FM 31-70 manuals/1968 US Army Vietnam War Ba… · FM 31-70 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY APRIL 1968 This copy

FM 31-70 D E P A R T M E N T O F T H E A R M Y F I E L D M A N U A L

BASIC COLD WEATHER

MANUAL

H E A D Q U A R T E R S , D E P A R T M E N T O F T H E A R M Y A P R I L 1 9 6 8

This copy is a reprint which includes current pages from Change 1.

WWW.SURVIVALEBOOKS.COM

.EW 3iO

LjI V LU4Jt4YiUJ '.J.LI UJ[]Ea V Z1JEIEPD wvnvr J HhtcflVTLET2

MO. 2I—JO ) flV2HIMCLOI4b DC'1't't7t? T 1ATDTA T (L T LTL 7'UTLT T

DVCI '..'JIU IV1CVLflD YVYV1IIV1PI% A& P I I II %AI.JIAP

U V V Z4bJLLDJ'Li47UCHVLLEIf 1 II'1JdODflCLIO4 I_Tb I-S 2

6cçiou (J6U6LBJ - S—I—S—3 2r%T A TT (1 ZT ('T'I T IZTTA (1 ZTA T ci'c r TTTATTA T

III. Ed!bli16U --II• C1OW1IJ - e

CHThLEX 3 21!vrr fl.1Ii FIAIMC

L UJ' rr 0 0 0 10 0026C4!0U I CGIJGLffJ - 2—r 2—

LA ooq vxiq6-ur uJbLoAJeGq apGJ4GL - — 3123S1r TCUNTRG ufl nruL cdnihuicu -

A H16U6 IJq UL2 2—33——2—'1

A1 BAOflC LOITçIU - P0

11

26C4IOIJ I• oqnc;iouCHVLLEE t 2KIIWL VJ4D 2MOiA2HOEI4C

III• Il(!J1LA JCI1UQTTflM Q1U1 TLTT —

1K IJIBL 2flO!A2pOGiU. t-3e-—t-38 &1.

CHVLLEIC 2 WOAE?IEMJ

j ybbJ!cvou o jq uuq UO&O6 c6cpu!dn - ______

6C4JOU J JLOJ6W 6C4iIJ UIOA6WGIJ - 701

ill UJjJJJtTT 1400c UJOAGUYG1J TAO

A Vf!0JJ JAJJ6IJ J0a 2—IO--—2—1

1K rq uAlcOU - 2i—2—8 fl3—

jj p(6GpIJ6q q ço WOA66 -

I111I —JJATT T6Q— D—T& 9—T. TTh

b4JU4J I- L) 1JLJAqJJuj UJ( IJUJ4JJbLU L1J.CHV1LEB 0 COrtBVL I1ECH4I11E

ir !A6bon2 uq TULflhiJ6IJ -iir JL6 vuq WOJ6W61J -

Ar q opçtw - e—s----e--2sK CW0flU6 BJJq COIJG6JW6U - e—ie—-e--se l2

1K E!P!U 46C}JIJJdfl6 - 0—12—1—12 125

oat vi i a v ii01026C10U I. CGU6LUI

!'JTIE'TI L !DTAT7T'T rtTAT T TIt'.JTYT'T?O

if b6d11J10L bLOpJGUJ O JGvq6L -

jp,s uaaunoi .b...qsa w 3i—O 3 .pLLA iom' ucnqu8 cpevkr

vco gqqrv I


pittengk

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

C. 2X1 icirrBE2CI1E 2EVICH -W C!WflPID\V1J EWEJCEMCX CODE EOK fl2E III YI\FVMD

)EMDIX V IEEEKEMCE 121

Q corD !AEVJHE}c HIMJ2 181

E' E4AIEO?1EMLVT EMECJ2VMD LAbE rovD- Lb

E IIEICHJ2 OE COrD liEVLHE} COLHfl4C VMD E6flILWEMLD EEEECJ OE COL'D IAEVILHEIC 014 1EVbO142

IMDEX 18'tC'0a9VKA

U WV2flRW1'tA.T COMA1TC2TOI4 !VCLOT2 rai

yco SQ4IY


wqo VX\MSC 52 sc ss8qJ& vMVEc o 20HV DM8' \MD1 9JLG ia 003Ot6' IJG BnLIJ6L' dcwq r 20

'(Wino- - 8 52

B1116 37 00MWG1 80mw' Tjj93)

MOCJCGCr - 8 00VJWCPGL 12' 00

311% MOCJC64' r''v2W26b1fl6' 713 38 20YI1IJV' 3/1521 31 00BflL6 58' 00

SJWW 31OLVL1 31158:QLGnaqc fl""P"' -11S8 9' 00COWb2' G1J29fIG '20BWLTqOJGGL' AS'O5WUJ 1WW1333!flOIJ (90 Lq2) 9' 91320 LOI11J2' resuuf yjucpiuceriu 3s 00L!2c01' vcownw' cr i2 -

3' 20p,sabou' yuclbcL2ouuGr (cJuAwoL6) w 00

CJO1JJ!IJ 34 43

BOOfr uc'pccq /LP!f 2 20Ot.GLEtP!CG 26 rI!ff61 JU26Lf&; /AOOJ XIU 0 33yI!ctGJs 2JIGHQ' jL!e&GL EUJeGL

-0' 43

YIRW6L' j/OO 0' 32MWt - 0' Be

cvb' 10211JIU -jGJw6ç r!uGL-w1w6r - 0' 30F!UGL' C''r Yi':l°" flJL6q 0' 32c° ccc" jOu m1 9' So2P!L1' 11s001 L4AIOIJ 00 1201L0112GL21 conou y4?.JWJ ThU- 3' 10nabGnqGL 0' 322OC' C"2J'1°" OJG 0' 10DLWJLGL2' 20\20 0' 20flhJqGLeJflLç' 2o\2o 0' sJ{GJIUGCb IA\73116L 9 00

wwtsia

WJ cdenbwnç io' 23

bL016Cf!t$ 'JjV2$poq?. 7LWOL 2'2L011.2P0G' 'IUeIJG2!nIIJ c eoB?.o1JGr u.\2GJpJMTLq j' OJJJfLGUCJJ!JJE jpoj' JL\CtTLL!GL. 3' 80RGJ' /I14 11\ULf !q brcjcGf ç boucir - j' orCffIJVGGU' ojq CI! IJJtWG 3 22LORGJ' '113J13J0' S'O5I17UJ yJJ4 ( GB) -- 1' 40WTeflJUGb zt.U'esww 7WWO (2 G) -

- - -s' 82

LGIJUqG 1130 (s G) F 00JS!UGb YSIJI 0' 08

CHANGE

No. 1

FM 31-70, 12 AprilPage 53, paragraphchanged to read

FM 31-70C l

HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYWASHINGTON, D.C., /7 December /968

BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL

1968, is changed as follows:3-51 b, In line 16 “(LOW)” is“(LAW or Lubricant, Semi-

Fluid, MIL--L--46000A(LSA)).”Page 165, paragraph D-2 a. In line 10 “(LOW)”

is changed to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA)).”

Page 166, paragraph D-3a (2). In line 21 “LOW”is changed to read "LAW or Lubricant, Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”

Page 166, paragraph D-3 a (3), In lines 3 & 4“LOW” is changed to read “LAW or Lubricant,Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”

Page 166, paragraph D-3 b (4). In line 7 “LOW” ischanged to read “LAW or Lubricant, Semi-Fluid, MIL--L-46000A(LSA).”

Page 170, paragraph E–2 a. In line 14 “Cap, ColdWeather” is changed to read “Cap, Insulting,Helmet Liner-Helmet.”

Page 171, paragraph E 2c. Entire page 171 isdeleted and the following is added:

E-3. Type Load The loads shown below are type loads which couldbe worn during moderately cold weather (approxi-

TAGO 649A—December 340-470 c63—68

mately 15° F to –15° F). The term moderatelycold is used only as a descriptive term. What istermed as moderately cold to one person, may beextremely cold to another. The windchill factormust also be considered, a moderate cold couldchange momentarily to extreme cold by the addi-tion of high winds. Therefore, the commandershould use the type loads for planning only andshould adjust them accordingly to fit a given situa-tion and temperature condition.

1


JJ,QIJ Ei1Jt4.(.I?. 0 IHIJ!LC LOCJ - o. oDox J.Jgcp /* tIl{LbLOO -. 0• 12IJU QGI i#.\cimc

-0 300 10

HncJtrcc' AIo1J D'1 OC-- - 2' 00

to3;.

Io1vl J,!RpUR o1q. ' 02joD. I. 0.

JJGt 1LOnG3.9 y).jou 5rn;;q-

0 Ofc' JL17GL gGbcJJIJ

-

nommiic -2 00

B' J0c!!JJ (InvoL) -D1J 2IcGbw (QnL) - . 00po Luicjmicjc:

LOnoRJe (OUJ mc O. mrctcpoqio

'uuou JA°°1- - -

02L6L L!LO 0. 12L0!/.GI J1Lr!p - 0 eJ0JJO LCJCd -

. 001\ jçiioiJ . 1;).iov ..L!11 0020CJ CnJJ?0JJ 2016( bL)

-0 a

JOF J.L°I O pLj iq EtCUG6

.L0'J E!26UCO oq -a. s

c. Supplemental Existance Load. The followingare items of clothing not immediately needed bythe individual during moderately cold weather.These items are normally carried in the duffle bagon unit transportation and should be available tothe individual when needed:

Undershirt, 50/50 Drawers, 50/50 Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr) Trousers, Cotton Nylon, WR Shirt, Wool Nylon, OG Parka, Cotton Nylon Liner, Parka, Nylon Quilted Mitten Set, Arctic

Page 184, paragraph G-6a. In line 1 “(LOW)” ischanged to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi-Fluid,MIL-L-46000A(LSA)).”

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

Official:KENNETH G. WICKHAM,Major General, United States Army,The Adjutant General.

W. C. WESTMORELAND,General, United States Army,Chief Of Staff.

Distribution:To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 requirements for Basic Cold Weather Manual.

TAGO 649A


CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1-1. Purpose and Scopea. This manual is designed to prepare the

individual soldier and small unit commanderto conduct military operations for extendedperiods of time under the most severe andvarying cold weather climatic conditions. Thedoctrine and techniques in the manual areapplicable in any area that has cold weatherand snow with their accompanying opera-tional problems. Troops properly trained inthis doctrine and these techniques will be ableto fight; live; and move in any cold weatherarea of the world.

b. The provisions of SOLOG Agreement 23R,Arctic Doctrine are implemented in thismanual.

c. The material contained herein empha-sizes that cold, with its attendant problemsaffects military operations but does not pre-vent them. The proper use of authorized equip-ment and field expedients will, to a majordegree, overcome any problems encountered asa result of the cold. It is the commander’sresponsibility to train his men so they canmake the environment save military opera-tions, not hinder them. The material presentedherein is applicable, without modification tonuclear and nonnuclear warfare, employmentof, and protection from, chemical, biological,and radiological agents, and internal defenseand development operations.

d. Throughout this manual reference ismade to the additional time required to con-duct various tasks in cold weather operations.This requirement cannot be overemphasizedand must be included in all planning. In addi-tion to the increased amount of time con-sumed in actual movement, allowance must bemade for other time consuming tasks that arenot present in temperate zone operations.

AGO 8641A

These include, among others, erecting andstriking tents, performing maintenance, con-structing roads, starting and warming engines,movement of supplies, and hundreds of othersmall tasks that must be performed whilewearing bulky cold weather clothing.

e. Insofar as possible illustrations used inthis manual reflect Standard A items of cloth-ing and equipment. However, because of non-availability of some items at time of publica-tion, some illustrations show Standard B or Citems of clothing (para 2-7).

f. Measurements in this manual to the ex-tent practicable, reflect both the Metric andU.S. systems; however, in some cases figureswill show only the U.S. system. For ease intransposition, meters have been converted toyards on a one for one basis. For more exactmeasurements use the conversions shown inappendix H.

g. Users of this manual are encouraged tosubmit recommendations to improve its clarityor accuracy, Comments should be keyed to thespecific page, paragraph, and line of the textin which the change is recommended. Reasonsshould be provided for each comment to insureunderstanding and complete evaluation. Com-ments should be forwarded direct to Com-manding General, United States Army, Alaska,APO Seattle 98749. Originators of proposedchanges which would constitute a significantmodification of approved Army doctrine maysend an information copy, through commandchannels, to the Commanding General, UnitedStates Army Combat Developments Command,Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060, to facilitate re-view and followup.

1-2. Relation toThis manual is

tion that normal

Other Manualsprepared with the assump-individual and basic unit

3


training have been completed. The manual beyond the treatment given in this manual onshould be used in conjunction with the basic the operation and maintenance of equipmentfield manuals of the arms and services as well during cold weather operations. Appendix Aas FM 31-71and FM 3l-72. Appropriate tech- contains a list of supplementary manuals andnical manuals contain detailed information references.

4 AGO 8641A


CHAPTER 2

INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

Section 1.

2-1. Basis of Issuea. As used in this manual, individual cloth-

ing and equipment are those items issued orsold to a soldier for his personal use, and in-clude certain organizational equipment utilizedby the individual. The basis of issue of coldweather clothing and equipment may be foundin TA 50-901. Mandatory items of personalclothing are listed in AR 700–8400–1.

b. The U.S. Army, through continuous re-search and development, endeavors to main-tain the best clothing and equipment in theworld. When properly fitted and properly util-ized this clothing will provide adequate pro-tection from the elements and will enabletrained, well disciplined troops to carry outyear-round field operations under cold weatherconditions, wherever they may be encountered.

c. To utilize fully the protection afforded bythe present standard cold weather clothing andequipment, it is necessary to understand theprinciple involved and the correct function ofeach item. This chapter covers basic principlesand provides general guidance on the purposeand use of cold weather clothing and equip-ment.

2-2. Commander's Responsibilitiesa. Many factors will influence the command-

er’s decision as to what items of clothing andequipment his troops should wear or carry.These include the weather, mission at hand,actual duties to be performed, overall physicalcondition of individuals and their degree ofproficiency. If a movement is involved he mustconsider the distance to be traveled, themethod of travel, and how the troops will befed en route, if applicable. If the movement ison foot, he must bear in mind that under nor-

AGO 8641A

GENERAL

mal winter conditions, 65 to 70 pounds is themaximum weight a man can normally wearand carry and still be effective on reaching hisdestination.

b. The weight of individual clothing andequipment is covered in appendix E. Com-manders should give particular attention toadditional organizational equipment requiredfor a given operation. Some of the more com-mon items are also listed in appendix E. Sincethe individual soldier’s combat load in coldweather operations exceeds that of a temperateclimate load by more than 20 pounds, theseorganizational items (such as binoculars, com-passes, radios and batteries, pioneer tools, crewserved weapons, etc. ) become major consider-ations and must be included at all levels ofplanning.

c. In addition to the individual combat load,another 45 to 55 pounds of clothing and equip-ment is required for the protection and com-fort of each individual under conditions of ex-treme cold. Transportation must be providedfor this additional load whenever possible.

d. The commander must take positive actionto insure that a balance exists between whatthe individual is wearing and what he isrequired to carry in the way of equipment. Hemust also insure that troops dress as lightlyas possible consistent with the weather inorder to reduce the danger of excessive per-spiring and subsequent chilling. The completecold-wet or cold-dry uniform for the applica-ble environmental conditions must be readilyavailable. A large proportion. of cold weathercasualties results from too few clothes beingavailable to individuals when a severe changein the weather occurs. Because of the differ-ences in individual metabolism, commanders

5


must not be arbitrary in delineating strictuniform requirements, but must allow somepersonal choice of undergarments.

