) and 12 hours (right) after initial

submersion in HCl presenting with loss of cortical and trabecular bone. ................................................... 53

Figure 7: Photograph of the left femora in anterior view at 4 hours (left) and 9 hours (right) after initial

submersion in HCl. At 4 hours we see the bone becoming very pitted and at 9 hours, the cortical bone is

becoming gelatinous and some has dissolved. ............................................................................................ 54

Figure 8: Photograph of a lower extremity at 47 hours after initial submersion in HCl presenting with

dissolution of more than half of the cortical and trabecular bone. .............................................................. 54

Figure 9: Photograph of the articulated pelvis and the proximal 2/3 of the femora that persisted at the

conclusion of experiment 1. ........................................................................................................................ 54

Figure 10: Photographs of the hair (left), tooth restoration (center) and finger and toe nails that persisted

at the conclusion of experiment 1. .............................................................................................................. 55

Figure 11: Photograph of the skull at 32 hours and 49 hours after initial submersion in HCl for

experiment 2. Not the overall pattern of dissolution for the skull is very similar to that of the human from

experiment 1................................................................................................................................................ 55

Figure 12: Photographs of the cross section of the left femur at 5 hours (left) and 13 hours (right) after

initial submersion in HCl for experiment 2. ............................................................................................... 56

Figure 13: Photograph of a skeletal element from the upper or lower extremities that has become

gelatinous at 49 hours after initial submersion in HCl. ............................................................................... 56

Figure 14: Photographs of the torso in experiment 2 at 460 hours after initial submersion in HCl. On the

left, the lateral view of the torso evinces the presence of the viscera and on the right, the anterior view

presents the color change to the epidermis throughout the experiment. ..................................................... 57

Figure 15: Photograph of the single cranial fragment (left) and fragments of the sternum and vertebrae

(right) that persisted at the conclusion of experiment 2. ............................................................................. 57

Figure 16: Anterior view of the humeri (left) and ribs (right) persisting at the conclusion of experiment 2.

Note the humeri were still articulated at the joint as to not breach the thorax and accelerate dissolution. . 58

Figure 17: Anterior view of the os coxa (left) and left proximal femur (right) persisting at the conclusion

of experiment 2. .......................................................................................................................................... 58

Figure 18: Overall photograph of specimen E (left) and specimen H (right) prior to any contact with HCl.

Specimen H on the right shows comparison to Munsell soil color charts to record color changes to the

epidermis for experiment 3. ........................................................................................................................ 59

Figure 19: Photograph of the cross section of specimen E at 462 hours after initial submersion in

estuarine water:HCl (left) and radiograph of specimen E at 630.5 hours (right). Note the red circle

highlights what remains of gelatinous bone at the cross section (left) and the outline of the proximal

phalange (right). .......................................................................................................................................... 59

Figure 20: Bar plot of weight data for experiment 1.................................................................................. 63

Figure 21: Bar plot of solution temperature data for experiment 1. .......................................................... 64

Figure 22: Bar plot of pH data for experiment 1........................................................................................ 64

Figure 23: Bar plot of salinity data collected for experiment 1. ................................................................ 65

Figure 24: Bar plot of maximum cortical bone diameter (AP) data for experiment 1. .............................. 65

Figure 25: Bar plot of minimum cortical bone diameter (AP) data for experiment 1................................ 66

Figure 26: Bar plot of maximum cortical bone diameter (ML) data for experiment 1. ............................. 66

Figure 27: Bar plot of minimum cortical bone diameter (ML) data for experiment 1. .............................. 67

Figure 28: Bar plot of weight data for experiment 2.................................................................................. 69

Figure 29: Bar plot of solution temperature data for experiment 2. .......................................................... 70

Figure 30: Bar plot of salinity data for experiment 2. ................................................................................ 70

Figure 31: Bar plot of maximum cortical bone diameter (AP) data for experiment 2. .............................. 71

Figure 32: Bar plot of minimum cortical bone diameter (AP) data for experiment 2................................ 71

Figure 33: Bar plot of maximum cortical bone diameter (ML) data for experiment 2. ............................. 72

Figure 34: Bar plot of minimum cortical bone diameter (ML) data for experiment 2. .............................. 72

Figure 35: Line graph depicting the weight of the human fingers over the length of experiment 3.

Increases in weight were due to new solutions being made per finger over the course of the experiment as

aqueous solution was lost during each observation. ................................................................................... 77

Figure 36: Line graph depicting the pH of the aqueous solution for the human fingers over the length of

the third experiment. ................................................................................................................................... 77

Figure 37: Line graph depicting the changes in absolute weight for the human and pig specimens of

experiments 1 and 2, respectively. .............................................................................................................. 79

Figure 38: Bar graph comparing rates of dissolution for the human and pig specimens of experiments 1

and 2, respectively. Note that the torso’s in both experiments persisted until each experiment concluded.

.................................................................................................................................................................... 80

Figure 39: Bar graph depicting the rates of dissolution per specimen for experiment 3 (* indicates

controls). ..................................................................................................................................................... 80

List of Tables Table 1: Complete list of equipment used in Experiment 1: Intact Human Cadaver. ................................ 60

Table 2: Complete list of equipment used in Experiment 2: Intact Pig Carcass. ....................................... 61

Table 3: Complete list of equipment used in Experiment 3: Isolated Human Fingers. ............................. 62

Table 4: Data table for descriptive statistics of response variables for experiment 1 (human cadaver) as

produced by R-Studio. ................................................................................................................................ 63

Table 5: Parameters of general linear models produced by R-Studio for all response variables exploring

change over time (explanatory variable) for experiment 1 (human cadaver). ............................................ 63

Table 6: Summary of qualitative changes observed throughout the length of experiment 1 with the human

cadaver submerged in HCl. ......................................................................................................................... 68

Table 7: Data table for descriptive statistics of response variables for experiment 2 (pig carcass) as

produced by R-Studio. ................................................................................................................................ 69

Table 8: Parameters of general linear models produced by R-Studio for all response variables exploring

change over time (explanatory variable) for experiment 2 (pig carcass). ................................................... 69

Table 9: Summary of qualitative changes observed throughout the length of experiment 2 with the pig

carcass submerged in HCl. .......................................................................................................................... 73

Table 10: Summary of averages for all quantitative variables per Specimen for experiment 3 as produced

by R-Studio. ................................................................................................................................................ 74

Table 11: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for weight (grams) as produced by R-

Studio. ......................................................................................................................................................... 74

Table 12: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for solution temperature (°C) as produced

by R-Studio. ................................................................................................................................................ 74

Table 13: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for pH as produced by R-Studio. .............. 74

Table 14: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for salinity (ppt)as produced by R-Studio. 75

Table 15: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for length (mm) as produced by R-Studio.