2-3. Cold Weather ConditionsThe use of cold weather clothing is affected

by two types of weather conditions: wet anddry. These conditions are amplified by humid-ity coupled with temperature and wind veloc-ity; high humidity (wet conditions), lowhumidity (dry conditions).

a. Wet Conditions. Cold-wet conditions occurwhen temperatures are near freezing and vari-ations in day and night temperatures causealternate freezing and thawing. This freezingand thawing is often accompanied by rain andwet

2-4.a.

snow, causing the ground to become

Section II.

Purpose of ClothingProtection of Body Against Climatic

CLOTHING

Factors.(1)

(2)

If the body is to operate efficiently, itmust maintain a normal temperature.The body attempts to adjust itself tothe variable external conditions itencounters. These attempts are evi-denced by the need for more food toproduce additional heat during colderweather, by perspiration to increaseremoval of heat during hot weather,and by the gradual darkening of theskin as protection against extendedexposure to the rays of the sun.Proper clothing, correctly worn, willassist the body in its adjustment toextreme climatic conditions. Theclothing does this by holding in thebody heat, thereby insulating thebody against the cold outside air. Theproblem of protection becomes acutewhen freezing temperatures are in-volved. To understand this problemrequires a knowledge of the methodsby which the body resists the effectsof climatic changes.

b. Balancing Heat Production and Heat Loss.The body loses heat at variable rates. This heatmay flow from the body at a rate equal to orgreater than the rate at which it is produced.

6

muddy and slushy. During these periods troopsshould wear clothing which consists of awater-repellent, wind-resistant outer layer andinner layers with sufficient insulation to pro-vide ample protection in moderately coldweather (above 14°F.).

b. Dry Conditions. Cold-dry conditions occurwhen average temperatures are lower than14°F. The ground is usually frozen and snowis usually dry, in the form of fine crystals.Strong winds cause low temperatures to seemcolder and increase the need for protection ofthe entire body (windchill) (fig. F-1). Duringthese periods, troops should have availableadditional insulating layers of clothing. This isparticularly true when entering static situa-tions form a period of strenuous exercise.

When heat loss exceeds heat production, thebody uses up the heat stored in its tissues, caus-ing a rapid drop in body temperature. Exces-sive heat loss can result in shivering. Shiveringuses body energy to produce heat which atleast partially offsets the heat loss and slowsthe rate at which the body temperature willdrop. Shivering is an important warning tostart action to rewarm, either by adding moreclothing, by exercising, by eating some food,or by entering a warm shelter, or by anycombination of these actions. In freezingtemperatures itadjust clothinging as it is toloss.

is as important to remove andto prevent excessive overheat-add clothing to prevent heat

2-5. Principles of Clothing DesignCertain principles are involved in the design

of adequate cold weather clothing to controlthe loss of heat from the body, to facilitateproper ventilation, and to protect the body.

a. Insulation. Any material that resists thetransmittance of heat is known as an insulatingmaterial. Dry air is an excellent insulator.Woolen cloth contains thousands of tiny pock-ets within its fibers. These air pockets trap theair warmed by the body and hold it close to theskin. The principle of trapping air within thefibers or layers of clothing provides the mostefficient method of insulating the body against

AGO 8641A


heat loss. Fur provides warmth in the sameway; warm, still air is trapped in the hair andis kept close to the body.

b. Layer Principle.

air. If this gives too much ventilation, only theneck of the garment should be opened to allowwarm air to escape without permitting com-plete circulation.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Several layers of medium-weightclothing provide more warmth thanone heavy garment, even if the singleheavy garment is as thick as thecombined layers. The effect resultsfrom the several thick layers of airwhich are trapped between the layersof clothing, rather than one or twolayers of large volume. These layers,as well as the minute air pocketswithin the fibers, are warmed by thebody heat.The layers of clothing are of differentdesign. The winter underwear is mostporous and has many air pockets.These air pockets trap and hold theair warmed by the body. To keep thecold outside air from reaching thestill inside air that has been warmedby the body, the outer garments aremade of windproof, water-repellentfabric.The layer principle allows maximum

2-6. Winter Use of Clothing a. Basic Principles of Keeping Warm.

(1) Keep clothing Clean. (2)Avoid Overheating. (3)Wear Clothing Loose and in layers.(4) Keep clothing Dry (5) Remember C-O-L-D to keep warm

in winter.

b. Application of Basic Principles.

(1)

freedom of action and permits rapidadjustment of clothing through awide range of temperatures and ac-tivities. The addition or removal oflayers of clothing allows the body tomaintain proper body heat balance.

c. Ventilation. Perspiration fills the air-spaces of the clothing with moisture laden airand reduces their insulating qualities. As per-spiration evaporates, it cools the body just aswater evaporating from a wet canteen covercools the water in the canteen. To combat theseeffects, cold weather clothing is designed sothat the neck, waist, hip, sleeve, and anklefastenings can be opened or closed to provideventilation. To control the amount of circula-tion, the body should be regarded as a houseand the openings in the clothing as windowsof the house. Cool air enters next to the bodythrough the openings in the clothing just ascool air comes into a house when the windowsare open. If the windows are opened at oppositeends of a room, cross-draft ventilation results.In the same way, if clothing is opened at thewaist and neck, there is a circulation of fresh

AGO 8641A

Keep clothing clean. This is alwaystrue from a standpoint of sanitationand comfort: in winter, in additionto these considerations, it is neces-sary for maximum warmth. If clothesare matted with dirt and grease,much of their insulation property isdestroyed; the air pockets in theclothes are crushed or filled up andthe heat can escape from the bodymore readily. Underwear requires theclosest attention because it will be-come soiled sooner. If available, lightcotton underwear may be worn be-neath winter underwear to absorbbody oils and lengthen the time inter-val between necessary washings ofthese more difficult to clean and drygarments. Winter underwear (Armyissue is a 50/50 cotton/wool blend)and cushion sole socks (Army issuesocks are 50 percent wool, 30 percentnylon, 20 percent cotton) should bewashed in lukewarm water, if avail-able. Hot water should not be usedbecause it is injurious to the woolfibers and causes shrinkage. Syn-thetic detergents are more solublethan soap in cool water and also pre-vent hard-water scum, and are there-fore recommended, if available. Whenouter clothing gets dirty it should bewashed with soap and water. All thesoap or detergent must be rinsed outof the clothes, since any left in theclothing will lessen the water-shed-ding quality of the clothing. In addi-tion to destroying much of the nor-

7


mal insulation, grease will make theclothing more flammable. All outergarments of the Cold Weather Cloth-ing System are washable and havelaundry instruction labels attached.If washing is not possible for clothingthat would normally be washed withsoap and water, dry rubbing andairing will rid them of some dirt andaccumulated body oils.

(2) Avoid overheating. In cold climates,overheating should be avoided when-ever possible. Overheating causesperspiration which in turn, causesclothing to become damp. This damp-ness will lessen the insulating qualityof the clothing. In addition, as theperspiration evaporates it will coolthe body even more. When indoors, aminimum of clothing should be wornand the shelter should not be over-heated. Outdoors, if the temperaturerises suddenly or if hard work is be-ing performed, clothing should beadjusted accordingly. This can bedone by ventilating (by partiallyopening parka or jacket) or by re-moving an inner layer of clothing, orby removing heavy mittens or bythrowing back parka hood or chang-ing to lighter head cover. The headand hands, being richly supplied withblood, act as efficient heat dissipatorswhen overheated. In cold temperatureit is better to be slightly chilly thanto be excessively warm. This pro-motes maximum effectiveness of thebody heat production processes.

(3) Wear clothing loose and in layers.Clothing and footgear that are tootight restrict blood circulation andinvite cold injury. Wearing of moresocks than is correct for the type offootgear being worn might cause theboot to fit too tightly. Similarly, afield jacket which fits snugly over awool shirt would be too tight whena liner is also worn under the jacket.If the outer garment fits tightly,putting additional layers under it willrestrict circulation. Additionally,tight garments lessen the volume of

8

trapped air layers and thereby reducethe insulation and ventilation avail-able.

(4) Keep clothing dry.(a) Under winter conditions, moisture

will soak into clothing from two directions-inside and outside. Dry snow and frost that collect on theuniform will be melted by the heat radiated by the body.

(b) Outer clothing is water-repellentand will shed most of the water collected from melting snow andfrost. The surest way to keep dry,however, is to prevent snow fromcollecting. Before entering heatedshelters, snow should be brushedor shaken from uniforms; it shouldnot be rubbed off, because this willwork it into the fabric.

(c) In spite of all precautions, therewill be times when getting wet can-not be prevented and the drying ofclothing may become a major prob-lem. On the march, damp mittensand socks may be hung on the pack.Occasionally in freezing tempera-tures, wind and sun will help drythis clothing. Damp socks or mit-tens may be placed, unfolded nearthe body, where the body heat willdry them. In bivouac, damp cloth-ing may be hung inside the tentnear the top, using drying lines orimprovised drying racks. It mayeven by necessary to dry each item,piece by piece, by holding beforean open fire. Clothing and footwearshould not be dried to near a heatsource. Leather articles, especiallyboots, must be dried slowly. If bootscannot be dried by any other method, it is recommended that they beplaced between the sleeping bag and liner. Heat from the body willaid in drying the leather.

2-7. Components of Cold Weather UniformsThe items of clothing below are Standard A

as listed in SB 700-20. It should be borne inmind however that procurement may or maynot have been started on some of the items

AGO 8641A


VIC II

H •1i'

Figure 2–1. Basic components of cold-wet uniform.

and upon requisitioning some Standard Bclothing may be issued. Although not shown asbasic items of the cold weather uniforms, lightcotton underwear may be worn under thewinter underwear (para 2-6 b (l)).

a. Cold-Wet Uniform. The basic componentsof the cold-wet uniform are illustrated in fig-ure 2-1 unless otherwise indicated.

(1) Undershirt Mans. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,Full Sleeve.

(2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,Ankle Length.

(3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG408, Stretch Type.

(4)

(5)(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

AGO 8641A

Suspenders Trousers. Scissors BackType.Trousers Mens. Wool Serge, OG 108.Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG108.Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, WindResistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.Boot Insulated Cold Weather. MensRubber Black (or Boot Combat:Mens Leather Black 8½" high withOvershoe: Rubber Man’s HighCleated 5 Buckle).Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon WindResistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107,with integral hood.Liner Coat Mens. Nylon Quilted 6.2oz, OG 106.Cap Insulating, Helmet Liner-Helmet.Cotton Nylon Oxford, OG 107.

(12)

(13)

(14)

Glove Shells. Leather Black withGlove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit,OG 208, or Mitten Shells; TriggerFinger Leather Palm and Thumbwith Mitten Inserts; Wool and NylonKnit, OG, Trigger Finger, or MittenSet Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell withLeather Palm (fig. 2-5).Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox-ford, OG 107, with drawcord and fur.Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207(not illustrated).

b. Cold-Dry Uniform. The basic componentsof the cold-dry uniform are illustrated in fig-ure 2-2

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

unless otherwise indicated.Undershirt Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,Full Sleeve.Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,Ankle Length.Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG408, Stretch Type.Suspenders Trousers. Scissors BackType.Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG108.Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, WindResistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.Liner Trousers. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 oz,OG 106.Boot Insulated Cold Weather. MensRubber White, w/release valve.Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon WindResistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.

9


J

10

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

Figure 2-2. Basic components of cold-dry uniform.

Liner Coat Mans. Nylon Quilted, 6.2oz, OG 106.Parka Mans. Cotton and Nylon OxfordOG 107, w/o hood (not illustrated),Liner Parka Mans. Nylon Quilted, 6.2oz, OG 106 (not illustrated).Cap, Insulating, Helmet Liner. Cot-ton Nylon Oxford, OG 107.Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox-ford, OG 107, w/drawcord and fur.Glove Shells. Leather Black withGlove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit,OG 108, or, Mitten Shells; TriggerFinger Leather Palm and Thumbwith Mitten Inserts; Wool and NylonKnit, OG, Trigger Finger, or, MittenSet Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell withLeather Palm (fig. 2-5).Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207(not illustrated).Gloves Cloth. Work Type (not illus-trated).

(b)

constructed so that circulation andventilation are not restricted.Suspenders. The scissors-type sus-penders are worn over the under-shirt. The drawers and all succeed-ing layers of trousers are supportedby the suspenders. The use of sus-penders allows the drawers andtrousers to be worn loose at thewaist so that neither circulationnor ventilation is restricted.

(2) Intermediate layer. The intermediatelayer consists of the wool OG shirtand trousers which provide excellentinsulation against the cold. The shirtis worn outside the trousers for bet-ter control of ventilation. The wooltrousers and shirt are not designedto be worn as outer garments underfield conditions since they lose theirinsulating qualities if they becomewet or matted with dirt. When en-gaged in strenuous activity, care must

2-8. Description and Wearing of the be taken so that the wool materialUniform Components will not come in contact with the

a. Cold-Wet. skin, thus causing possible irritation(1) Inner layer. and discomfort.

(a) Underwear. The underwear is loose (3) Outer layer.fitting and is made of 50 percent (a) Coat. The coat ensemble is made upcotton and 50 percent wool. It is of a shell and a detachable liner.

AGO 8641A


Figure 2-3. Cap insulatng helmet and helmet liner.

(b)

The coat has a combination slide,snap and touch-and-close fastenerfront closure. The sleeves have ad-justable cuffs with a hand shieldextension. A lightweight hood is anintegral part of the coat. When notbeing used the hood is secured un-der the collar and is concealed bya slide fastened enclosure. Thedetachable liner is made of quiltednylon and is extremely light andwarm. The liner has a collar, openunderarms, and buttonhole tabs forattachment to the coat.Trousers. The trousers are made ofsmooth, light, wind resistant sa-teen. They have extra closures andadjustments. to provide for ventila-tion and better fit.

(4) Headgear.(a) Cap. The insulating helmet liner

cap (fig. 2-3) is close fitting,visorless, and of helmet style. It hasa combined one-piece earlap andneck protector, and utilizes anoverlap touch-and-close fastener.The cap is designed to be worn un-der the steel helmet or under thewinter hood. When worn as anouter headpiece, the lower flap por-tion of the cap may be folded up

(5)(6)

(b)

around the top with the touch-and-close fasteners crisscrossed in thefront (fig. 2-3).Hoods. The winter hood (fig. 2-4)is a one-piece covering for thehead, face, and neck. It utilizestouch-and-close fasteners and canbe worn over the steel helmet. Amalleable wire inside the fur ruffmay be shaped as desired for visi-bility or greater protection of thehead and face. Unit commandersmust enforce “hood discipline,” es-pecially while men are on sentryduty or on patrols. The winterhood and the cold weather capwith flaps down will greatly reducea man’s hearing capabilities. Whenthe temperature or wind does not.require the use of heavier head-gear, the cold weather cap and thelightweight hood should be worn.Hoods should be removed beforethe head starts to perspire. Breath-ing into the winter hood causesmoisture and frost to accumulateand should be avoided as much aspossible. Accumulated frost shouldbe removed frequently.

Handwear. See c below.Footwear. See d below.

AGO 8641A 11


yqn$p6W416IJ BJJ6JJpççu !IL

n1J1JG42 oLq joob

uvb iveue&

q•naBpI6 IAI4; aLb e cOLq joobwc;" iJeij 2 JI46L I7gOLJ(j6I7 1I72OL1 JLj.ft6L Ju.eL joob

4st —• tOO

Ut•I li00J 6Ø}J6L GJJ

b. Cold-Dry.(1) Inner Layer. Same as cold-wet.(2) Intermediate Layer. The wool OG

shirt is worn as the basic upper bodygarment. The wind resistant sateentrousers with the quilted nylon linerare worn as the basic lower body gar-ment. In extreme cold weather, the

(8)

coat with detachable liner, used asan outer layer in the cold-wet uni-form, may be worn as an inter-mediate layer in cold-dry conditions.Outer Layer. Depending on tempera-ture the outer garment may consistof the coat with detachable liner, theparka, with detachable liner, or both,

12 AGO 8641A


The parka is a three-quarter length,unlined coat with adjustable cuffs.It has a combination slide and snapfastener front fly closure, waist andhem drawcords and a split lowerback. The parka has a detachablequilted nylon liner.

(4) Headgear. Same as cold-wet.(5) Handwear. See c below.(6) Footwear. See d below.c. Handwear.(1) Gloves.

(a) Standard black leather gloves areworn in mild weather or whenwork must be done that requiresmore freedom of finger movementthan can be acquired with heavierhandwear. In colder weather thesame gloves are worn with wool in-serts (fig. 2-5). Gloves may beworn with either the cold-wet orcold-dry uniforms when theweather is not cold enough to re-quire the use of mittens.

(b) Personnel engaged in delicate fin-ger operations, such as instrumentadjustment may be issued light-weight cotton work gloves. Thesegloves allow for finger dexterity,have leather palms, and preventthe skin from sticking to coldmetal. They will provide protectionagainst cold for only a very shortperiod.

(2) Mittens.(a) The trigger finger mitten shells

(fig. 2-5), are worn with wool trig-ger finger inserts during periods ofmoderate cold. The mittens may beworn with either the cold-wet orcold-dry uniform. Figure 2-5shows the Standard B mitten. TheStandard A item, although identi-cal in outward appearance has hadthe trigger finger loop deleted andis lined on the inside upper surfacewith lightweight quilted nylon.

(b) During periods of extreme cold thearctic mitten set is worn (fig. 2-5).The mitten has a liner, a leatherpalm, a cheek warmer and a fast-

ener on the back. A neck strap isattached to both mittens to preventloss. The neck strap permits themittens, when not required forwarmth, to be conveniently carriedsnapped together behind the back.The arctic mitten set is carriedwhenever there is the possibility ofthe onset of severe cold weather,regardless of the mildness of theweather when setting out.

(3) Utilization.(a) The general rules concerning the

use of clothing apply also to hand-wear—keep it clean, avoid over-heating, wear loose in layers, andkeep it dry.

(b) The outer shells should always beworn with the minimum insulationnecessary to provide protection,thus avoiding perspiration. Insertsshould never be worn by themselvesbecause they wear out quickly andprovide little warmth alone. Trig-ger finger inserts are designed tofit either hand. Changing them toopposite hands frequently will in-sure even wear.

(c) Tight fitting sleeves should beavoided. They may cut down cir-culation and cause hands to be-come cold.

(d) When handling cold metals, thehands should be covered to preventcold burns (immediate freezing ofthe flesh in contact with coldsoaked metals).

(e) To keep hands warm when wear-ing mittens, the fingers should becurled (inside the mittens) againstthe palm of the hand, thumb under-neath the fingers, or flexed insidethe mitten whenever possible to in-crease the blood circulation. Handsmay be exercised by swinging thearms in a vertical circle. Frost-bitten hands can be warmed byplacing them next to the skin un-der the armpits.

(f) An extra pair of mitten insertsshould be carried.

AGO 8641A 13


d. Footwear.(1) General. The feet are more vulner-

able to cold than are other parts ofthe body. Cold attacks feet most oftenbecause they get wet easily (both ex-ternally and from perspiration) andbecause circulation is easily re-stricted. Footgear is therefore one ofthe most important parts of coldweather clothing.

(2) Principles.(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The rule of wearing clothing looseand in layers also applies to foot-gear. The layers are made up bythe boot itself and by the socks.Socks are worn in graduated sizes.The instructions pertaining to fit-ting of footgear, as outlined in TM10-228, must be carefully adheredto. If blood circulation is re-stricted, the feet will be cold.Socks, worn too tightly, mighteasily mean freezing of the feet.For the same reason: AVOIDLACING FOOTGEAR TIGHTLY.Since the feet perspire more read-ily than any other part of the body,the rules about avoiding overheat-ing and keeping dry are difficult tofollow. Footgear is subjected to be-coming wet more often than areother items of equipment. The in-sulated boots with release valve(white, cold-dry and black, cold-wet) are designed to contain pers-piration within the interior of theboots. A change of dry socks shouldbe carried at all times. Wheneverthe feet get wet, dry as soon aspossible and put on a pair of drysocks. Also, the inside of the bootsshould be wiped as dry as possible.Footgear should be kept clean.Socks should be changed when theybecome dirty. Socks and feet shouldbe washed frequently. This washingwill help keep feet and socks ingood condition.The feet should be exercised.Stamping the feet, double-timingsfew steps back and forth, and flex-ing and wiggling toes inside the

(e)

(3) T(a)

boots all require muscular action,produces heat, and will help keepthe feet warm. The feet should bemassaged when changing thesocks.Boots are designed to permit at-tachment to individual oversnowequipment (skis and snowshoes).BINDINGS MUST BE AD-JUSTED CAREFULLY. If theyare too tight, the circulation ofblood is restricted and feet will getcold. Improperly adjusted bindingsmay soon chafe feet or badly wearand tear the boot.

ypes.Boot, insulated, cold weather:mens, rubber, black. These boots(l, fig. 2-6) are particularly usefulin snow, slush, mud, and water(cold-wet conditions), but are notadequate for prolonged wear intemperatures below –20° F. Theyare specifically designed for com-bat personnel who may not havethe opportunity to frequentlychange to dry socks. Insulatingmaterial is hermetically sealed intothe sides and bottoms of the boots.The insulation takes the place ofremovable innersoles and the sec-ondary layer of socks worn in othertypes of cold weather boots. Pers-piration from the feet and waterspilling over the tops of the bootscannot reach the insulating mater-ial because it is sealed-in and al-ways remains dry. Moisture fromoutside sources or from perspira-tion may make the socks damp;this dampness is not harmful tothe feet, provided they receiveproper care such as frequent dry-ing and massaging. If socks are notchanged and feet dried regularly(at least twice daily) the skin be-comes softened and is more readilychaffed or blistered. These effectsare occasionally mistaken for su-perficial frostbite. Only one pair ofcushion-sole socks are worn with

14 AGO 8641A


-1

p.--

tQ 3)%b& o\ 9oog

• BOO; uanjq PJCJC S BOO1 ujçq p46' \L6JeBa6 A&JA6

(b)

thenot

boots. Additional socks shouldbe worn as the feet may become

cramped, resulting in restrictedblood circulation and cold feet.Boot, insulated, cold weather:mens, rubber, white, w/releasevalve. The insulated white boot (2,fig. 2–6 ) is designed for wear incold-dry conditions and will pro-tect the feet in temperatures as lowas –60° F. The boots have a seam-less inner and outer carcass, sealedinsulation, and an outside air re-lease valve used to compensate forair differentials. The white bootsare worn over one pair of cushionsole socks. The air release valveprovides airborne troops a meansof equalizing external and internalair pressures when undergoing ex-treme changes in altitude. Thisvalve must remain closed at allother times to prevent the possi-bility of introducing any amountof moisture into the insulation ofthe boot and rendering it perma-nently unserviceable.

2-9. Nose and Cheek Protectors and Masksa. The Mask, Cold Weather may be issued

AGO 8641A

for use during severe windchill conditions. Themask must be removed at intervals to checkfor frostbite.

b. A certain amount of protection can begained by covering as much of the face aspossible with a wool scarf. It may be adjustedfrom time to time, and should be rotated whenthe section opposite the mouth and nose be-comes covered with frost. The frozen endshould be left outside the coat or parka. Thescarf, like the mask, must be removed at in-tervals to check for frostbite.

2-10. Camouflage Clothinga. Winter camouflage clothing (overwhites)

consists of white trousers and lightweightparka with hood. White covers are also issuedfor the rucksacks.

b. Camouflage clothing provides a means ofconcealment and camouflage from the enemy—both from the ground and from the air-in winter conditions. Use of the white cam-ouflage clothing is, however, dependent on thebackground; generally speaking, on vegetationand the amount of snow on the ground. Thecomplete white suit (fig. 6-26) is worn whenterrain is covered with snow. Mixed clothing(fig. 6-27 )—white parka and dark trousers,or vice versa—is used against mottled back

15


grounds. The correct use of camouflage cloth-ing is extremely important (para 6-22).

c. Overwhites may become frosty and icyafter use. As with all clothing, the frost andice must be removed to expedite drying. Soiledcamouflage clothing will lose its effectiveness;therefore, care must be exercised when han-dling stoves, digging in ground, and perform-ing similar tasks. Avoid scorching or burningthe garments when drying or when lying downby an open fire. The clothing should be washedor changed frequently. When changing, cloth-ing should be checked to insure that it fitsover the basic garments without restrictingmovement.

2-11. Maintenance of Clothing andEquipment

a. Footgear.(1) Boots. The leather in boots should be

treated with approved agents. Nor-mally, the insulated boot can be re-paired with ordinary tire patching orair mattress patching material. Ifthese items are not readily available,friction tape or even chewing gummay be used temporarily to plug upthe hole and prevent moisture fromdamaging the insulation. If the dam-age cannot be repaired, the bootsshould be removed, airdried, and

SECTION III. EQUIPMENT

2-12. Sleeping Equipmenta. The complete sleeping bag for use in cold

climates consists of three parts: a case, ofwater-repellent material; an inner bag (moun-tain type), of quilted tubular construction,filled with a mixture of down and feathers;and an outer bag (arctic bag), of the samematerial as the inner bag. Insulating air mattress and ainto which the sleeping bagsissued.

b. When temperatures are normally above14° F., only one bag is used. It is placed in and

addition, an in-waterproof bagare packed are

laced to the cover. When temperatures are be-low 14° F., both bags are used. The inner bagis placed inside the outer bag and secured at

16

(2)

turned in for replacement as soon aspossible. The inside of the bootsshould be washed at least once amonth with a mild soap, and rinsedwith warm water.

Caution: Do not clean with abra-sive materials. Also do not applypolish or paint to any part of the bootas it will result in deterioration ofthe rubber.Socks. Socks should be washed daily,using lukewarm water to avoid ex-cessive shrinkage. After washing,they should be wrung out andstretched to natural shape beforedrying. Holes in socks should be re-paired as soon as possible, takingspecial precautions to avoid bunchingor roughness of the mended area. Itshould be noted that proper repairsunder field conditions are almost im-possible and that blisters should beexpected if field mended socks areworn.

b. Handgear. Holes should be mendedpromptly. Gloves or mittens should not bedried too near an open fire.

c. Headgear. Headgear should be washed asrequired to remove perspiration, dirt, and hairoils. When drying, normal care must be exer-cised to avoid scorching or burning.

the foot with the loops and tie straps providedand the cover laced over the outer bag.

c. When the bag is used, it is first fluffed upso that the down and feather insulation isevenly distributed in channels, thus preventingmatting. Since cold penetrates from below,and the insulation inherent in the bag is com-pressed by the weight of the body, additionalinsulation is placed under the bag wheneverpossible. Added insulation can be obtained byplacing ponchos, extra clothing, backboards,fiber ammunition or food containers, orboughs between the sleeping bag and theground. The insertion of a waterproof cover,such as a poncho, between the sleeping bagand air mattress will prevent the mattressand bag from freezing together at very cold

AGO 8641A


temperatures. This is caused by condensationon the mattress due to the difference in tem-peratures between the lower side touching theground and the upper side touching the rela-tively warm sleeping bag. Care must be takento prevent puncturing the mattress or damag-ing sleeping bags. In general, the more insula-tion between the sleeping bag and the ground,the warmer the body.

d. If the tactical situation permits, individ-uals should avoid wearing too many clothes inthe sleeping bag. When too many clothes areworn they tend to bunch up, especially at theshoulders, thereby restricting circulation andinducing cold. Too many clothes also increasethe bulk and place tension upon the bag, thusdecreasing the size of the insulating airspacesbetween layers and reducing the efficiency ofthe insulation. In addition, too many clothesmay cause the soldier to perspire and result inexcessive moisture accumulating in the bag, acondition which will likewise reduce the bag’sinsulating qualities.

e. The sleeping bag is equipped with a fulllength slide fastener which has a free run-ning, nonlocking slider. In an emergency, thebag can be opened quickly by grasping bothsides of the opening near the top of the slidefastener and pulling the fastener apart. As asafety precaution, bags should be tested atfrequent intervals to insure that the slide fast-ener operates freely and will function properly.

f. The sleeping bag should be kept cleanand dry. It should be opened wide and venti-lated after use to dry out the moisture thataccumulates from the body. Whenever possi-ble, it should be sunned or aired in the open.The bag always should be laced in its water-repellent case and carried in the waterproofbag to prevent snow from getting on it. Thewarmth of the body could melt the snow dur-ing the night and cause extreme discomfort.Individuals should avoid breathing into thebag. If the face becomes too cold it should becovered with an item of clothing. Sleepingbags should be drycleaned at least twice ayear. As a safety precaution, bags should bethoroughly aired prior to use to prevent possi-ble asphyxiation from entrapped drycleaningsolvent fumes.