.................................................................................................................................................................... 75

Table 16: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for maximum cortical bone diameter (AP)

(mm) as produced by R-Studio. .................................................................................................................. 75

Table 17: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for minimum cortical bone diameter (AP)

(mm) as produced by R-Studio. .................................................................................................................. 75

Table 18: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for maximum cortical bone diameter (mm)

as produced by R-Studio. ............................................................................................................................ 76

Table 19: Summary of descriptive statistics for experiment 3 for minimum cortical bone diameter (mm)

as produced by R-Studio. ............................................................................................................................ 76

Table 20: Parameters of the linear mixed effects models produced by R-Studio for all response variables

exploring change over time (explanatory variable) with each individual specimen serving as a random

effect for experiment 3 (human fingers). Mean = 0. ................................................................................... 76

Table 21: Qualitative changes observed throughout the length of experiment 3 with the human fingers

submerged in HCl to estuarine water proportions....................................................................................... 78

ABSTRACT Due to the growing excitement and popularization of crime television shows, forensic

scientists face the difficult task of analyzing copycat crime scenes, such as those portrayed on

CSI or Breaking Bad. In particular, the disposal of human remains using common household

acids and mimicked by real criminals, has led previous researchers to examine the effects of

different acids on incomplete human remains. In general, previous studies have found that

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is the most destructive agent when in contact with human remains

including fragments of femora and teeth. The present study expands on previous research by

demonstrating the effect that HCl has on human remains in a controlled laboratory setting. Based

on previous research with incomplete remains and our experiences working on forensic cases, we

hypothesized that the HCl would not preferentially destroy some body parts over others (i.e.,

head and extremities over torso) and that the addition of estuarine water to HCl would not affect

the rate of dissolution. We tested these hypotheses with three experiments: the first involved an

intact, donated human cadaver; the second used an intact pig carcass of similar size as the

human; and the third encompassed the changes to eight donated human fingers.

Results of the experiments revealed that the submersion in HCl severely compromised

the integrity of the human and pig skulls in just thirteen hours after initial submersion. In

addition, the head and extremities had nearly completely dissolved in seventy hours (human) and

approximately eighty-seven hours (pig). The fingers in the third experiment took a total of five

months to completely dissolve. Contrary to the hypotheses of the researchers, our results

indicated that the HCl could preferentially destruct certain body segments over others and that

pig remains do follow a similar pattern of dissolution as that of human remains. These results

provide a significant contribution to the current literature and offer an additional example of the

taphonomic changes to expect and what lines of evidence persist in a container that could have

held human remains in an acidic solution. Additionally, we hope this research assists legislators

in implementing policy change that would make these materials more difficult for criminals to

access, therefore decreasing the potential for copycat crimes of this nature.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank my family for their continued support through my academic

journey. My mom for all she has sacrificed for me to achieve all my goals and my dad for always

believing in me. Although none of them understand how or why I would put myself through so

much schooling, they continue to believe in me and are supportive of my dreams. I would like to

thank the members of my thesis committee: Dr. Laura Frost for helping me understand the

chemistry involved; Dr. Brian Johnson for helping me create the mathematical equations needed

for these experiments and Dr.’s Erica Baer and Gus Cameron for assisting me with my statistical

analysis. Particularly, I thank Dr. Heather Walsh-Haney, my mentor and friend, who has always

challenged and pushed me further than I thought I could reach to help make me the scholar, and

woman, I am today.

I would like to extend a big thank you to Dr. Roger Mittleman of the District 19 Office of

the Medical Examiner and Sheriff Snyder of the Martin County Sheriff’s Office for allowing

graduate students to assist them, alongside Dr. Walsh-Haney, on casework. Specifically, for

allowing me to assist so closely with the forensic case that this work has stemmed from. I would

like to thank the families of the individuals donated to the Human Identity and Trauma Analysis

graduate program at FGCU whose anatomical gifts have been invaluable to the edification of the

scientific community.

Lastly, I would like to thank my fellow graduate students who assisted me with data

collection of my experiments. Thank you, Amy Walker, for staying awake with me for countless

hours and not letting me quit…despite how tired we were!

INTRODUCTION Crime television shows, such as Breaking Bad and Bones, present the use of common

household acids as successful means of disposing of human remains and mimicked by real

criminals. Due to the growing popularity of these (and similar) television shows, forensic

scientists face the difficult task of analyzing elaborate copycat crime scenes that involve

dismemberment and disposal by attempting to dissolve the remains in acid. As a result, scientists

have studied some of the effects of different acids on human remains via gross and microscopic

observations (Hartnett, Fulginiti, & Di Modica, 2011; Mazza et al., 2005; Vermeij, Zoon, Wijk,

& Gerretsen, 2015). These qualitative and quantitative experiments generally study human

femora and teeth and identify hydrochloric acid (HCl) as the most destructive household

chemical agent (Hartnett et al., 2011; Mazza et al., 2005; Vermeij et al., 2015). With the ease of

access to harmful chemicals such as HCl and the trend for crime television programs to

showcase innovative ideas for covering up crime scenes, forensic scientists must expand their

knowledge of the effect of these harmful chemicals on human remains.

One of the most well-known scenes of Breaking Bad occurs in the 2nd episode (Gilligan,

2008). The main character, a grade school chemistry teacher, creates a plan to dispose of a

human corpse after a drug deal that went horribly wrong. The chemist sends his partner to a

hardware store to buy a plastic container large enough to hold the corpse while he obtains the

hydrofluoric acid (HF) from the school’s chemistry lab. As anticipated, the chemist’s plan goes

awry when his partner places the corpse in a metal bathtub on the second floor of his home. The

acid corrodes the metal bathtub and bathroom flooring, causing the partially dissolved human

remains and HF to drop onto the first floor of the house.

Because of the propaganda surrounding this Breaking Bad episode, MythBusters, (Rees,

2013) a show dedicated to proving (or disproving) statements, tested this theory through an

experiment. Using a small piece of pig meat and 100 mL of HF to submerge the sample, the

hosts observed the changes to the soft tissue. Contrary to the results in the television show, the

MythBusters team showed that hydrofluoric acid is quite ineffective as the soft tissue remained

relatively intact.

Hydrofluoric acid is not the only cleaning product used in attempt to dispose of human

remains, nor is the criminal act of disposing of human remains the only reason to use these

products. Historically, humans used easily accessible acids and bases in burial rituals. The

archaeological record preserved the burial rituals of past civilizations and allowed researchers to

understand the evolution of funerary processes. Modern funerary practices generally consist of

burial or cremation, however, natural or green burials (methods to dispose of remains that lower

environmental impact) are becoming accepted by many countries (Dobscha, 2015; Ferreira,

2016; Kaye, Weber, Evans, & Venezia, 1998; P. Olson, 2016; P. R. Olson, 2014; Rumble,

Troyer, Walter, & Woodthorpe, 2014). One past burial practice involved internment with lime,

an alkaline base also known as calcium oxide. The use of calcium oxide has been documented in

Roman and early Christian burials through the medieval and post-medieval periods (Schotsmans

et al., 2012), the Spanish Civil War (Schotsmans et al., 2017), and the mass graves used by the

Nazis (Gilead, Haimi, & Mazurek, 2010).

A common misconception regarding the use of lime in burials is that the substance

accelerates the decomposition process and, eventually, completely dissolves the remains.

However, new research, and the archaeological record, provide evidence that the substance

preserves remains (Schotsmans et al., 2017). Despite evidence to suggest otherwise, criminals

continue to use common household substances such as lime, lye, or different acids to dispose of

human remains in order to cover up their crimes. Adolph Luetgert, commonly referred to as the

Sausage King, unsuccessfully attempted to dispose of his wife’s remains by boiling them in a vat

of caustic potash (potassium hydroxide, like sodium hydroxide) in his sausage factory and then

burning what persisted to obscure his crime (Byers, 2015). As different methods of disposing of

human remains by criminals continue to evolve, different approaches to investigating forensic

cases that use chemical agents must also evolve.

Previous Research

Despite the research that currently exists, there continues to be a significant gap in the

literature concerning the attempted disposal of human remains with household acids. This

research will fill this void in the literature via experimentation using human and Sus scrofa (pig)

remains and HCl.