AGO 8041A

2-13. Manpack Equipmenta. Rucksack-Nylon, OG 106 (fig. 2-7).

(1) The nylon rucksack consists of thefollowing:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

A lightweight aluminum alloyframe to which all other compo-nents are attached.A lightweight aluminum alloycargo support shelf provided as op-tional equipment for attachment tothe frame when the frame is usedas a packboard.A pouch fabricated from 4-ouncenylon fabric.Nylon left and right shoulderstraps. The left shoulder strap hasa quick-release device designed tofacilitate rapid doffing of the ruck-sack. The right shoulder strap hasa rapid adjustment buckle forlengthening the strap which allowsthe wearer to fire his rifle while inthe prone position. The two strapsare interchangeable to accommo-date left-handed soldiers.A nylon webbing waist belt de-signed to prevent the rucksackfrom swinging to either side orbouncing during body movements.A rifle carrier consisting of a riflebutt pocket, constructed of nylonwebbing, with a double hook anda rifle strap.

(2) The nylon rucksack is the normalpack equipment used for operationsin northern areas and replaces therucksack, with frame (Standard C).It should be noted that this item maybe issued in lieu of the nylon ruck-sack. It should also be noted that theplywood packboard may be issued inlieu of the nylon rucksack. The sol-dier using the rucksack can carry ex-tra clothing and rations in the nylonpouch and can also carry one sleep-ing bag (in waterproof bag). Whenthe nylon pouch is removed and cargosupport shelf attached, the rucksackmay be used as a packboard for car-rying loads weighing approximately50 pounds (TC 10-8).

17


5A5tt t—s? WCY%C\ 3!3\S045 OC 1O%

4 5JJOflJq6L R;LBba9 JLBW6S C° apabaj job poL1SO1J4øJ UL

8 HIU6 a;Løb pflc]CJ62;J.b

e cotsJPUc lrncjc2 }flU6 a;Lub LBCJCG4

13 HIU6 e;tvb joob Gnq11 BY ap.uba10 mu a;Lvb8 K!U6 psi;; boGJc6;

18 AGO 8641A


—%• 1bo4e rut*.t.

b. Suspenders and Belt, Individual Equip-ment. The suspenders and belt of the M-56standard load-carrying equipment is worn be-neath the nylon rucksack to carry ammunitionpouches, first aid or compass case, and theentrenching tool. The suspenders and beltshould be adjusted to fit loosely over the coldweather clothing, to allow for proper ventila-tion. The suspender belt combination is de-signed so that the belt can be worn unbuckledwhile on the march, if additional ventilationis required.

2-14. Miscellaneous Equipmenta. Sunglasses, Sunglasses always should be

worn on bright days when the ground is cov-ered with snow. They are designed to protectthe eyes against sunglare and blowing snow.If not used, snow blindness may result. Theyshould be used when the sun is shiningthrough fog or clouds, A bright, cloudy day isdeceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyesas a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglassesshould be worn to shade the eyes from therays of the sun that are reflected by the snow.Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in thata deep burn may be received before discomfortis felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglassesmust be used from the start of exposure.Waiting for the appearance of discomfort istoo late. The risk of snow blindness is in-creased at high mountain altitudes because theclear air allows more of the burning rays ofsunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. Whennot being used, they should be carried in the

AGO 8641A

protective case to avoid scratching or breakingthe lens. If sunglasses are lost or broken, asubstitute can be improvised by cutting thin,3 cm (l”) long slits through a scrap of woodor cardboard approximately 15 cm (6”) longand 3 cm ( 1“ ) wide. The improvised sun-glasses (fig. 2-8 ) can be held on the face withstrips of cloth if a cord is not available.

b. Canteens.(1)

(2)

Canteen, water; cold climatic (fig.2-9), This canteen is a vacuum-in-sulated canteen of one quart capacitywith an unpainted dull finish steelexterior. The inner and outer stain-less steel vessels are welded togetherat the top of the neck. A nonmetallicmouthpiece at the neck prevents lipsfrom freezing to the metal neck. Aplastic cap seals and protects themouthpiece. A nesting type metal cupwith a capacity of one pint is pro-vided for eating and drinking bever-ages. The canteen with cup is carriedin a canvas cover which fastens tofield equipment in a manner similarto the conventional canteens. Caremust be taken to insure that themouthpiece or cap are not lost. Asharp blow to the canteen may resultin denting or rupture with conse-quent loss of insulating capabilities.Conventional metal and plastic can-teens. Conventional canteens are car-ried in a fabric carrier; however,this will not keep the liquid in thecanteen from freezing in extremecold. When possible, the canteenshould be carried in one of the pock-ets or wrapped in any woolen gar-ment and packed in the rucksack. Ifavailable, warm or hot water shouldbe placed in the canteen before start-ing an operation. During extremecold the canteen should never be filledover two-thirds full. This will allowroom for expansion if ice shouldform, and will prevent the canteenfrom rupturing. Insure that the gask-ets are in the cap at all times. This isan important precaution and will pre-vent the liquid from leaking out anddampening the clothing in the ruck-

19


'I __________I

ius.t

sack. Conventional thermos bottleswill keep liquids hot, or at least un-frozen for approximately 24 hours,depending on temperatures. If can-teens or thermos bottles freeze, theyshould be thawed out carefully to pre-vent bursting. The top should beopened and the contents allowed tomelt slowly.

c. Pocket Equipment. There are severalsmall items that should be carried in thepockets so they will be readily available foruse. Having these items when they are neededwill contribute to the well-being of individualsand help prevent injuries. A good sharppocketknife is an essential item. It is useful forcutting branches, in shelter construction, inrepairing ski bindings, and numerous othertasks. Waterproof matches should be carriedand kept in the watertight matchbox and usedonly in an emergency. They should never beused when ordinary matches and lighters willfunction. Sunburn preventive cream will pro-tect the skin from bright, direct sunshine,from sunrays reflected by the snow, and fromstrong winds. The chapstick will prevent lipsfrom chapping or breaking due to cold weatheror strong winds. The chapstick should be pro-tected from freezing. The emergency thonghas numerous uses, such as lashing packs, re-placing broken bootlaces, and repairing skiand snowshoe bindings.

20

d. Emergency Kit. It is recommended thatall personnel carry an emergency kit for usein individual survival. With this kit, an indi-vidual can survive off the land by trappingand fishing and can procure the minimumamountstrength

(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)

(10)

offood necessary to maintain hisfor a short period of time.1 each emergency thong.1 each sharp pocketknife.Single-edge razor blades.Waterproof matches.Safety pins.Fishing line.Fire starters.Salt tablets.High protein candy bars.Bouillon cubes.

2-15. Steel HelmetThe steel helmet may be worn during warm

periods in cold areas in the same manner as inmoderate climates. During cold periods it isnormally worn over the Cap, Insulating Hel-met Liner-Helmet. The helmet may also beworn under the winter hood.

2-16. Protective Maska. The Mask, Protective, Field, M17 is the

Army standard protective mask. Informationon this mask can be found in TM 3-4240-202-15. TM 3-4240-202-15, describes thewinterization measures for the M17 Mask. Inaddition to the wearing of tinted antiglare

AGO 8641A


outserts for the plastic lenses, this kit pro-vides for winterization inlet and nosecupvalves together with an ice prefilter. This al-lows the standard mask to be worn at tem-peratures down to –50° F. with the M6A2hood.

b. The protective mask may be worn inmoderately cold weather in the same manneras in moderate climates. When the mask isused in extreme cold, the rubber facepieceshould be warm enough to make it pliablewhen it is adjusted to the wearer’s face. Onemethod of keeping the mask warm is to carryit inside the outer garments and next to thebody. It is also recommended that the mask bekept inside the sleeping bag during the night.On removing the mask, any moisture on theface should be wiped off immediately to pre-vent frostbite. After drying the face, the face-piece of the mask should be thoroughly driedto prevent freezing of moisture inside themask. The rubber cover of the outlet valveshould also be raised and the valve, surround-ing area, and the inside of the cover wiped dryto prevent the outlet valve from icing.

c. If it becomes necessary to wear the maskfor protection against chemical agents duringextreme cold weather, troops must be advised

that the facepiece of the protective mask willnot protect the face from the cold and that,in fact, the opposite is true. The danger offrostbite increases when the mask is worn.

d. The three automatic atropine injectionsof 2 mg each, carried as accessories duringmoderate temperature conditions, are carriedin a pocket of the protective mask carrier. Incold weather (40° F. and below), the injectorswill be removed from the carrier and placedin the inside of the right-hand pocket of theOG shirt, where body temperature will pre-vent freezing.

2-17. Body ArmorStandard issue body armor may be worn

with either of the cold weather uniforms.When worn with the cold-wet uniform it isworn over the OG shirt and under the coatand liner. When worn with the cold-dry uni-form it is worn over the OG shirt and underthe coat and liner or the parka and liner. Al-though the body armor is worn primarily forprotection against shell and mortar fragments,it may provide additional environmental pro-tection for the user; however, because of theweight, armor should be worn only for itsprimary purpose and not for additionalwarmth.

AGO 8641A 21


CHAPTER 3

SMALL UNIT LIVING

Section 1.

3-1. Characteristics of Operations in ColdWeather

Unlimited space and a sparse, widely scat-tered population are dominant features of mostof the colder regions of the world. Such condi-tions permit unrestricted maneuver for troopsproperly trained and equipped for cold weatheroperations. Warfare under such circumstancesis characterized by, widely dispersed forcesoperating at great distances from other unitsor their parent organization. Units must behighly mobile and have the ability to sustainthemselves while carrying out independent op-erations over extended periods of time.

3-2. Composition of Unitsa. Small units (squad, gun crew, tank crew,

wire team, etc.) form the basic working group

GENERAL

for cold weather operations. Under normal op-erating conditions they will work together,cook and eat together, and share the same tentor other shelter. These small units should beformed at the beginning of training and, ifpossible, kept intact. The standard to beachieved is a unit which can make or breakcamp quickly, efficiently, and silently under allconditions; one in which each man knows thetasks to be completed and does them withouthaving to be told.

b. Small units operating in cold weathermust be thoroughly familiar with the specialequipment required and the techniques in-volved in living away from their parent orga-nization for extended periods of time. Equip-ment, and the techniques of using it, are dis-cussed in this chapter.

Section II. TENTAGE AND OTHER EQUIPMENT

3-3. GeneralA considerable quantity of various types of

special equipment is required to maintain smallunits in cold weather. Permanent shelters areusually scarce in northern areas of operationsand heated shelters are required. Special toolsare necessary for establishing bivouacs, break-ing trails, and constructing temporary winterroads and battle positions.

3-4. Need for Sheltera. In order to conduct successful military op-

erations in cold weather and maintain a highlevel of combat efficiency and morale, heatedshelter must be provided for all troops. An in-dividual’s ability to continue to work, live,move, and fight under extreme climatic condi-

22

tions depends upon adequate shelter. Tents andstoves, therefore, become a vital part of coldweather equipment.

b. In cold weather, tents should be placed asclose as practicable to the scene of activity,whether the activity be combat or administra-tive. By so placing the tents, rotation of menfor warmup is possible and maximum conti-nuity of effort can be maintained.

c. Tents vary in size and shape, dependingon their purpose. Small units such as a riflesquad, artillery section, or similar type unitare normally equipped with one 10-man arctictent. During combat, fewer tents will beneeded, as part of the personnel are always onguard detail, occupying positions, or perform-ing similar missions. It may become necessary

AGO 864lA


bibE ObElliltO

Wl—LEIU bOE\\ /_—.\ Jy/

11

rulE

iEHL f/f ,—2$OM cro.u4

LQac1 uI.c o-,uar

for the unit, temporarily, to use only one-halfor one-fourth of its tentage; i.e., one 10-mantent per platoon, with the men sleeping on arotation basis. Reduced numbers of tents andstoves will decrease the requirement for logis-tical support, such as fuel and transportation.

d. Elements smaller than the rifle squad(tank and SP artillery crews), which requireless shelter space, are normally equipped withthe 5-man tent (FM 31-71).

e. Normally, small reconnaissance patrolsare not equipped with tents, as tents tend tohamper the mobility and speed of the patrol.Strong combat patrols and long-range recon-naissance patrols may be equipped with tentsand stoves if sufficient transportation is avail-able to move the extra weight. When speed isof the essence, patrols will improvise sheltersbuilt from local materials at hand. For semi-permanent base camps, portable type frameshelters may be erected for increased com-fort of the troops.

3-5 Description of Tentagea. General. Tentage issued for use in cold

weather is designed on the same layer prin-ciple as cold weather clothing. It is, however,made of only two layers. The outside layer ismade of strong, tightly woven fabric. It iswater repellent and impervious to rain andsnow. The inner layer is much lighter inweight than the outer layer. The liner is fas-tened by toggles to the tent and provides an

airspace the same as in clothing. It is de-signed to provide insulation against the cold.It also prevents frost from forming on the in-side of the tent. Heat is provided by stoves(normally the M-1950 Yukon stove).

b. Tent, Artic, 10-Man (fig. 3-1). The six-sided, pyramidal tent, supported by a telescopicpole, normally accommodates ten men andtheir individual clothing and equipment. It willaccommodate additional men by leaving in-dividual packs and equipment outside the tentovernight and by lowering the telescopic poleto spread the sidewalls to cover more groundsurface. It may also function as a commandpost, aid station, or as a small storage tent. Thetent has two doors; this permits tents to bejoined together, with access from one to theother, when additional space is required. Asnow cloth is attached to the bottom of thesidewalls for sealing the tent to the ground.This is accomplished by piling and packingsnow on the snow cloth. If the tent is used interrain where there is no snow, sod or othermaterials may be used to seal the bottom ofthe tent. Flexible plastic screen doors are pro-vided and may be attached front and rear ofthe tent for protection against insects. The tentis ventilated by four built-in ventilators onopposite sides and near the peak of the tent.Four lines are provided for drying clothingand equipment. Total weight, to include thepins and tent pole, is 76 pounds. The tent isheated by an M1950 Yukon stove.

AGO 8641A 23


/:,

3$t

bst %—%•

c. Tent, Hexagonal, Lightweight (fig. 3-2).This tent is also six-sided, pyramidal, and sup-ported by a telescopic tent pole. It is designedto accommodate four to five men and their in-dividual clothing and equipment. Under emer-gency conditions one tent may provide shelterfor a rifle squad or other similar unit whenrucksacks are placed outside the tent. The tenthas one door; ventilation is provided by twobuilt-in ventilators located on opposite sidesand near the peak of the tent. Three lines areprovided for drying clothing and equipment.Total weight of the tent, including the pinsand center poles, is 48 pounds. The tent isheated by an M1950 Yukon stove.

d. Tent, Frame-Type, Sectional (James-way). This 16 by 16 frame-type tent (fig.3-3) is a lightweight unit that offers protec-tion for one squad. It has wooden floor units,a frame, a rounded roof, and comfortable headclearances along the centerline of the shel-ter. The roof and ends of the tent are fabri-cated from insulated, coated, fabric blankets.The structure is fastened to the ground withtent pins or snow with improvised devices. Anoptional vestibule may be erected at one orboth ends. Additional floor sections may beadded to each other lengthwise for creatinglarger buildings. Extra end sections may beinstalled along any rib as interior partitions.It weighs approximately 2,250 pounds and is

24

heated by one tent stove M1941. The heavierweight of this tent restricts its normal use topermanent or semipermanent base camps. Itcould bestabilized

used for forward elementsconditions.

under

e. Tent, General purpose, Small (fig. 3-4).This tent is a six-sided pyramidal tent fabri-cated of cotton duck cloth. A liner is availableto insulate the tent furing cold weather. Thetent is equipped with slide fastener doors,screened doors, screened ventilators, and stove-pipe opening. It has a front and rear entrance,each with a lacing flap arrangement to permitattachment of the vestibule or erection of tentsin tandem. The tent is supported by eight ad-

AGO 8641A


1!st %-1 St.bO& wt

justable aluminum poles around the eave lineand a standard telescopic magnesium pole atthe peak. The tent is used for command posts,fire direction centers, battalion aid stations, orfor any general purpose use. Although similarin appearance to the Tent, Arctic, 10-man,the tent has an eave height of 152.40 cm (60”)compared to 91.44 cm (36”) for the 10-mantent. The complete tent, with liner, pins andpoles weighs 186 pounds.

3-6. Pitching and Striking Cold WeatherTents

a. With proper training, small troop unitswill be able to pitch tents in 15 to 30 minutes.Additional time will be required to completethe camouflage of the tent. Pitching and strik-ing of the tents are performed in a routinedrill manner in accordance with instructionscontained in FM 20-15.

b. The following must be considered whenpitching or striking the tents in snow or onfrozen ground:

(1) Whenever possible snow should becleared to the ground surface to ob-

AGO 8641A

tain a lower silhouette and gain ad-vantage of ground temperatureswhich are generally warmer than airtemperatures. Coniferous boughs orsimilar material should then beplaced on the ground for insulationand comfort. When it is impracticalto remove snow to ground level, anadequate tent site may be made bypacking the snow with skis or snow-shoes until a firm base is providedfor pitching. In this case, the tentpole is placed on a log or other suit-able support to keep the pole fromsinking into the snow. Support is alsoneeded for the stove under similarconditions.In open terrain, with a strong wind,it may become necessary to build asnow wall on the windward side ofthe tent to protect it from the wind.The snow wall also makes it easierto heat the tent and less likely thatthe tent will blow down. The tent ispitched with the entrance 45° down-

25

(2)


114E

MO

\\ bVCk(D.c\\\\ \\"\\\\\\\\/

'I AP

Ip j6uc J!IJe pni4Gq ciiiq6L aoifl6qUJUU pI1LGq IJ bvcJc6q IJOM

ro.e ICt Ml( 'Is QIvIEj(bCt i4OfQ

r \\.\ II \Ct MISC

$IK %— \OtS XtO8 O t$ttO.$3t Q3S$q D613" bJucGq IJ }JGJC CGr I-V'MTTtfR c,IHtTnt riiinrtRn TCG

aio '' a,o Mvrr—bEAYIMG MIlID DIbEC.UOM

1.," 1Ii.i11t1Jt'11

EU$V1E . DOMMMIIID

t %—• ' ' cw çpu

(3)

(4)

26

wind (fig. 3-5). Variable winds mayrequire construction of a windbreakat the entrance. High winds in cer-tain cold areas necessitate anchoringthe tent securely. When the tent isset up, the snow cloth should be flaton the ground outside the tent.Stones, logs, or other heavy objectsshould be placed on the snow cloth inaddition to the snow to assist inanchoring the tent. If this is not done,the tent will be drafty and very diffi-cult to keep warm.Tents may be pitched rapidly andanchored securely by attaching thetent lines to trees, branches, logs orstumps whenever possible. If thesenatural anchors are not available,suitable holes are dug into the snowfor the purpose of using “deadmen.”This is accomplished by digging ahole into the snow large enough toinsert a pole or log approximately onemeter (3') long with the tent line at-tached. The hole is then filled withsnow, well packed, and in a short pe-riod of time the packed snow freezesand the tent will be securely anchored(a, fig. 3-6). Driving metal pins intofrozen or rocky ground should beavoided when excessive force is re-quired. On rocky ground, tent linesmay be tied around heavy rocks andthen weighted down with other stones(b, fig. 3-6).Tents are also occasionally pitched onice. When the thickness of the ice isnot excessive, a small hole is chopped

through the ice. A short stick or polewith a piece of rope or wire tied inthe middle of it is pushed through andthen turned across the hole under-neath the ice (c, fig. 3-6). If the iceis very thick a hole 30 to 60 cm (1' to2') deep is cut in it, the “deadman”inserted and the hole filled with slushor water (d, fig, 3-6). When the slushor water is frozen, an excellent an-chor point is provided. When the“deadman” is placed underneath orinto the ice, a piece of rope or wireshould be fastened to the rope or wireafter the “deadman” is secure. Thismay prevent the tent line from beingaccidentally cut or damaged when be-ing removed from the ice.

AGO 864lA


%—• \o

roM o DbVL

• ErOe2

2LOA h

(5) When striking the tent in winter itnormally will be covered with snowand ice which must be removed orthe tent may double in weight. Snowand ice can be removed easily byshaking the tent or by beating it witha mitten or a stick. If the snow clothis frozen to the ground, the snow andice around it must be carefully re-moved by chopping or shoveling inorder to avoid damage to the mate-rial. One method of accomplishingthis is to ease the shovel between thecloth and the ground and gently prythe cloth away from the ice.

c. The vestibule attached to the basicframe-type tent (Jamesway) helps reduce heatloss when the door is frequently used. Themain door of the tent opens inward, and thuscannot be blocked by drifting snow if the oc-cupants are equipped with a shovel or impro-vised digging equipment. However, the vesti-bule door opens outward and can be blocked bydrifting snow during a violent storm. A safepractice is to install the vestibule only at oneend facing the prevailing wind and to use novestibule on the more leeward end wheredrift will probably accumulate. Rapid exit incase of fire or other emergency is then assured.Where severe winds are expected the tentshould be sited crosswise to the anticipatedwind direction since the curved roof toleratesthe wind load better than the flat ends, andbuffeting is reduced. A vestibule should not beused on a tent intended for aid station use,since a standard litter cannot negotiate theright angle turn required in the short vestibule.

3-7. Ventilationa. Tents are pitched to protect-occupants

from the elements and to provide necessarywarmth and comfort. When the bottom of thearctic tent is properly sealed and the doors arezipped shut, moisture will form on the insideof the tent and accumulate on clothing andequipment, thereby causing dampness andhoarfrost. In addition, carbon monoxide, car-bon dioxide, and fumes from the stoves maysoon accumulate to a dangerous degree. Tooffset these factors, the built-in ventilatorsnear the peak of the tent must be kept open.

b. To improve ventilation, a draft channel

AGO 8641A

may be constructed by forming a pipe withgreen logs (fig. 3-7). The channel is buriedin the floor and has an opening under thestove. The draft of the stove draws fresh airfrom outside the tent into the channel.

3-8. Heating Tents with Stove, Yukon,Ml950, 60,000 BTU

a. General. The Yukon stove (1, fig. 3-8) isused to heat the 10-man, 5-man, and GP Smalltents. In addition to providing heat, the topsurface of the stove and, to a small degree, thearea beneath the stove, may be used to cookrations or heat water. The Yukon stove utilizesstandard leaded motor fuel as its normal fuel,but may also be operated with white gasoline,kerosene, light fuel oil, naptha, or JP-4 fuel,without modification (2, fig. 3-8). During lowtemperatures the stove will burn five gallonsof gasoline every 8 to 12 hours. When solidfuels (wood, coal, etc.) are used, the stove mustbe modified by removing the oil burner fromthe top of the stove, closing the opening wherethe burner was installed, and turning over thewire grate so that there is space below thegrate for draft and ashes. A piece of plywoodslightly larger than the base of the stoveshould be carried as part of the tent groupequipment. The plywood is covered with alumi-num foil and is used to provide a firm basefor the stove and to prevent it from meltingdown into the snow.

b. Operating Procedures. The compact, light-ly constructed, 33-pound Yukon stove permitsall accessory parts to be packed within thestove body for convenient portability in a sledor on a packboard. A draft diverter is issuedas a component part of the stove. It shields thetop of the stovepipe from the wind and pre-

27


i B0

s srrCsS CV

c1 JMSI

'k_$fl. %—% O4 JStyOM %Si

S Ia;uJiv;ou ae;nb

vents a backdraft from forcing smoke or gasesinto the stove and tent. Three, 4.5 meter (15')guylines tied to the draft diverter serve toanchor the stovepipe in strong winds. Theseguylines must be anchored to the tent or tentropes, not to the ground or nearby trees. Asimple method of erecting a tripod for the fuelcan is to obtain three poles about 2 meters

28

(6') in length; the poles are tied about two-thirds of the way up using wire from rationcases, string, rope, or emergency thong, andthen spread out to form a tripod. The fuel canshould be at least one meter (3') higher thanthe stove. The lowest part of the inverted gaso-line can should be a minimum of 30 cm (1')above the level of the needle valve of the Yukonstove. It should not be higher than 1.50 meters(5') if the valve is to operate smoothly. Ifthe fuel can is wobbly or if there is some windthe can must be tied to the tripod for addi-tional protection. Make certain that the canis tilted so that air is trapped in the upper-most corner. The stove is assembled, operated,and maintained in accordance with TM 10-735.

c. Precautions. The following precautionsmust be observed when the Yukon stove isused:

(1) Burning liquid fuels.(a).

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(9)

All stovepipe connections must betight and necessary tent shields ad-justed properly.Stove must be level to insure thatthe burner assembly will spread aneven flame within the stove.The fuel hose must be protected soit cannot be pulled loose accident-ally. If necessary, a small trenchmay be dug and the hose imbeddedwhere it crosses the tent floor.The fuel line must not be allowedto touch the hot stove.When adjusting the fuel flow, thedrip valve lever must be turnedcarefully to prevent damage to thethreads.Rate of fuel flow must be checkedat regular intervals. The rate offlow will change as fuel supply leveldrops and will require some ad-justment. The stove should neverbe left unattended. Maintaining ahotter fire than necessary maycause the stove body to becomeoverheated and warp.If the flame is accidentally extin-guished, or if the fuel can is beingchanged, the drip valve must beclosed. When the stove has cooled,any excess fuel inside the stove

AGO 8641A


(h)

must be wiped up and 2 or 3 min-utes allowed for gas fumes to es-cape before relighting the burner.The burner must be cool before re-lighting stove. If stove lit beforeburner is cool, the fuel will vaporizeprior to ignition, causing an explo-sion.All fuel supplies must be kept out-side the tent. Spare cans of gaso-line or other fuel should never bestored inside the tent. Fuels usedin combat areas in the north arenormally low temperature fuelswhich will flow freely.

(2) Burning solid fuels.(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fuel should be fed a small amountat a time until the bed of coals isburning brightly.Stove should not be allowed tooverheat.Oil or gasoline should not be pouredon the fire.Ashes should not be allowed to ac-cumulate below the grate.Clinkers should be removed to pre-vent grate from becoming blocked.

3-9. Heating of Semipermanent Tents WithTent Stove, Ml941

Stoves of this type normally are used to pro-vide heat for the semipermanent, frame-type,sectional tent. The stove may be operated withwood or coal or with various types of oil andgasoline. This stove has the same general char-acteristics and safety features outlined for theYukon stove in paragraph 3–8.

3-10. Fuel EconomyThe minimum daily fuel consumption per

Yukon stove approximates five gallons of gaso-line per 8 to 12 hours of operation. The M1941

Tent Stove will burn five gallons in 3 to 4hours. Prior planning must be accomplished toreduce the number of stoves required, espe-cially for operations that are some distancefrom a road net. Wood should be used as fuelwhenever possible. Cooking and heating arecombined and, when extra heat is required todry clothes, all individuals should dry clothesat the same time, when possible.

3-11. Lighting TentsCandles will provide light in forward areas.

In rear areas, gasoline lanterns or lightingequipment sets may be used.

3-12. Toolsa. Handtools are needed by small units for

several purposes such as erection and strikingthe tent, building ski and weapon racks, build-ing field latrines, chopping firewood, etc. Toolsare also needed for trailbreaking, preparationof positions, and similar tasks. Because en-trenching tools are lightly constructed, theyare of little value for work in heavy timber orfrozen ground. The following tools are neededby squad sized units to accomplish routinetasks in cold regions, regardless of the seasonof the year:

(1) One axe, chopping.(2) One saw (Buck or Swede).(3) Two machetes with sheaths.(4) One shovel, general purpose.

b. Tools must be kept sharp, clean, oiled andin good condition. Care must be taken to pre-clude small tools and items of equipment frombeing left in the snow or thrown aside wherethey may become buried and lost in the snow.Particular care must be exercised while wear-ing gloves because ice or frost may form on thegloves and cause the tools to slip from the usershands, resulting in injury to nearby person-nel and/or loss of equipment.

Section III. IMPROVISED SHELTERS

3-13. Requirement for Improvised Shelters open for long periods unless they are moving.The requirement for improvised shelters maya. There are many occasions when tents or arise for several reasons, e.g., vehicles carry-

other regular shelters are not available. In ing tents may be unable to reach the troops duesummer, if the weather is mild, individuals to difficult terrain or enemy action. In case ofmay need protection only from insects. In emergency, each individual must know how towinter, however, individuals cannot stay in the protect himself from the effects of the weather.

AGO 8641A 29


'-HOOD IVD tV.LJILDIEk -

r OME— WH 3HEr.LEB S .LMO - VVK 2HEr.LEb

• UI. nirgnr tiøtciQ

b. If suitable natural shelters such as cavesor rock shelves are available, they should beused. If natural shelters are not available, atemporary improvised shelter must be estab-lished.

c. The type of improvised shelter to be builtdepends on the equipment and materials avail-able By the proper use of materials available,some sort of shelter can be built during anyseason of the year. In open terrain a sheltercan be built using ponchos, canvas, snowblocks,or other materials. Snow caves, snow trenches,or snow holes may be constructed in the win-ter if the snow is both deep and well-com-pacted. In the woods, a lean-to is normallypreferable to other types of shelter. In north-ern areas, nature provides the individual withthe means to prepare a shelter. His comfort,however, greatly depends on his initiative andskill at improvising.

d. A shelter should always provide adequateprotection from the elements, retain heat, havesuitable ventilation, and provide drying facil-ities.