Research conducted by Hartnett et al. (2011) demonstrated the effects of different

corrosive substances on human remains. Utilizing donated human bone, teeth, hair, nails, and

soft tissue (skin, muscle, fat, and fascia), these researchers used household substances (i.e.,

muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric acid, Rooto® household lye, bleach, Rid-X®, Coca-

Cola®) and tap water as the control. Researchers collected quantitative and qualitative data on

each sample at half-hour to hour long intervals consisting of weight, size, and photography of

specimen with a brief description of observations. Results of this study indicated that muriatic

acid (HCl) was the most destructive agent, dissolving a sample of human bone in 23 hours, teeth

in 19 hours, and soft tissue in under six (6) hours. The study, however, did not discuss how the

time to dissolution might vary for a sample with increasing surface area, such as that of an intact

human cadaver.

In addition to the above research, Vermeij et al. (2015) sought to answer whether

evidence of human remains could be found after having been treated in different acids. Results of

the study indicated that microscopic residue (such as bone and recrystallized calcium phosphate)

of human remains is detectable even after attempts to dispose of those remains in different acids,

including HCl. Finally, Mazza et al. (2005) conducted research on isolated human teeth

submerged in either hydrochloric, sulfuric, or nitric acid and aqua regia (a molar mixture of nitric

and hydrochloric acids at a 1:3 ratio, respectively) to determine if remnants of teeth would be

available for analysis post-contact with acid. Results of this study also indicated that HCl is one

of the most destructive acids when in contact with human remains.

While these studies have collected data on fragments of human remains, none have

exposed an intact human cadaver to acids to observe rates of dissolution. The present study aims

to fill this void by conducting an experiment on an intact human cadaver submerged in HCl.

Furthermore, a real forensic case in Florida led the State’s Attorney to ask if we could replicate

the state of a dismembered victim’s remains in a laboratory setting under the conditions

confessed to by a suspect.

The Case of Tricia Todd

In April of 2016, the Martin County Sheriff’s Office (MCSO) in Stuart, Florida received

information regarding a missing person identified as Ms. Tricia Todd. According to information

provided by medical examiner and law enforcement personnel, Ms. Todd was a female

approximately 5’3” (64in.) in height, 120–130lbs, and last seen alive a day prior to the filed

missing person’s report, a timeline corroborated via Publix® surveillance videos (News, 2016;

Post, 2016). Approximately one month later, the remains of Ms. Todd were located after her ex-

husband and informant, Mr. Steven Williams, led MCSO personnel to a wooded site located

within the Hungryland Wildlife and Environmental Area (State Hwy 711, Indiantown, FL

34956). A thirty-one (31) gallon Rubbermaid plastic storage tote buried in sandy soil within

estuarine water contained the decedent’s remains. A corner of the plastic tote’s lid was visible

from the surface making the container easily discoverable. Reportedly, the defendant

dismembered Ms. Todd at the neck, shoulders, and mid-thighs, placed her remains in the storage

container, and submerged them into 8 gallons of muriatic acid (a commercial grade

approximately 30% solution of hydrochloric acid) (News, 2016; Post, 2016). In addition, the

informant stated having removed her teeth and fingertips in an additional effort to mask her

identity.

Due to the significant extent of trauma on these remains, the medical examiner staff of

the District 19 Medical Examiner’s Office requested a forensic anthropological analysis from Dr.

Heather Walsh-Haney in order to assist law enforcement with their investigation. Upon

examination, the remains were incomplete with only remnants of the torso, viscera, and thigh

bones recovered. No obvious signs of perimortem trauma were visible on the skeletal elements

that remained. Although the informant claimed all the remains had been in the container, this

was inconsistent with their findings, leading law enforcement and medical examiner personnel to

ask, “Where are the rest of the remains?” Pursuant to this discovery, the State’s Attorney

requested scientific evidence determining whether the remains could have all been in the

container and dissolved by the acid or if the defendant could be lying. With a lack of experience

and known research to rely on, Dr. Walsh-Haney and I conducted new research experiments to

confirm or refute facts of the case.

Despite the gruesome and terrible circumstances surrounding the Tricia Todd case, the

attempt to dispose of human remains through use of different chemicals is unfortunately not a

new concept in the field of forensic science. The cases below highlight the ways that the

perpetrators attempted to destroy the corpus delecti to hide their crimes.

The Romanov Imperial Family (1918)

For three centuries, the Romanov Dynasty ruled until their final Czar, Nicholas II, rose to

power; their reign came to an end, along with their lives, in 1918. With the Czar having

unsuccessfully led the country, the Bolsheviks kidnapped, and followed through, with their

threats of executing the entire Romanov family, which included the Czar, his wife Alexandra,

and their five children: Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia and their only son, Alexei. According to

records of the tragic events that led to their deaths, the Bolsheviks took the family hostage until

their deaths on July 16, 1918. That evening, they instructed the family to dress and took them

down to the basement of the Ipatiev house, still oblivious to their fate. There the Bolshevik

forces opened fire on the family killing the majority almost instantly. Anyone who remained

alive after the gunfire was stabbed and beaten to death (Geographic, 2018, July 20).

After the murders, Bolshevik soldiers loaded 11 bodies belonging to the Romanov family

and four of the family’s servants into a truck and transported them for inhumation. While driving

to the intended burial site, car trouble led to an unintended disposal plan where they removed

two of the bodies and buried in the forest near Yekaterinburg. The rest of the bodies were

partially burned (being set on fire) and had sulfuric acid poured on top of them to help mask

identity and smells and then were all buried together in a separate grave nearby (Geographic,

2018, July 20; Gill et al., 1994).

In 1991, Forensic Anthropologist Dr. William R. Maples and a team of forensic scientists

recovered the remains of nine individuals found in the same grave and identified them as the

Romanov family (except for two of the children) and the four servants. In his report of

osteological examination, Maples wrote that “Teeth on some of the skeletons have chalky-like

areas consistent with etching by acid. Erosion of outer tables of crania may have also resulted

from acid” (Maples, 1995). Still, the acid was not able to dissolve the remains completely or

mask their identities; skeletal and DNA analysis confirmed the family identities, including those

of Alexei and Maria, although found buried separately in the forest. We use results of this case to

observe if our experiments yield similar taphonomic change, such as “chalky-like areas” on the

remains.

The Murders of Frank Griga and Krisztina Furton (1995)

Daniel Lugo was an employee at Sun Gym in Miami-Dade, Florida in the 1990’s. During

his time at the gym as a personal trainer, Mr. Lugo met a wealthy businessman, Jorge Delgado,

who spoke highly of a friend named Marc Schiller. After turning Delgado against Schiller by

making accusations that Schiller was cheating Delgado in a business deal, Lugo developed a plan

to take Schiller for all he was worth. Lugo and his team of partners planned to kidnap Schiller,

torture him until he signed over his wealth to Lugo and then murder him, and enjoy his wealth

while evading capture by authorities. While they were successful in kidnapping and extorting

Schiller for a large sum of money, the team was unsuccessful in murdering him (FindLaw,

2018).

After months of living an upscale lifestyle, the money soon began to disappear, so Lugo

planned to find a new victim to extort. The targets were Frank Griga, who built his affluent

lifestyle by building up a successful phone sex line empire, and his girlfriend Krisztina Furton.

This time, however, Lugo’s team was unsuccessful in extorting money out of Griga. When

confronted by Griga, a fight ensued. Lugo overpowered Griga and Furton and his plan of

disposing their bodies consisted of dismemberment, placing their bodies into barrels, pouring

acid into the containers, and scattering the barrels throughout the Everglades (FindLaw, 2018).