3-14. Poncho SheltersA poncho is a part of an individual’s uni-

form. It is a multipurpose piece of equipmentthat may be used as a rain garment, a water-proof bedcover, a ground sheet, or a shelter.The simplest type of shelter can be made bymerely pulling the poncho over the sleepingbag. For additional comfort, various types of

shelters and lean-tos may be made by attach-ing ponchos to trees, tree branches or poles.

a. One-Man Shelter. A one-man shelter(fig. 3-9) may be made from one poncho. Theponcho is spread, hood side up, on the ground,and the hood opening is tightly closed by ad-justing and typing the hood drawstrings. Theponcho is raised at the middle of its short di-mension to form a ridge, and then staked outat the corners and sides. Side stakes shouldnot be driven through the grommets at thecorners or sides, because this may tear theponcho. A short piece of rope is tied to thegrommets and, in turn, to the stakes. Snow,sod, or boughs are used to seal two sides andone end of the shelter to provide additionalprotection from the wind and to retain heatinside the shelter.

b. Two-Man Shelter. To construct a two-manshelter (fig. 3-9), ponchos are spread on theground, hood side up, with the long sides to-gether so that the snap fastener studs of oneponcho may be fastened to the snap fastenersockets of the other poncho. Hood openingsmust be tightly closed by adjusting and tyingthe hood drawstrings. Ponchos are raisedwhere they are joined to form a ridge; ropesare then attached to grommets at the ends ofthe ridge and run over forked sticks. The shel-ter tent is then staked out at the corners andsides, as described in a above. A third ponchomay be snapped into the other ponchos to forma ground cloth.

30 AGO 8641A


0-u. I'—,Iu—u'

011 1.1,

IITI

tII ISSSIS__ II

$t %—O

i—i V EI3S-O

3-15. Lean-Toa. Materials. The lean-to shelter, used in for-

ested areas, is constructed of trees and treelimbs. String or wire helps in the building,but is not necessary. A poncho, a piece of can-vas, tarpaulin, or a parachute, in addition to the baughs, may be used for covering.

(2)

b. Size. The lean-to is made to accommodatea variable number of individuals. It may bebuilt for one man only, teams, gun crews, pa-trols, or similar small groups. From a practicalpoint of view, a rifle squad is the largest ele-ment to be sheltered in one double lean-to.

c. Types. Depending on the number of indi-viduals to be sheltered, two types of lean-tos,single and double, are used.

d. Construction.(1) Single lean-to (fig. 3-10). To save

time and energy, two trees of appro-priate distance apart, and sturdyenough to support the crosspiece ap-proximately 1.50 meters (5') off theground, are selected when operatingin forested areas. It may be necessaryto cut two forked poles of desiredheight, or construct two A-frames to

using snowblocks instead of a heavylog. Stringers approximately 3 meters(10') long and 5 to 8 centimeters(2" to 3") in diameter are thenplaced, approximately 46 cm (18")apart, from the crosspiece over thetop of the log in the rear of the shel-ter. Material such as cardboard, can-vas or ponchos may be placed over theframework to preclude falling ormelting snow, warmed by the fire,from dropping through. One or bothsides of the lean-to and the roof arethen thatched.Double lean-to (fig. 3-11). Two sin-gle lean-tos are built facing eachother and approximately 1.50 to 2meters (5' to 6') apart. The space be-tween single lean-tos must be suffi-cient to permit the occupants to movefreely around the log fire placed alongthe centerline of this space and to al-low the smoke to get out through theopening instead of gathering underthe roofing. If desired, one end of themiddle space may be covered by awall made of boughs or other mate-rials for additional protection fromthe draft and wind.

hold the crosspieces, or use a combi-nation of these supports when bivou-acking in sparse wooded or semi-openareas. A large log is then placed to the rear of the lean-to for addedheight. Other methods that may beused are packing the snow down or

e. Heating. In heating a lean-to, any kind ofoven fire may be used. The best type for largesize lean-tos, however, is the log fire, so theheat will be evenly distributed over the entirelength of the lean-to, see paragraph 3-21 d. Inemploying open fires for heating, precautionsmust be taken to prevent the fire from burning

AGO 8641A 31

154-616 0 - 94 - 2


— *IO DI1IOI —

/ / -I

'—W çrq 8OS( Stctfl•

biOM ekSYIICHE3

dttu. %1

I JJOM JJOJ6 bL;iJJ co1m;Lffq6q

" %-ir 'aro Irot,.5 UOM JJOJG coubjcçq

too hot and burning down the shelter or setting 3-18. Snow Wallthe roof on the with sparks. In open terrain with snow and ice, a snow

3-16. Tree Shelterwall (fig. 3-13) may be constructed for protec-tion from strong winds. Blocks of compact

a. Tree-Pit Shelter. In wooded areas, thedeep snow and tree-pit shelter (fig. 3-12) fur-nishes temporary protection. To construct atree-pit shelter a large tree is selected withthick lower branches and surrounded with deepsnow. The snow is shaken from the lowerbranches and the natural pit is enlargedaround the trunk of the tree. The walls andfloor are then lined with branches and the roofthickened. Canvas or other material on handmay be used for the roof.

b. Fallen Tree Shelter. An emergency shel-ter for one man can be constructed by cuttingdown a coniferous tree at a point about onemeter (3') from the ground. The underside istrimmed and the cut material placed on theground to provide insulation. This shelter willprovide some protection from the elements fora man in his sleeping bag. Another way tobuild this shelter is to tie a pole to a tree anddrape a poncho or similar material over thepole.

3-17. WigwamA conventional wigwam or tepee can be

built in wooded areas by typing a number ofpoles near the top and spreading them at thebottom to form a large circle. This frameworkis then covered with available tree boughs,canvas, cardboard, or other suitable material.

snow or ice are used to form a windbreak.

3-19. Snow HoleA snow hole (fig. 3-14) provides shelter

quickly. It is constructed by burrowing into a

32 AGO 8641A


HVE1bOrE ill

I

E—4 iwuur1 $$t %—• fO:i \o. tw

BOOP'1 1 AVD2 LMO I'4E11I IJ AAI I Li #11.. Li

—.1

(\ e

snowdrift or by digging a trench in the snowand making a roof of ponchos and ice or snow-blocks supported by skis, ski poles or snow-shoes. A sled provides excellent insulation forthe sleeping bag. Boughs, if available, can beused for covering the roof and for the bed.

is available. Normally, a suitable site is locatedon the lee side of a steep ridge or riverbankwher drifted snow accumulates in unusual

3-20. Snow Cavea. Location. A snow cave (figs. 3-15 and

3-16) can be used as an improvised shelter inthe open areas where deep and compacted snow

depths.b. Basic Construction Principles. Basic prin-

ciples for construction of all snow caves areas follows:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

The tunnel entrance must give accessto the lowest level of the chamber,which is the bottom of the pit wherecooking is done and equipment isstored.The snow cave must be high enoughto provide comfortable sitting space.The sleeping areas must be on ahigher level than the highest point ofthe tunnel entrance so that the risingwarm air will permit the men to sleepmore comfortably.The roof must be arched both forstrength and so that drops of waterforming on the inside will not fall onthe floor, but will follow along thecurved sides, glazing over the wallswhen frozen.The roof must be at least 30 cm (1')thick.

c. Size. The size of the snow cave dependsupon the number of men expected to occupy it.A large cave is usually warmer and morepractical to construct and maintain than sev-eral small caves. In good snow conditions a 16-to 20-man cave is the most practical.

d. Shape. The shape of the snow cave can bevaried to suit conditions. When the main caveis built, short side tunnels are dug to makeone- or two-man sleeping rooms, storage space,latrine and kitchen space.

e. Construction. The following steps shouldbe observed in construction:

(1) A deep snowdrift at least 243 cm(8') deep is located. Newly fallen,powdery or loose snow should beavoided.

(2) The depth of a snowdrift may betested with a sharpened sapling ap-proximately 365 cm (12') in length,or in the absence of trees the shorterski pole or avalanche probe (Theavailability of an avalanche probe isP L A N

Figure 3-16. Snow cave for sixteen men.discussed in FM 31-72.)

AGO 8641A 33


(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The entrance is chosen carefully sothe wind will not blow into the caveor the entrance become blocked bydrifting snow.A small tunnel is burrowed directlyinto the side of the drift for onemeter (3'). A chamber is excavatedfrom this tunnel.Excavation is done to the right andleft so that the length of the chamberis at right angles to the tunnel en-trance.Due to the fact that the individualsdigging will become wet, they shouldwear the minimum amount of cloth-ing possible to insure that they havea change of dry clothing upon com-pletion of the task.

f. Heating and Safety Measures. The cavecan be heated with the one-burner gasolinestove or with candles. The fires should be ex-tinguished when individuals are sleeping, thusreducing the danger of fire and asphyxiation.If the weather is severe and it becomes neces-sary to keep a fire going while the individualsare asleep, an alert fire guard must be postedin each cave. The ventilation holes must beinspected every 2 or 3 hours to insure that theyhave not become clogged by snow or by icing.

g. Insulation. To insure that the cave iswarm, the entrance should be blocked with arucksack, piece of canvas, or snowblock whennot in use. All available material, such asponchos, cardboard, brush, boughs, etc., shouldbe used for ground insulation.

h. Other Precautions. Walking on the roofmay cause it to collapse. At least two ventila-tors, one in the door and one in the roof, areused. A ski pole can be stuck through the roofventilator to clear it from the inside. Extracare must be exercised to keep air in the cavefresh when heating or cooking. The entranceshould be marked by placing a pair of skis orother equipment upright on each side of theentry way.

3-21. Campfiresa. Matches and Fire Starters. A supply of

matches in a waterproof container, heat tab-lets, or fire starters must be carried by allindividuals operating in cold weather. They

34

are a necessity, especially where snow and iceadd to the problems of securing tinder forstarting a fire. In emergencies, matches shouldbe used sparingly and lighted candles used tostart fires whenever possible, or if available, alittle engine oil will help ignite wet or frozenwood without the flash hazard of the morevolatile petroleum fuels. As a safety precau-tion, it should be remembered that fire startersare extremely inflammable and must be keptaway from open flames and heat.

b. Selecting Site. Individuals building a firein the field should carefully select a site wherethe fire is protected from the wind. Standingtimber or brush makes a good windbreak inwooded areas, but in open country some formof protection must be provided. A row of snow-blocks, the shelter of a ridge, or a scooped-outside of a snowdrift will serve as a windbreakon barren terrain.

c. Starting and Maintaining Fire. Beforeusing matches, a supply of tinder must be onhand. The use of heat tablets is recommendedfor the safe starting of fires. In inclosed areas,gasoline or other high inflammable fire starterswill not be used. In the open, and under verystrict control, small quantities of gasoline maybe used to start fires when other means arenot available. Many types of fuel are availablefor fires. The driest wood is found in dead,standing trees. Fallen timber may often bewet and less suitable. In living trees, branchesabove snow level are the driest. Green andfrozen trees are generally not suitable becausethey will not burn freely. Splitting green wil-lows or birches into small pieces provides afairly good method of starting and maintain-ing a fire, if no deadwood is available. Also,dry grass, birchbark, and splits of spruce barkwith pitch tar are excellent fire starters. It isgood practice to secure a sufficient amount offirewood to last throughout the night, beforeretiring.

d. Types of Fire. Any kind of open fire maybe used with most of the improvised shelters.In deep snow, a fire base (fig. 3-17) of greenwood should be built first to protect the camp-fire from sinking into the snow. For a singlelean-to or snow wall, afire reflector (fig. 3-10)may be built of green logs or poles to reflectthe heat into the shelter and to serve as a

AGO 8641A


AaLIcvr

j L6

MUWE ia •IbbOU

____ - fli

%—% 'O 3.6*

s LIJL66i0 111.6• _____

Ill DEEb IlOMDVeE .Ob V CYVbhIE \OIIIIMOOD

bVI1CHEeeOflCHe I1OM

COfl4D

%1 9QIQ O.V $O$

steadily. The most suitable types for singleand double lean-tos are the log fires (fig. 3-18).

(1) Two, preferably three, logs are usedfor this type of campfire. Dry, hard-wood logs, if possible, 20 to 40 cm(approx 1') in diameter and approx-imately the same length as the lean-to

are selected and brought to the firesite. First, two logs are place side byside on small green blocks to supportthem above the snow or ground for abetter draft. Then the third log isplaced in the middle and on the topof the other two logs. For betterburning, the surfaces of logs whichface each other are chipped. Beforelighting the fire, small wedges areplaced between the chipped surfacesof the logs for better draft. Fire isthen started at several places to helpit spread the entire length of the logs.A log fire of this type will burn allnight with only minimum care.

When only two logs are used, fourvertical stakes must be driven intothe snow to keep one log on top of theother. A disadvantage of this type oflog fire is the fact that the verticalstakes tend to give way when thesnow starts melting around the fire.

(2)

Section IV. FOOD AND WATER

3-22. Principles all the caloric value is to be obtained. Somea. Importance of Balanced Meals. Army ra- items may, at times, not appeal to the indi-

tions are well balanced. The ration for 1 day vidual sense of taste, but they must be eaten.provides all thequires. However,

AGO 8641A

essential foods the body re- The tendency to be lazy about preparing andall the ration must be eaten if eating satisfactory morning and evening meals

35


before and after a hard day on the trail mustbe avoided, since it is exceedingly detrimentalto continued good health. After having beenwithout normal supplies for a period of time,it is essential that men be provided with abalanced meal containing the three basic foodrequirements (fats, protein, and carbohy-drates). When possible and especially whentroops are involved in rigorous activity, it maybe desirable to feed four times daily. A desir-able feeding plan would be the normal heavybreakfast meal, a light midmorning meal, alight afternoon meal, with the supper mealbeing the main meal of the day. The mid-morning and midafternoon meal should con-sist of foods high in carbohydrates and includea hot liquid. Concentrated foods found in somespecial and survival rations are suitable forthis purpose. Hot soup or tea are most desirablefor the liquid. The evening meal should beheavily fortified with protein and eaten justbefore going to sleep. This heavy protein mealwill increase body combustion above basallevel, resulting in what is known as specificdynamic heat. This increase in the output ofheat within the body also aids in keeping theindividual warm while sleeping. If awakenedby cold a small snack eaten inside the sleepingbag may increase heat production enough topermit further comfortable sleep.

b. Importance of Liquids. In cold regions, aselsewhere, the body will not operate efficientlywithout adequate water. Dehydration, with itsaccompanying loss of efficiency, can be pre-vented by taking fluids with all meals, andbetween meals if possible (para 3–34). Hotdrinks are preferable to cold drinks in lowtemperatures since they warm the body inaddition to providing needed liquids. Alcoholicbeverages should not be consumed during coldweather operations since they can actuallyproduce a more rapid heat loss by the body.

c. Use of Mess Gear. Individual mess gearwill be difficult to clean and sterilize, thereforearrangements must be made for return of dirtymess gear to the battalion trains area where itis cleaned under the supervision of the messstewards. Clean mess gear is sent forwardwith subsequent meals. During periods of ex-treme cold, it may be advisable to utilize paperplates and cups instead of mess gear. If utilized,

36

they should be issued with the rations and sentforward to companies with the meal. Whenusing paper plates and cups, commanders mustinsure that they are not haphazardly left inthe unit area. Controlled disposal must bepracticed by burning at squad level or by con-solidating at company level and returningthem to the battalion trains area. This problemis minimized, and cooling of food is minimized,by the use of individual operational rationswhich may be consumed directly from theircontainers.

3-23. Rations

Many types of rations are used for opera-tions in cold weather. The type of ration to beused will be determined by the location, supplysituation, mission, and duration of the oper-ation. Rations are normally prepared in theunit kitchens. Insofar as possible two hot mealsper day should be served. These generally willbe the breakfast and supper meals. In situationswhere this is not practicable, group rations areutilized and prepared by one member of thesmall unit. Under certain conditions an indi-vidual ration may be issued to each man. Whenserving meals without shelter, food may be-come cold or frozen before it can be eaten.Therefore, and whenever possible, sheltersshould be provided for the preparation andserving of food. Certain packaged rations andfood packets are ideal under these circum-stances because they are precooked and somecomponents or all of the ration can be eatenwithout heating. However, one of the com-ponents should be heated when possible.

a. Bulk Supplied Rations. Rations of thistype are desirable whenever possible. They arecharacterized by a need for maximum timeand effort for preparation, high palatability,a large variety in menus and a high caloriccontent. These rations are also heavy andbulky.

(1) “A” Ration. The standard “A” Ra-tion consisting of fresh foods is is-sued whenever possible. The caloriccontent of the ration is increased tocompensate for the added caloric re-

AGO 8641A


(2)

quirements of cold weather opera-tions.

“B” Ration. The standard “B” Rationis the field ration used for mass feed-ing in areas where kitchen facilities,with the exception of refrigeration,are available. The ration consists ofapproximately one hundred nonper-ishable foods. These are canned anddehydrated. Hot meals furnish ap-proximately 3,900 calories per daywith a 15-day cycle of menus. Caloriccontent may be varied to meet re-quirements of varying climatic condi-tions or degree of physical activity.

b. Packaged Operational Rations. Rationsfound in this category are characterized by aneed for minimum time and effort for prepa-ration. They have a high caloric content,limited menus and are lightweight. Maximumadvantage is taken of dehydration and concen-tration. They are for the most part served hot,but certain components may be consumed cold.

(1)

(2)

AGO 8641A

Ration, individual, trail, frigid. Thisration is designed for trail use undercold weather conditions. While hotmeals can and are intended to be pre-pared from this ration, all compo-nents, except the dehydrated soupsand beverages may be eaten withoutpreparation. Components of the ra-tion such as, processed cheese, fruit-cake bars and candy are especiallyadaptable to consumption in mobilesituations. The inclusion of severalcondiments enables maximum flexi-bility in component preparation. Theration supplies a minimum of 4,400calories. It is intended for use bymembers of small patrols or trailparties for short periods of time dur-ing which resupply is not feasible.

Meal, combat, individual. This rationis designed for and is issued as thetactical situation dictates. It can beused in individual units as a meal orin multiples of three meals as a com-plete ration. Twelve menus are avail-able. Each meal furnishes approxi-mately one-third of the minimum

(3)

(4)

nutrient intake prescribed by Armyregulations.Food packet, long-range patrol. Thepacket was designed for use by forcesin remote areas where resupply maybe uncertain for as long as 10 days,under tactical situations that requiremen to eat as individuals, but wherenormal supply of water is available.There are eight menus, all flexiblypackaged. Each furnishes over 1,000calories, and consists of a precooked,dehydrated, combination item as themain component, with a confection,a cereal, or fruitcake bar, coffee,cream, sugar, toilet paper andmatches. Five menus also includecocoa beverage powder. The averagevolume is 40 cubic inches and theaverage gross weight is 11 ounces.The principal menu components arepackaged in a flexible combinationpackage attached to a chipboard basewhich gives the package a rigid bot-tom while the food is being reconsti-tuted in the bag. The main componentmay be eaten dry with drinkingwater or reconstituted. If hot water isused the main component will recon-stitute in 2 minutes, if cold water isused, in 5 minutes.Survival rations. Survival rations aredesigned for use in emergency situa-tions. The food is highly concen-trated, lightweight and requires littleor no preparation. Per volume it ishigh in caloric content but containsmuch less than the minimum re-quired nutrient prescribed by Armyregulations. These rations, whenavailable, are especially good to sup-plement the special rations discussedabove.

3-24. Individual or Small Unit MessingFrequently, while on patrol or during com-

bat conditions, individuals will find it neces-sary to prepare their own meals or to combinerations with other individuals within the unit.

a. Equipment.(1) The one-burner M1950 gasoline cook-

37


ing stove is a cooking and heatingunit for a group of from 2 to 5 menoperating in an isolated or forwardarea where the use of heavier equip-ment is not practical. The mountaincookset is combined with the stove tomake the one-burner cooking outfit.

(2) Rations may also be heated on theM1950 Yukon stove. The top and to asmall degree the area underneath thestove is used for this purpose.

(3) Any fuel-burning device will give offcarbon monoxide, which is poisonous.Adequate ventilation must be pro-vided when using fuel-burning equip-ment under shelter.

b. Preparation.(1) First priority is the procurement of

water (para 3-30). If snow or icemust be melted to obtain water, allavailable stoves are utilized for thispurpose. After water is obtained, thestoves are used for food preparation.For convenience in preparation ofmeals and for conservation of fuel andlabor, cooking should be done for aslarge a group as the situation per-mits.

(2) Meals must be prepared efficientlyand as quickly as possible. Areassheltered from the wind should bechosen for stoves or fires. A fewblocks of snow or ice or a hole dugin the snow will serve as a windbreakand provide for more efficient use offires. Heating tablets are not efficientin extremely cold weather accom-panied by high winds. Individualsmay have to prepare and eat one itemat a time, but a hot meal will beworth the effort.

(3) Instructions for preparing the com-ponents of the rations will be foundon, or inside, the package. The possi-bility of combining the various rationcomponents, i.e., mixing meat andvegetables to make stew, should alsobe considered.

(4) Canned foods are cooked and require

little heat to make them edible. Over-cooking will waste fuel. The juices incanned vegetables are tasty, and con-tain vitamins and minerals. Drinkingthem will conserve the water supply.Cans must be punctured or openedbefore heating by open fires or stoves.Failure to do this may result in anexplosion. No puncturing is needed ifthe can is submerged in water duringthe heating process.

(5) Food, including frozen meat, shouldbe thawed before cooking. Partlyfrozen meats may cook on the outsidewhile the center remains raw. Freshmeats must be cooked thoroughly tokill any germs or parasites that maybe present.

(6) Whenever possible, dried fruit shouldbe soaked overnight in cold water,then simmered slowly in the samewater until tender, and sweetened totaste.

(7) Canned rations, either frozen orthawed, can best be heated by immer-sion in boiling water. This water canthen be used for making tea, coffee,or soups and for washing soiled uten-sils or personal hygiene.

c. Storage.(1) In winter the simplest way to pre-

serve certain perishable foods suchas meat products is to allow them tofreeze. Rations should be stacked out-side the shelter and their locationcarefully marked. Only as much foodas can be thawed and consumed be-fore spoiling should be brought intothe shelter.

(2) Frozen food should not be placed nearheat where it may be thawed andlater refrozen. Once thawed, certainfoods may spoil. Meat thawed andrefrozen two or three times is taste-less and watery, and resultant bac-terial growth may be sufficient tocause food poisoning.

d. Eating. Meals should be prepared at regu-lar times and as much time as possible allowed

38 AGO 8641A


for cooking and eating. Men should be allowedto relax after each meal. There will be timeswhen it may not be possible to prepare a meal.Under such circumstances the meal or compo-nents of meals must be distributed to individ-uals before breaking camp. Any frozen food isthawed before issue to individuals. These itemsare wrapped in spare clothing and placed inthe rucksack or in the pack to prevent themfrom refreezing. If time permits, halts shouldbe made for the purpose of heating food anddrink. To the extent possible, preparation ofthe following day’s food should be done duringthe night bivouac in order to shorten the timerequired to break camp in the morning.

e. Suggestions.(1)(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Organize and control cooking.Insure that all food is eaten; save anyusable leftovers for snacks betweenmeals.The squad leader supervises the mealsand makes sure that each man is re-ceiving his portion.Check continuously to see that eachman’s mess equipment is kept clean.Food is prepared for as large a groupas possible.Fuel is conserved by prethawingfood. This may be done by utilizingheat in the engine compartment of avehicle or by placing cans of foodunder and around the tent heatingstove.Canned rations, either frozen orthawed, can best be heated by im-mersion in a pot of hot water on thestove. This water can then-be usedfor washing soiled utensils.Adequate training of all men in thepreparation and cooking of coldweather rations is imperative.One-pot meals, such as stews, savepreparation time and fuel and can bekept warm more easily than severaldifferent food items.

3-25. Small Unit Messinga. One Man Responsible. One man should be

AGO 8641A

responsible for the preparation of each mealand this job should be rotated throughout thesquad. The squad leader is responsible for sup-plying any additional assistance needed by thecook.

b. Ingenuity in Cooking. Ingenuity on thepart of the man assigned to cook for the smallunit will aid immeasurably in the success offield messing in cold weather. Potatoes, onions,or bacon, when available, will increase thepalatability of the food and can satisfactorilybe added to many foods. The habit of makingthe morning coffee the night before, or usingtwo stoves to melt snow or ice for the evening’swater supply, and of thawing out those rationsthat are going to be used the next morning,will save time and greatly simplify food prep-aration at mealtime.

c. Eating Arrangement. When the weatheris moderate, the mess line feeding system maybe used. During cold weather in a bivouac areathe food can be prepared hot and then carriedin insulated containers to each tent for con-sumption in a heated shelter. Food may also betransported in this manner to frontline troopsby using track vehicles or other methods oftransport.

3-26. Natural Food Resourcesa. In some cold regions, animals are abund-

ant at certain seasons of the year. In otherareas, very little game can be found duringany season of the year. A person without foodin these areas must know how to “live off theland” and subsist on what is available. Fishare present in fresh-water lakes and riversduring all seasons of the year, and some saltwater near shore will normally yield fish. Fishwill form the most readily available and larg-est portion of available nourishing foods.

b. Small animals and birds are also presentin most areas at all times of the year. Largeanimals, because of migratory habits or othercharacteristics, are not a reliable source offood in many areas. Game should not be shotunless necessary for survival. Animals to beused for food should be thoroughly bled, in-ternal organs removed, and the carcass chilledas soon as possible. This will prolong thekeeping time of the meat. To expedite the

39


chilling clean snow can be packed in the bodycavity. All meat should be cooked thoroughlyas a safeguard against harmful micro-organ-isms and parasites that might be present inthe carcass. Only healthy animals should beused; in the absence of a person qualified todetermine if the animal is healthy, meat fromthe animals that appear sick should not behandled or eaten. For additional information,see FM 21-76.

3-27. Animals of Cold Regionsa. Caribou and Reindeer.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(1)

(2)

40

These are mainly herd animals foundin the high plateaus and mountainslopes as well as in the grassy tundraareas. Their favorite year-round foodis the lichens or “reindeer moss.”Their summer diet consists of grasses,shrubs, and brush tips. They are verycurious animals and will often ap-proach a hunter merely from curios-ity, thus presenting a good target.Sight of a human may have no effecton them but the slightest hint of hu-man scent will send them galloping.It is possible to attract them nearenough for a shot by waving a clothand moving slowly toward them onall fours. In shooting, the aim shouldbe for the shoulder or neck ratherthan the head.Reindeer have long been domesti-cated in Scandinavia and northernAsia for their meat, milk, hide, andas draft animals.Both caribou and reindeer should beskinned promptly. Animal heat is thelargest factor in meat spoilage. Fastand complete field dressing will elim-inate most of this hazard and airingwill finish the work. The bones andmuscles can hold heat for as long as48 hours, if the surrounding temper-ature is not below freezing. Fatshould be kept with the carcass, notwith the skin. If time does not allowskinning, at least the entrails andgenitals should be cleaned out of theanimal.

(4) A poncho may be used for wrappingthe meat, whether for packing it outor if it is to be left hanging for thesecond trip. Meat should be raised offthe ground as soon as possible becausethis will cool it sooner and keep itaway from predators. Dirt and con-tamination should be washed fromthe meat and the meat then dried, ifpossible. A carcass should never bewashed until it has cooled and isready to be butchered and stored.

b. Mountain Sheep and Goats.These animals are available in manynorthern areas. Although they nor-mally live in the higher elevations,during periods of heavy snow, theymay be more readily available thanother animals.The procedures for skinning andcare of caribou and reindeer are alsoapplicable to sheep and goats.

c. Moose.(1)

(2)

d. Seals.(1)

(2)

The moose is the largest knownspecies of the deer family. They arefound in most areas of the northernhemisphere. Full grown bulls weighfrom 1,000 to 1,200 pounds and maystand two meters (6') high at theshoulder. They require a largeamount of forage and usually may befound in areas where food of thistype is plentiful, such as burn-offs,swamps, and lake areas.The procedures for the skinning andcare of caribou and reindeer meat areapplicable to moose.