Upon discovery of the remains, forensic pathologist Dr. Roger Mittleman, with the

assistance of Dr. William R. Maples were able to still identify the remains as those of Griga and

Furton. Although they did find evidence of the remains having been in contact with acid, the

analyses revealed that the acid was unsuccessful in dissolving the remains. This true crime story

was adapted for the big screen in the 2013 Paramount Pictures movie, Pain and Gain, starring

Mark Wahlberg and Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson. The International Movie Database (IMDB)

page for the movie even mentions Griga and Furton in the “Trivia” section.

The Murders of Eva Bourseau and Chief Gordon Semple

The defendant in the Tricia Todd case is unfortunately not the only criminal influenced

by the popular television show, Breaking Bad. In August of 2015, the badly decomposing body

of Eva Bourseau, a 23-year old French art history student, was found in a plastic container in her

own apartment in Toulouse, France (Independent, 2015, August 10). During the investigation,

police arrested three other college students for her murder and reported that their inspiration for

the murder evolved from the hit TV show, Breaking Bad. The individuals who committed the

crime had met the decedent in her apartment to recover an unpaid debt and when she could not

pay them, they killed her with a blow to the head. Reportedly, they then purchased a plastic

container and placed her remains in there with acid, with intentions to return to the scene to

check on the dissolution process every few days. In order to mask the smell, they used air

fresheners, but their plan was foiled when the decedent’s mother discovered the crime

(Independent, 2015, August 10).

Just a year later, the dramatized crime depicted in Breaking Bad would again impact

another criminal who would try to dispose of a body in the same matter. In the United Kingdom

in 2016, Stefano Brizzi was arrested for the murder and attempted disposal of the body of police

Chief Gordon Semple (Gaurdian, 2016, October 25). The two men had met after having found

each other on the dating app, “Grindr,” and Semple died as a result their sex games. Panicked

and intoxicated with crystal meth, Brizzi’s motivation was one of his favorite television shows,

Breaking Bad, specifically the second episode of the first season (the same as the Tricia Todd

case) where the protagonists attempt to dissolve their victim in hydrofluoric acid. Having been

under the influence of crystal meth, Brizzi reportedly stated that he acted on impulse and that his

attempts to dissolve the body were not part of an elaborate scheme. When the remains were

found, they were in such bad condition that the pathologist could not determine the cause of

death (Gaurdian, 2016, October 25). Found within the bins with acid was a human pelvis, hand,

fragments of a spine, and several pounds of human flesh (Sun, 2017)These results were like the

findings in the Tricia Todd case.

Including the case of Ms. Tricia Todd, there have been six cases in the last three years

with multiple victims in which criminals have attempted to use chemicals to destroy physical

evidence and dissolve human remains. Crime television shows and movies, whether based on

true crime or fiction, such as Breaking Bad, are easily available for society’s viewing pleasure.

These shows provide the information and tools that real-life criminals are using to come up with

their ruthless plots to dispose of remains in order to avoid capture and conviction. In addition to

these shows, research on the use of acids and different chemicals to dissolve human remains and

their success rates are also readily available to anyone willing to conduct the research on the

internet. For these reasons, it is imperative that forensic scientists continue to garner knowledge

as to what effects these chemicals can have on human remains. Specifically, observing

macroscopic changes in order to assist medical examiners and law enforcement in their

investigations, which bolsters the importance of these experiments.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Although the current literature does identify HCl as the most destructive chemical agent,

the research conducted failed to take into consideration different variables that may be involved

in real forensic cases, such as dismembered remains versus intact (i.e., still encased in soft tissue)

as they were in the Tricia Todd case.

The present study seeks to further develop the research currently available on the effects

of HCl on human remains by demonstrating whether HCl can preferentially destroy the head and

extremities over the torso in dismemberment cases. In addition, because it is difficult to study

decomposition on human specimens, we replicate this study on a pig (Sus scrofa) to determine if

a similar pattern of dissolution exists between both species. We expect that this project will

demonstrate whether HCl can preferentially destroy certain elements over others (e.g., head and

extremities over the torso) and give a more accurate representation of how long it would take to

completely dissolve human remains. We also expect this project to demonstrate that pig remains

will follow a similar pattern of dissolution as human remains under the same conditions. Finally,

because the present study seeks to answer questions regarding circumstances in the Tricia Todd

case, we will conduct an additional experiment to see if the estuarine water found surrounding

the container could have affected the rate of dissolution by exposing human remains to varying

ratios of HCl and estuarine water.

MATERIALS

Sample Size

For this study, I submerged one (1) intact human cadaver (experiment 1) and one (1)

intact pig (Sus scrofa) carcass (experiment 2) in a 30% concentration of commercially available

hydrochloric acid (HCl) (MaryKate™ On & Off Hull & Bottom Cleaner purchased from West

Marine®) (Figure 1). In addition, I submerged eight (8) human fingers (including the proximal,

intermediate, and distal phalanges only) in an aqueous solution of HCl and estuarine water and

observed the changes to the remains (experiment 3). Due to the destructive nature of these

experiments, I only exposed one (1) intact donated human cadaver, one (1) intact pig carcass

obtained from a local butcher and eight (8) isolated human fingers obtained from a second set of

donated, human remains to HCl. Both sets of human remains utilized in these experiments are

anatomical gifts donated to the Human Identity and Trauma Analysis (HITA) graduate program

at Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU) in accordance with the provisions of Florida Statutes

section 765.510, et seq.

Equipment

In order to facilitate the progress of these experiments, a lengthy list of materials and

equipment was necessary (see Tables 1, 2 and 3 in Appendix B for complete lists of equipment

used per experiment). To complete all three experiments, we used a total of 17 gallons of a 30%

concentration of commercially available HCl (MaryKate™ On & Off Hull & Bottom Cleaner). I

parsed the gallons as follows: 8 gallons each for experiments 1 and 2 and an additional gallon for

experiment 3. I purchased the 17 gallons in bulk from two different West Marine® locations

where there was no restriction in place on purchase quantities.

To replicate the circumstances of the Tricia Todd case, I purchased two polypropylene

plastic storage containers from Lowe’s: a 30-gallon container for experiment 1 and a 50-gallon

container for experiment 2. For experiment 3, I collected a 5-gallon sample of estuarine water

from the Hungryland Preserve in Martin County, Florida. To measure the weight of each

specimen, we used a digital bathroom scale (Taylor 7413 Textured stainless-steel digital scale)

for experiment 1, a Healthometer® standard physician’s beam scale for experiment 2 and an

electronic precision balance (Brecknell MB-6000) for experiment 3 (Figure 2). Using Mitutoyo

plastic sliding calipers, I recorded cortical bone dimensions for all specimens. Vernier pH,

temperature, and salinity sensor probes, in combination with a Vernier LabQuest® 2 standalone

interface, which reads the sensor data, collected the quantitative data in all experiments. We

determined the color of bone and soft tissue by comparing each specimen to known standards as

defined by the Munsell Soil Color Chart (Adams and Byrd, 2014; Munsell Soil Color Chart,

2000).

I used scalpels and an oscillating bone saw to disarticulate the human remains and

scalpels and an electric reciprocating saw (Milwaukee Sawzall) to disarticulate the pig remains.

A forensic evidence drying hood (Air Science USA Safekeeper FDC-010) (Figure 3) captured

excess fumes and decomposition gases during all experiments. Due to the large size of the plastic

container to hold the pig remains for experiment 2, we constructed a shield made of plastic and

duct tape and placed to surround the container and front of the drying hood (Figure 3). I used

metal tongs and ladles to manipulate the remains in the containers during each observation of

experiment 1 and 2, exposing the extremities and the skull, to record taphonomic changes.

Using a Canon EOS Rebel Ti5, we included a centimeter photography scale and a label

on all photographs taken to identify the specimen and the time of observation. Researchers

utilized standard Personal Protective Equipment (Mazza et al.), including a full-face shield and

mask, during each observation. Biohazard bags, a sharps container, and an emergency spill kit

were nearby to dispose of biohazardous materials. Lastly, we neutralized the remains and

aqueous solutions using sodium carbonate and liquid sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at the

conclusion of all experiments.

Variables

Modeling the research designs of previous investigators (Hartnett et al., 2011; Vermeij et

al., 2015), we collected both quantitative and qualitative data for all experiments. Quantitative

data included time of observation, weight of specimen, ambient temperature, solution

temperature and salinity of solution. In addition, we took maximum and minimum measurements

of the cortical bone at the cross section of the femora (mid-thigh) and the proximal ends of the

hand phalanges to measure the loss of surface area relative to the length of time submerged in

HCl. Qualitative variables included presence of hair, nails, and viscera; color of epidermis,

muscle, and bone; cortical bone change (soft, pitted, gelatinous, or amorphous); and the presence

of eroded margins. We photographed all specimens during observations to record qualitative

changes occurring over time.

METHODS

Experiment 1: Human Remains Experiment 1 consisted of one (1) intact donated human cadaver whose biological

description was as similar as possible to the decedent involved in the circumstances of the Tricia

Todd case (approximately 5’3” (64in.) in height and 120–130lbs). The donated cadaver was a

92lb, 80-year-old female with a forensic stature of approximately 5’2” inches (62in.) and

donated as an anatomical gift to FGCU’s HITA graduate program for teaching and research

purposes.

Before the start of the experiment, we prepared the remains at the laboratory space

provided to Dr. Walsh-Haney at the District 20 Office of the Medical Examiner in Naples,

Florida. This consisted of disarticulating the skull at the cervical vertebrae and the upper

extremities at the shoulder socket using a scalpel. Additionally, I dismembered the lower

extremities at mid-thigh using an oscillating bone saw. We then placed the remains in biohazard

bags and placed in a 17” x 20” x 31.75” 30-gallon Style Selections™ Blue Tote with Standard

Snap Lid made of Polypropylene plastic (Figure 3).

After photographing the remains and recording initial observations of the conditions of

the remains prior to encountering HCl, we added eight gallons of a 30% concentration of

commercially available HCl (MaryKate™ On & Off Hull & Bottom Cleaner) and placed the

container in a drying hood. I collected data at hourly intervals until dissolution of the remains

had reached a similar pattern as those in the Tricia Todd case. At the conclusion of the

experiment, I removed any human remains that persisted and neutralized them using a mixture of

distilled water and solid sodium bicarbonate (Arm & Hammer™ Pure Baking Soda). We

neutralized the acidic solution using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution purchased from Fisher

Scientific™ and subsequently, disposed of according to university standards (see Neutralization

and Disposal Methods on page 7–8).

Experiment 2: Pig Remains

Experiment 2 consisted of one (1) intact pig carcass that was as similar as possible in

weight to the human donor. The pig carcass was 125lbs and purchased from Imperial Meats of

Naples in Florida. The butcher humanely executed the pig and disarticulated the head prior to the

researchers obtaining the specimen.

Once obtaining the pig carcass from the butcher I disarticulated the upper extremities at

the shoulder joint with a scalpel and the lower extremities with an electric reciprocating saw

(Milwaukee Sawzall) at the midshaft of the femora. After photographing the remains and

recording initial observations of their condition (prior to submersion in HCl), we placed the

remains in a 43” x 22” x 18” 50-gallon Sterilite™ Gray Tote with Standard Snap Lid1 that was

made of Polypropylene plastic (Figure 3).

Keeping consistent with the protocol of experiment 1, we added eight gallons of a 30%

concentration of commercially available HCl (MaryKate™ On & Off Hull & Bottom Cleaner) to

the remains. The large size of the container required it to be in front of the drying hood with the

door open, rather than inside as with experiment 1. A shield made of plastic covered the door and

container to prevent the gases from escaping the drying hood. Using duct tape, we were able to

secure the shield to the floor surrounding the container and to the front of the forensic drying

hood (Figure 3). I collected data at hourly intervals for the first 5 hours, then to every 3 hours, 6

hours, 8 hours, and every 12 hours until the conclusion of the experiment. The hourly intervals

for observations periodically increased depending on the amount of change to the remains during

each observation. At the conclusion of the experiment, we neutralized the incompletely dissolved

pig remains with distilled water and solid sodium bicarbonate and the acid neutralized using

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and disposed of according to university standards (see

Neutralization and Disposal Methods on page 7–8).

1Due to the much larger size of the pig carcass, a larger container had to be purchased, however the same amount of acid was still

used to keep consistent with experiment 1.

Experiment 3: Human Fingers

The purpose of experiment 3 was to evaluate how the presence of estuarine water (in

combination with HCl) might affect the rate at which human remains dissolved when submerged

in the solution. To answer this research question, we disarticulated eight (8) fingers (consisting

of the proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges only) from another set of donated human

remains. We photographed each specimen, took its weighed, and assigned it an individual

identifier (A–H). Each specimen had length and maximum and minimum cortical measurements

taken before submersion in the aqueous solution. For experiment 3, we made observations for

each specimen continued until the aqueous solution dissolved all the soft tissue and bone.

Specimens A – C served as controls in this experiment; we calculated proportions of

distilled water only (A), estuarine water only (B), and HCl only (C). Due to the smaller scale of

the fingers, we calculated the amount of acid required in order to remain consistent with

experiments 1 and 2. Therefore, the proportion of acid decreased as compared to the human and

pig remains (experiments 1 and 2, respectively) based on the weight of each individual finger.

We placed specimens D – H in a 1:1 of estuarine water to HCl, with each specimen increasing in

parts of solvent by 1 (i.e., 1:1 (D), 2:1 (E), 3:1 (F), etc.). We placed each specimen in an

individual 6-ounce histology container with screw cap (Fisherbrand made of polypropylene

plastic). We calculated proportions of HCl to weight of specimen D – H to determine the amount

of acid to use in each ratio using the following equation with (a) being the amount of acid per

finger in ounces:

Amount of Acid (𝑎) in Ounces per Specimen (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐) =

(Weight of Specimen in Grams (𝑓)

Known Weight in Grams) × (Total Gallons Known to be Used) ×

(Ounces in 1 Gallon)

1 Gallon

or

𝑎(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐) =𝑓

54,431 g× 8 gal ×

128𝑜𝑧.

1𝑔𝑎𝑙

We collected data for each specimen every 2 hours for the first 24 hours of the

experiment then moved to every 6 hours. With a lack of change in the dissolution of the

specimen, data collected increased to every 24 hours for the following 4 weeks, then

progressively increased to every 72 hours, 96 hours, and 120 hours. Finally, data collection

ensued once every 7 days through the conclusion of the experiment when complete dissolution of

bone and soft tissue occurred. During each observation, we removed all specimens from the

aqueous solutions and placed on a petri dish to weigh (we excluded the weight of the petri dish

from the measurement), take length and minimum and maximum cortical bone measurements,

and continually photograph to document qualitative changes occurring over time.

At the conclusion of these observations (with complete dissolution of all bone and soft

tissue), if any soft tissue remained (i.e. the fingernails), we recovered and neutralized them using

sodium carbonate for each specimen. At the conclusion of the third experiment, we neutralized

the aqueous solutions of estuarine water and HCl using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and

disposed of according to university standards (see Neutralization and Disposal Methods below).

Neutralization and Disposal Methods

Concluding the experiments, neutralization of any remaining skeletal material, soft tissue,

and the acidic solutions themselves, proceeded using a solution of NaOH and distilled water. To

begin the neutralization process, I first removed all soft tissue in small sections and placed it into

biohazard bags. I added solid sodium bicarbonate to separate plastic containers filled with

distilled water, mixing it in with a glass stirrer. Once the sodium bicarbonate dissolved in the

water, we tested the pH to ensure we reached a basic pH (>11 on the pH scale). Then, I

submerged the human skeletal remains in the basic solution and tested the final pH after 30

minutes. Until we reached a neutral pH, this process continued, creating new solutions each time.

To remove excess sodium bicarbonate, I rinsed the remains with distilled water and laid them out

on trays to dry. We repeated the same process to neutralize the skeletal remains of the pig.

We neutralized persisting hair and nails by submerging them into an aqueous solution of

distilled water and sodium bicarbonate to reach a neutral pH. Following this process, all

biohazard material (any remaining soft tissue) was double-bagged in biohazard bags, boxed, and

labeled in the appropriate containers and dropped off at a biohazard disposal location on the

FGCU campus as approved by the Environmental Health and Safety Office.

The large quantity of left-over acid in the experimental containers (approximately 16

gallons), necessitated the purchase of liquid sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to complete the

neutralization of the acid. Using smaller polyethylene containers and glass beakers, I calculated

proportions as follows: 1000ml HCl (30%) + 5000ml H2O + 20ml NaOH (40%); I replicated this

quantity until reaching neutralization of all 16 gallons of HCl. I stirred the solutions continually

with a large wooden spoon during the entire neutralization process, pouring the HCl into the

water first, then adding the NaOH to reduce the amount of heat produced. As a preventative

measure to spills, I placed the containers on plastic tarps prior to the start of the neutralization

process. Next, I tested the solutions’ pH using a Vernier pH probe and Labquest® 2 reader to

ensure a neutral pH. Per the recommendations of the Environmental Health and Safety office, I

transported the neutralized liquid in sealed plastic containers to the chemistry lab in Ben Hill

Griffin Hall (room 205) to dispose down the chemical-safe drains.

Statistical Analyses

I used R-Studio to run tests of statistical significance for all data collected in the

experiments. To examine how time affected the rate of dissolution of the remains, I evaluated the

rate of dissolution of the head and extremities in comparison to the torso. Therefore, I produced

general linear models (glm) using the following quantitative variables:

• Change in weight over time (all experiments);

• Change in pH over time (all experiments);

• Change in solution temperature over time (all experiments);

• Change in minimum and maximum cortical measurements taken anterior to posterior (all

experiments);

• Change in minimum and maximum cortical bone measurements taken medial to lateral

(all experiments);

• Change in length over time (experiment 3 only).

In addition, I collected several lines of qualitative data for all three experiments. I analyzed these

categorical variables (e.g., presence of viscera, hair, and nails, change in color of epidermis, and

erosion of bone) using generalized linear models (for binary response variables) and ordinal

logistic regressions and performed the following tests:

• Presence of viscera over time (experiments 1 and 2);

• Presence of soft tissue over time (experiment 3 only);

• Presence of hair over time (experiments 1 and 2);

• Presence of nails over time (experiment 3 only);

• Change in color of epidermis over time (all 3 experiments);

• Change in color of muscle over time (experiments 1 and 2);

• Change in color of bone over time (all experiments);

• Change in the erosion of the margins of bone over time (all experiments).

Additionally, I produced a bar graph to visually demonstrate how long it took for the head and

extremities to dissolve in comparison to the torso for experiments 1 and 2. For experiment 3, I

produced a bar graph to visually demonstrate how long it took for bone and soft tissue to

dissolve in comparison to all eight specimens used in the sample.

RESULTS For the purpose of this research the main observation of interest was the change to

various quantitative and qualitative variables (response variables) based on the length of time

(explanatory variable) submerged in a solution of HCl or Estuarine water:HCl (experiment 3).

For all experiments, the quantitative variables included weight, solution temperature, pH,

salinity, length (experiment 3 only), and maximum and minimum cortical bone dimensions taken

from both anterior to posterior and medial to lateral. The qualitative variables included presence

of hair, nails, viscera, color of epidermis, muscle (experiments 1 and 2 only), and changes to the

bone (pitted, eroded margins, soft, gelatinous, amorphous, or absent). We ran the following tests

using R-Studio for Statistical Analysis.

Experiment 1: Human Cadaver

Quantitative Variables

We submerged the remains in experiment 1 for a total of 71 hours before the conclusion

of the experiment when we reached similar results to the findings of the Tricia Todd case.

Descriptive statistics examining overall rates of change in weight for the entire human cadaver

produced a minimum weight of 89.2 lbs. (at the beginning of the experiment prior to the addition

of the 8-gallons of HCl) and a maximum weight of 170.8 lbs. with a mean weight of 162.8 lbs.

(Appendix B, Table 4). The general linear model for this observation revealed that weight was

significantly positively correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(26) =0.2,

p=0.04) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure 20). The average solution temperature for this experiment

was 21.9° C (Table 4) and was significantly positively correlated with the length of time

submerged in HCl (r2(25) =0.2, p=0.02) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure 21). The average pH for

this experiment was 2.5 while the minimum value was 0.1 (Appendix B, Table 4). It is important

to note, however, that pH throughout this experiment varied due to large amounts of fat and soft

tissue on the surface, making it difficult for the probe to take accurate readings. Results indicated

that pH was not significantly correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(25) =0.0,

p=0.40) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure 22). The average salinity for this experiment was 62.8ppt

with a minimum and maximum of 57.9ppt and 67.1ppt, respectively (Appendix B, Table 4). The

general linear model for this observation revealed that salinity was not significantly correlated

with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(25) =0.0, p=0.30) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure

23).

Descriptive statistics revealed that the average maximum cortical bone dimension taken

anterior to posterior (AP) was 26.3mm with minimum and maximum dimensions of 20.0mm and

31.2mm, respectively (Appendix B, Table 4). The general linear model for this observation

revealed that maximum cortical bone dimension (AP) was significantly negatively correlated

with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(24) =0.7 p=6.3e-08) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure

24). These results indicate that as length of time submerged in HCl increased, maximum cortical

bone dimension (AP) decreased (β=-0.1) (Appendix B, Table 5). The average minimum cortical

bone dimension taken anterior to posterior (AP) was 21.7mm with minimum and maximum

dimensions of 19.6mm and 25.0mm, respectively (Appendix B, Table 5). The general linear

model for this observation revealed that minimum cortical bone dimension (AP) was

significantly positively correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(12) =0.7,

p

The general linear model for this observation revealed that maximum cortical bone diameter was

significantly negatively correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(26) =0.6,

p=6.6e-07) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure 26). These results indicate that as length of time

submerged in HCl increased, maximum cortical bone diameter decreased (β=-0.1) (Appendix B,

Table 5). The average minimum cortical bone diameter taken medial to lateral was 18.4mm with

minimum and maximum diameters of 16.0mm and 22.0mm, respectively (Appendix B, Table 4).

The general linear model for this observation revealed that minimum cortical bone diameter was

significantly positively correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(18) =0.2,

p=0.03) (Appendix B, Table 5, Figure 27). These results indicate that as length of time

submerged in HCl increased, minimum cortical bone dimensions also increased (β=0.1)

(Appendix B, Table 5). As expected, maximum cortical bone dimensions, both AP and ML

decrease with loss of surface area as the bone dissolves in the acid. Similarly, minimum cortical

bone dimensions increase due to the growing diameter of the medullary cavity as bone dissolves

in the acid.

Qualitative Variables

Qualitative observations of experiment 1 (Appendix B, Table 6) revealed nearly complete

dissolution of the skull after 71 hours from initial submersion in the HCl. Following a similar

pattern of natural decomposition, the acid leaked into the cranium via the eyes, nose, and ears

and began dissolving the bone in the mid-face first, moving from anterior to posterior (Appendix

A, Figures 4 and 5). The teeth completely dissolved, however, a single tooth restoration

remained intact at the bottom of the container (Appendix A, Figure 10). In addition, we

recovered all hair from the skull and all finger nails and toe nails at the conclusion of the

experiment. The dismembered extremities were no longer available for observation after 63

hours submerged in the HCl. Significant amounts of viscera were still present within the torso at

the conclusion of the experiment; this finding is very similar to the findings in the Tricia Todd

case.

We recorded color of epidermis by comparing to the standard set by Munsell Soil Color

Chart (Adams and Byrd, 2014). From exposure to the acid, the epidermis color changes from a

pale red, to pale brown, light brown, brown, and finally yellowish brown. Color of muscle

changed from very dusky red, to reddish black, dark reddish gray, and dusky red. Bone change

observed throughout began with the bone becoming soft, then pitted with eroded margins, to

gelatinous and amorphous, and finally completely dissolved. Bone changes described as pitted

and eroded were also findings on the skeletal remains in the Tricia Todd case. The skeletal

elements that remained at the conclusion of the experiment were three small fragments of the

cranium (Appendix A, Figure 9) and fragments of the vertebrae, sternum, pelvis, femora, and

feet. This finding was similar with the remains of Ms. Todd. All generalized linear models of

binary variables and ordinal logistic equations were not of statistical significance.

Experiment 2: Pig Carcass

Quantitative Variables

We submerged the remains in experiment 2 for a total of 549.5 hours. It was the

researcher’s intention to allow this experiment to progress until complete dissolution, however,

the strong odor of decomposition in a teaching laboratory did not allow for this so it was

necessary to conclude the experiment early. Examining rates of change in weight for the pig

carcass produced a minimum weight of 125lbs. at the beginning of the experiment prior to the

addition of the 8-gallons of HCl and a maximum weight of 214.5lbs with a mean of 207.6lbs

(Appendix B, Table 7). The general linear model for this observation revealed that weight was

not significantly correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(57) =0.0, p=0.6)

(Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 28). However, these results suggest that as length of time

submerged in HCl increased, weight decreased (β=-0.0). The average solution temperature for

this experiment was 21.9° C (Appendix B, Table 7) and was significantly negatively correlated

(r2(56) =0.1, p=0.00) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 29). The average pH for this experiment was

-0.634 while the minimum value was -0.9 and maximum value was -0.5 (Appendix B, Table 8).

Due to the varying measurements of pH recorded for experiment 1 as affected by the

large amount of fat and soft tissue on the surface, we recorded pH throughout this experiment at

random intervals to see if pH remained relatively consistent or if there was a significant

difference. For these reasons, we excluded any further analyses on pH as it relates to time. The

average salinity for this experiment was 58.6ppt with a minimum and maximum of 54.8ppt and

63.4ppt, respectively (Appendix B, Table 7). The general linear model for this observation

revealed that salinity was significantly positively correlated with the length of time submerged in

HCl (r2(56) =0.1, p=0.01) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 30). As the length of time of submersion

in HCl increased, the salinity also slightly increased (β=0.0) (Appendix B, Table 8).

The average maximum cortical bone diameter taken anterior to posterior (AP) was

26.7mm (Appendix B, Table 7) with minimum and maximum diameters of 22.0mm and

30.0mm, respectively. The general linear model for this observation revealed that maximum

cortical bone diameter (AP) was significantly negatively correlated with the length of time

submerged in HCl (r2(7) =0.9, p=6.3e-05) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 31). These results

indicate that as length of time submerged in HCl increased, maximum cortical bone diameter

(AP) decreased (β=-0.5) (Appendix B, Table 8). The average minimum cortical bone diameter

taken anterior to posterior (AP) was 23.1mm (Appendix B, Table 7) with minimum and

maximum diameters of 19.0mm and 25.0mm, respectively. The general linear model for this

observation revealed that minimum cortical bone diameter (AP) was not significantly correlated

with the length of time submerged in HCl (r2(7) =0.3, p=0.10) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 32).

However, these results indicate that as length of time submerged in HCl increased, minimum

cortical bone diameter (AP) decreased (β=-0.2) (Appendix B, Table 8).

The average maximum cortical bone diameter taken medial to lateral was 26.4mm

(Appendix B, Table 7) with minimum and maximum diameters of 21.0mm and 32.0mm,

respectively. The general linear model for this observation revealed that maximum cortical bone

dimension was significantly negatively correlated with the length of time submerged in HCl

(r2(7) =0.9, p=5.1e-05) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 33). These results indicate that as length of

time submerged in HCl increased, maximum cortical bone diameter decreased (β=-0.5)

(Appendix B, Table 8). The average minimum cortical bone diameter taken medial to lateral

was 21.9mm (Appendix B, Table 7) with minimum and maximum dimensions of 18.0mm and

24.0mm, respectively. The general linear model for this observation revealed that minimum

cortical bone diameter was not significantly correlated with length of time submerged in HCl

(r2(7) =0.2, p=0.25) (Appendix B, Table 8, Figure 34). These results indicate that as length of

time submerged in HCl increased, minimum cortical bone diameters decreased (β=-0.2)

(Appendix B, Table 8). In contrast to the findings from experiment 1, all measurements of

cortical bone diameter for the pig decreased. We attributed this variance to the structural

differences of the medullary cavity in nonhuman animals in comparison to humans.

Qualitative Variables

We recorded the same qualitative observations for experiment 1 for experiment 2

(Appendix B, Table 9). These observations revealed nearly complete dissolution of the skull

approximately 130.5 hours after initial submersion. It is important to note that the butcher

accidentally froze skull of the pig before the researchers obtained the remains and submerged

them into the acid. Because we did not freeze the skull of the human cadaver prior to the start of

experiment 1, we could not rule out the possibility that this variable affected the rate of

dissolution. While previous research conducted on frozen and fresh pig remains found that

freezing the remains does impact the rate of decomposition (Roberts & Dabbs, 2015) a more

recent student conducted on human cadavers suggest there is no difference in decomposition

rates due to freezing (Garza, 2017). Despite this unanticipated variable, and the contradictory

research findings, the pattern of dissolution of the skull followed the same pattern as the human.

The acid breached the cranial vault via the eyes, nose, and ears, dissolving the mid-face first and

moving from anterior to posterior (Appendix A, Figure 11).

Like experiment 1, hair from the specimen was still present at the conclusion of the

experiment, however we did not recover the hooves (equivalent to human finger and toe nails).

The dismembered extremities became amorphous and indistinguishable from each other around

79 hours submerged in the HCl (Appendix A, Figure 13) and were no longer available for

observation after 166.5 hours. Significant amounts of viscera were still present within the torso,

which remained relatively intact just as in experiment 1, at the conclusion of the experiment

(Appendix A, Figure 14).

We recorded color of epidermis by comparing to the standard set by Munsell Soil Color

Chart. From exposure to the acid, the epidermis color changes from a pinkish white, to pinkish

gray, yellow, light grayish green, very pale brown, light gray, pale brown, light reddish brown,

reddish yellow, and finally brown. Color of muscle changed from weak red, to dusky red, and

then brown. Bone change observed throughout was consistent with the pattern observed in

experiment 1. The bone became soft, then pitted with eroded margins, to gelatinous and

amorphous, and finally completely dissolved (Appendix A, Figure 12). All generalized linear

models of binary variables and ordinal logistic equations were not of statistical significance.

Experiment 3: Isolated Human Fingers

Experiment 3 concluded once each specimen submerged in a solution with HCl (C

through H) had completely dissolved, a total of 71 observations per specimen. We submerged

specimen A and B in distilled water only and estuarine water only, respectively, and persisted

throughout the length of the entire experiment. We submerged specimen C in only HCl, and we

concluded observations after complete dissolution at 366 hours. Observations for the remaining

specimens continued as follows: specimen D concluded after 486 hours; specimen E concluded

after 1618 hours; specimen F concluded after 2525 hours; specimen G concluded after 3533

hours; and specimen H concluded after 3893 hours (5 months and 10 days), concluding the entire

experiment.

Quantitative Variables

For each specimen, we explored descriptive statistics for all quantitative variables as

affected by time. We present a summary of the averages for each specimen for each quantitative

variable in Table 10 below (see Tables 11 – 19 for full descriptive statistics per variable):

Table 10: Summary of averages for all quantitative variables per Specimen for experiment 3 as

produced by R-Studio. Specimen Weight

(g)

Sol.Temp

(°C)

pH Salinity

(ppt)

Length

(mm)

MaxCort

(AP)

(mm)

MinCort

(AP)

(mm)

MaxCort

(ML)

(mm)

MinCort

(ML)

(mm)

A 50.4 21.5 7.7 8.1 44.34 8.1 5.2 10.4 7.0

B 42.4 21.7 8.3 7.6 47.6 8.5 6.2 12.3 7.6

C 42.6 21.7 -0.5 59.5 39.10 6.2 3.7 10.2 8.5

D 67.1 22.2 -0.2 58.9 53.4 9.6 7.3 13.0 10.7

E 74.8 21.8 0.0 59.3 61.9 6.7 3.8 12.9 6.4

F 109.3 21.7 0.2 58.9 71.1 8.2 4.7 12.2 7.7

G 108.5 21.7 0.3 58.8 70.1 NA 2.0 9.3 NA

H 69.5 21.7 0.4 59.1 47.3 6.1 3.2 10.7 8.4

In addition, we used linear mixed effects models, where the variable “specimen” served

as the random intercept, to explore relationships between time and each explanatory variable.

The linear mixed effects models revealed that all variables were positively correlated with time

(Appendix B, Table 20). I calculated the variance between specimens for each variable against

time by squaring the standard deviation of the random effects. The total variation between

specimens are as follows: Weight over time = 718.3 (SD=26.8); Solution Temperature over time

= 1.1e-09 (SD=3.2e-05); pH over time = 13.7 (SD=3.7); Salinity over time = 563.3 (SD=23.7);

Length over time = 146.5 (SD=12.1); Maximum cortical bone dimension (AP) over time = 1.8

(SD=1.3); Minimum cortical bone dimension (AP) over time = 2.5 (SD=1.6); Maximum cortical

bone dimension over time = 1.7 (SD=1.3); Minimum cortical bone dimension over time = 1.3

(SD=1.4).

The data collection process included removing each specimen from the aqueous solution

during each observation, leading to loss of small quantities of the aqueous solutions for each

specimen, in addition to the loss of solution via natural evaporation. As a result, we made new

solutions of the same ratio based on the weight of each specimen to remain consistent with

complete submersion of each specimen until complete dissolution. However, we expected the

loss of the aqueous solutions due to evaporation in an uncontrolled environment, such as that of

the Tricia Todd case, giving credibility to the realistic aspect of this experiment. As in

experiment 2, each specimen showed a pattern of weight loss throughout the experiment

(Appendix B, Figure 35). In addition, despite the varying quantities of estuarine water per

specimen and the length of time we submerged the fingers in Estuarine water:HCl, pH levels for

each specimen remained relatively consistent throughout the length of the experiment (Appendix

B, Figure 36).

Qualitative Variables

Specimen A and B were controls in experiment 1, submerged only in a proportion of

distilled water (A) or estuarine water (B). Soft tissue for both specimens remained in the

containers throughout the length of the experiment, although researchers observed skin slippage.

The bone did not present with any change consistent with being in contact with acid. Specimen C

also served as a control, submerged in HCl only. At 126 hours, no bone remained in the finger

and we reached complete dissolution of all soft tissue at 366 hours after initial submersion

(Appendix B, Table 21).

Specimen D through H followed similar patterns of dissolution as each other; they

differed in the time to dissolution with the reduction in potency of the acid with each increase in

proportion of solvent (i.e., 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and 5:1 (Estuarine water:HCl)). For specimen D

through H, all bone in the finger would become soft, then pitted with eroded margins, until

becoming gelatinous, amorphous, and then completely dissolved (Appendix A, Figure 19). We

confirmed this pattern at 630.5 hours after initial submersion when we radiographed the

specimen; the outline of the phalange is visible, but the bone is clearly not intact (Appendix A,

Figure 19) (Appendix B, Table 21).

The color of epidermis for specimen D through H ranged from brown, gray, grayish

brown, light brown, very pale brown, light brownish gray, light gray, light olive brown, light

yellowish brown, olive yellow, pale brown, pale yellow, pinkish gray, and white. Color of bone

ranged from dark gray, gray, grayish brown, light brownish gray, light gray, light olive brown,

light olive gray, light pink, light yellowish brown, olive brown, olive yellow, pale brown, pinkish

gray, pinkish white, very dark gray, white, and yellow. At the conclusion of the experiment, all

eight fingernails were still intact and collected. All generalized linear models of binary variables

and ordinal logistic equations were not of statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS The CSI effect is a theory that states that dramatized criminal television shows have a

very drastic effect on the individuals who watch them regularly (Shelton, 2008). Particularly, for

members of society who participate in juries in the courtroom and who watch these television

shows, the CSI effect claims that the regularity with which they watch these shows affects their

verdicts. Continued research on the CSI effect has indeed found that there is no direct correlation

between watching these shows and juror verdicts and so found this theory to be untrue (Maeder

& Corbett, 2015). However, the research has found that watching these different television

shows, whether they are fiction or nonfiction, affects the perceptions of the jury regarding

availability and presentation of forensic evidence lines in the courtroom for each case (Maeder &

Corbett, 2015). An additional effect on jurors’ is their understanding of the results of analyses on

these lines of evidence; if skewed, it can sometimes lead them to not fully understand the

evidence presented to them (Maeder & Corbett, 2015).

The increased popularity of these shows makes the job of a forensic scientist even more

difficult. The expectation for certain evidence to be available to a jury in a courtroom is

extremely troubling for forensics as many times this evidence is just not available, but a jury may

not understand this as an option. The forensic science community must face these challenges

head on by continuing to add to the current literature and developing new ways to analyze and

interpret forensic evidence left at a crime scene. With research and examples of how to dispose

of bodies easily accessible to the common criminal via the internet, it is very important that we

continue to evolve in our techniques to assist in interpreting crime scenes.

The aim of this study was to assist the State’s Attorney in discerning the facts in the

Tricia Todd case. In order to do so, we conducted experiments replicating the circumstances in

the Tricia Todd case to answer the following questions:

• Could HCl preferentially destroy certain body segments over others after dismembering

an entire cadaver and placing it in a container?

• Do pig (Sus scrofa) remains follow a similar pattern of dissolution as that of a human

when submerged in HCl?

• How would the introduction of estuarine water to HCl affect the rate of dissolution of

human remain