Seals are widely distributed and gen-erally common. Their flesh is an ex-cellent food. The liver should beavoided since it may contain toxiclevels of Vitamin A.The seals should be shot as they cometo the surface of the water to breatheor as they are basking on rocks. Theaim should be for the head. Most ofthe seals shot through the head will

AGO 8641A


(3)

(4)

float, while about half of those shotthrough the body will not. Seals willalso be found in the open leads in theicepack or may be found at theirbreathing holes in the ice. However,hunting seals through breathingholes requires extreme patience andthe holes are difficult to locate with-out the use of dogs.In the spring, mother seals and theirpups may sometimes be located undersnow hummocks adjacent to and overbreathing holes, where they havegiven birth to their young. In thespring, also, seals lie on the ice andbask in the sun. They must be care-fully stalked and the hunter must beclose enough at the time he shoots toretrieve the dead seal before it slipsinto a hole in the ice.It takes great skill to stalk a seal. TheEskimo usually tries to imitate noisesmade by the seal, and he may use awhite screen behind which he crawlswhile the seal sleeps, remaining ab-solutely still when the seal raises itshead to look around. Seals normallysleep only for a few seconds at a timeand then look around for their ene-mies for a few seconds before sleep-ing again. Seal meat from which theblubber (fat) has not been entirelyremoved will turn rancid in a shorttime.

e. Walrus. The meat and blubber (fat) ofwalrus are edible, as are the clams which maybe found in their stomachs.

f. Bears. All bears are edible, although theflesh must be thoroughly cooked to guardagainst trichinosis. The liver of the polar bearshould not be eaten because of toxic VitaminA concentration. All bears are dangerous andhard to kill. There should be two or more hunt-ers in the party when hunting; soft-nosed bul-lets should be used. The shoulder shot is best.If the bear stands up, the aim should be atthe base and center of the throat for a shotwhich will sever the vertebrae.

g. Wolves and Foxes. Wolves and foxes areedible. Wolves follow caribou herds. Arctic

AGO 8641A

foxes follow polar bear and eat their leavings.Foxes will hang around a camp or follow atrail party and try to steal food.

h. Rabbits or Hares. Rabbits or hares canbe snared or shot. They should be shot in thehead or very little meat will be left. A whistlewill probably cause a running one to stop longenough for an aimed shot. When cooking hareor rabbit, fat of some sort, should be added asthe meat is very lean. They should not bedressed or cut up with bare hands because ofthe danger of contracting tularemia (rabbitfever) from contact with the raw flesh. Com-pletely cooked flesh is safe to handle and eat.

i. Marmots. Marmots are woodchuck-likeanimals that live above the treeline in themountains. They are excellent food, especiallyin late summer when they are very fat. Thehunter should wait until the marmot movesaway from his den before shooting or he mayfall into his burrow.

j. Porcupines, Beavers, and Muskrats. Theseanimals are found throughout the colder re-gions. Porcupines are excellent food, as areboth beaver and muskrat. All are easily ob-tained. The porcupine, beaver, and muskratwhen found on land, can be easily killed withsticks.

k. Ground Squirrels. Ground squirrelsabound in most cold areas and are easy tocatch. They can be easily dug out of theirburrows. They are especially common alongstreams with sandy banks.

3-28. BirdsAll birds and their eggs found in cold re-

gions are edible. Certain nonmigratory birdsare found in cold regions in wintertime. Sev-eral species of grouse, like the ruffed, sharptail, spruce, and ptarmigan (which turn whitein winter) are common. To obtain the greatestfood value from birds, they should be pluckedrather than skinned.

3-29. FishFish form a large part of the native diet in

cold regions and are almost the entire diet ofwork dogs in these areas. Along the coast, sal-mon, tomcod, flounder, sculpin, sand sharks,

41


herring and other fish are found. Inland watersyield salmon, several varieties of whitefish,blackfish, and suckers. All fish and shellfishare edible, with the exception of the blackmussel. Mussels from Pacific waters should beavoided entirely. Mussellsguished from clams andorange-pink flesh. Shellfishboiling them in water.

3-30. Water

are easily distin-oysters by theircan be cooked by

Water points, operated by Corps of Engineerpersonnel, offer the best source of water supplyfor all troop units in any area and in anyseason. Under normal operating conditions, anEngineer unit with a water point capabilitywill be attached to task forces of brigade sizeor larger. Engineer water point operationsunder cold weather conditions are discussed inFM 31–71. This paragraph, together withparagraphs 3–31 and 3–56 offers possible solu-tions to the problem of water supply that con-fronts individuals and small detachments oper-ating in isolated areas away from normalsupport activities.

a. Water is plentiful in most cold regions inone form or another. Potential sources arestreams, lakes and ponds, glaciers, fresh-waterice, and last year’s sea ice. Freshly frozen seaice is salty, but year-old sea ice has had thesalt leached out. It is well to test freshly frozenice when looking for water. In some areas,where tidal action and currents are small,there is a layer of fresh water lying on top ofthe ice; the lower layers still contain salt. Insome cases, this layer of fresh water may be50 to 100 cm (20" to 40") in depth.

b. If possible, water should be obtained fromrunning streams or lakes rather than by melt-ing ice or snow. Melting ice or snow to obtainwater is a slow process and consumes largequantities of fuel, 17 cubic inches of uncom-pacted snow, when melted, yields only 1 cubicinch of water. In winter a hole may be cutthrough the ice of a stream or lake to getwater; the hole is then covered with snow-blocks or a poncho, board, or a ration boxplaced over it. Loose snow is piled on top toprovide insulation and prevent refreezing. Inextremely cold weather, the waterhole should

42

be broken open at frequent intervals. Water-holes should be marked with a stick or othermarker which will not be covered by driftingsnow. Water is abundant during the summer inlakes, ponds, or rivers. The milky water of aglacial stream is not harmful. It should stand ina container until the coarser sediment settles.

c. In winter or summer, water obtained fromponds, lakes and streams must be purified bychemical treatment, use of iodine tablets or inemergencies by boiling.

d. During chemical, biological, and/or nu-clear warfare, precautions should be takenagainst using contaminated water sources. Ingeneral, cold weather conditions tend to pro-long or conceal contamination hazards, andunexpected contamination may thus be en-countered. When snow or ice is thawed toprovide water supplies, detection tests shouldbe conducted during or after the melting oper-ation, since frozen contamination may not bedetectable. Radiological contamination whichhas been covered with snow or ice may or maynot show up on radiac instruments, dependingupon the thickness of the cover. Boiling ortreating with water purification tablets hasno effect on radioactive contaminants in water.In emergencies, water suspected of radiolog-ical contamination may be filtered through a15 cm (6") column of loose dirt and thenchlorinated or iodinated. Purification of watershowing, or suspected of containing, chemicalcontaminantion should not be attempted.

e. After the water is obtained, the problemof transporting and storing it arises. Units op-erating in the field under cold weather con-ditions may store water in 5-gallon water canswith insulated covers, or other similar typecontainers for use by small detachments or in-dividuals. Immersion-type heaters may be usedto prevent freezing of water supply tanks.Some points to be remembered are-

(1) Transportation of water by wheeledvehicles in barren, sparsely settledareas under snow and ice conditionsis practicable only when there is aroad net established. The best way totransport water in cold regions is bythe use of track-laying vehicles whichare not dependent on roads for ma-

AGO 8641A


(2)

neuverability. If 5-gallon cans areused to carry water, they are filledonly three-quarters full to allow agi-tation of the water and help preventfreezing while in transit. Cans arestored off the floor in heated sheltersas soon as they are delivered. Sled-mounted, 250- to 300-gallon watertanks in which immersion-type heat-ers have been installed have provedsatisfactory.For small units of two to four men,the 5-gallon insulated food containeris satisfactory for water storage.These can be filled at night and willhold enough water for the next day’sneeds for about four men. The insula-tion of these containers is sufficientto keep water from freezing for aslong as 40 hours at an ambient tem-perature of –20° F., if the tempera-ture of the water was at boilingpoint when the container was filled.

3-31. Types of Ice and Snowa. When water is not available from other

sources, it must be obtained by melting snowor ice. To conserve fuel, ice is preferable whenavailable; if snow must be used, the most com-pact snow in the area should be obtained. Snowshould be gathered only from areas that havenot been contaminated by animals, humans,or toxic agents.

b. Ice sources are frozen lakes, rivers, ponds,glaciers, icebergs, or old sea ice. Old sea ice isrounded where broken and is likely to be pittedand to have pools on it. Its underwater part has

a bluish appearance. Fresh sea ice has a milkyappearance and is angular in shape whenbroken. Water obtained by melting snow or icemay be purified by use of water purificationtablets, providing it has not been contaminatedby toxic agents.

c. If chemical, biological, or radiological con-tamination is detected, procedures as outlinedin paragraph 3-30 d will be followed.

3-32. Procedures for Melting Snow and Icea. Burning the bottom of a pot used for

melting snow can be avoided by “priming.”Place a small quantity of water in the pot andadd snow gradually. If water is not available,the pot should be held near the source of heatand a small quantity of snow melted in thebottom before filling it with snow.

b. The snow should be compacted in themelting pot and stirred occasionally to preventburning the bottom of the pot.

c. Pots of snow or ice should be left on thestove when not being used for cooking so asto have water available when needed.

d. Snow or ice to be melted should be placedjust outside the shelter and brought in asneeded.

e. In an emergency, an inflated air mattresscan be used to obtain water. The mattress isplaced in the sun at a slight inclined angle.The mattress, because of its dark color, willbe warmed by the sun. Light, fluffy snowthrown on this warm surface will melt andrun down the creases of the mattress where itmay be caught in a canteen cup or other suit-able container.

Section V. HYGIENE AND FIRST AID

3-33. General 3-34. DehydrationIn cold weather, the care of the body re- a. Definition and Principle. Dehydration

quires special emphasis. If men are allowed to means to lose or be deprived of water or thego without washing, fail to eat properly, do elements of water. A growing plant loses

(uses) water in the growing process. If thisnot get sufficient liquids or salt, efficiency will water is not replaced by either natural meanssuffer. Lowered efficiency increases the possi- (rain) or by watering, the plant will witherbility of casualties, either by cold injury or and eventually dry up. The same principle ap-enemy action. plies to the human body which loses water and,

AGO 8641A 43


an additional element, salt. A certain amountof this loss is taking place constantly throughthe normal body processes of elimination;through the normal daily intake of food andliquids, these losses are replaced.

b. Dangers. When individuals are engagedin any strenuous exercises or activities, an ex-cessive amount of water and salt is lostthrough perspiration. This excessive loss cre-ates what is known as “imbalance of liquids”in the body and it is then that the danger ofdehydration arises, unless this loss of liquidsand salt is replaced immediately and individ-uals are allowed sufficient rest before continu-ing their activities.

c. Training and Discipline. The danger ofdehydration for troops operating under coldweather conditions and over ice and deep snowis a problem that does exist and cannot beoveremphasized. It is equally important, how-ever, to recognize that the problem can be over-come and will present no great obstacle to welltrained, disciplined troops who have beenthoroughly oriented in the causes, the symp-toms, and the effects of dehydration and whohave been properly instructed in preventivemeasures.

d. Differences. It is important, therefore, tobe aware that the danger of dehydration is asprevalent in cold regions as it is in hot, dryareas. The difference is that in hot weatherthe individual is conscious of the fact that thebody is losing liquids and salt because he cansee and feel the perspiration with its salinetaste and “feel” it running down the face,getting in the eyes, and on the lips and tongue,and dripping from the body. In cold weather,it is extremely difficult for an individual whois bundled up in many layers of clothing torealize that this condition does exist. Underthese conditions, perspiration is rapidly ab-sorbed by the heavy clothing or evaporated bythe air and is rarely visible on the skin.

e. Cause, Symptoms, Effects, PreventiveMeasures, and Treatment.

(1) Dehydration results from failure tocorrect the body’s “imbalance of liq-uids” through replacing liquid andsalt which has been lost.

(2) The symptoms of cold weather dehy-

44

dration are similar to those encoun-tered in heat exhaustion. The mouth,tongue, and throat become parchedand dry and swallowing becomesdifficult. General nausea is felt andmay be accompanied by spells offaintness, extreme dizziness and vom-iting. A feeling of general tirednessand weakness sets in and musclecramps may occur, especially in thelegs. It becomes difficult to keep theeyes in focus and fainting or “black-ing out” may occur.

(3) The effect of dehydration on the in-dividual is to incapacitate him for aperiod of from a few hours to severaldays. The effectiveness of the indi-vidual’s unit is likewise reduced bythe loss of his contribution to theaccomplishment of the unit mission.Small patrols and detachments oper-ating beyond range of immediate helpfrom the parent unit must be extra-cautious to avoid dehydration sincethey run the risk of a secondary butmore dangerous effect of dehydration,that of becoming cold weather casual-ties while incapactiated.

(4) Dehydration can be prevented duringcold weather operations by followingthe same general preventive measuresapplicable to hot, dry areas. Salt andsufficient additional liquids are con-sumed to offset excessive body lossesof these elements. The amount willvary according to the individual andthe type of work he is doing, i.e.,light, heavy, very strenuous, etc. Restis equally important as a preventivemeasure. Each individual must real-ize that any work that must be donewhile bundled in several layers ofclothing is extremely exhausting.This is especially true of any move-ment by foot, regardless of how shortthe distance.

(5) In treating a person who has becomedehydrated, the individual should bekept warm but his clothes loosenedsufficiently to allow proper circula-tion; liquids and salt should be fed tohim gradually and, most important

AGO 8641A


of all, he must have plenty of rest.When salt tablets are not available,common table salt may be used. Ap-proximately one-half of a level messspoon of salt mixed in one gallon ofwater makes a palatable solution.The individual should receive promptattention of trained medical person-nel.

3-35. Personal HygieneBecause of the extremes in temperatures and

lack of bathing and sanitary facilities, keep-ing the body clean in cold weather will notbe easy.

a. The entire body should be washed atleast weekly. If bathing facilities are not avail-able, the entire body can be washed with theequivalent of two canteen cups of water, usinghalf for soap and washing, and half for rins-ing. If circumstances prevent use of water, arubdown with a dry cloth will help. Careshould be taken not to abrade the skin. Thefeet, crotch, and armpits should be cleaned-

daily.

b. A temporary steam bath can be built in alarge-size tent. Stones are piled up to form afurnace. The furnace is either heated inside thetent (ventilation flaps wide open) or in theopen with the tent pitched over the furnaceafter the stones are heated. Wood is used forfuel. Seats and water buckets are taken intothe tent after the stones are nearly red-hot andthe fire has died down, so that they do not getsooty. The pouring and washing water is usu-ally heated outside the tent. The water isthrown on the hot stones in small quantities.Thus it does not drop into the ashes and thetemperature does not rise too fast. A nakedperson spends from 15 minutes to 1 hour inthis steam bath. After thoroughly perspiring,the body is washed with tepid water.

c. Beards should be shaved or clipped close.Hair should be combed daily and not allowedto grow too long. A beard or long hair addsvery little in insulation value and soils cloth-ing with the natural hair oils. In winter, abeard or a mustache is a nuisance since itserves as a base for the buildup of ice frommoisture in the breath and will mask the pres-

ence of frostbite. All individuals should shavedaily, when possible. Because shaving with ablade and soap removes the protective face oils,the individuals should shave, if possible severalhours before exposing his face to the elements.This action will reduce the danger of frostbite.Shaving with an electric razor will not removethe protective oils. Under chemical or biolog-ical warfare conditions a beardless face anddaily shaving are especially important, sincean airtight seal of the protective mask is diffi-cult to obtain with even stubble on the face.

d. Socks should be changed and the feetwashed daily. If this is not possible, the bootsand socks should be removed, and the feet mas-saged and dried. By sprinkling the feet liberal-ly with foot powder and then rubbing thepowder off, the feet can be efficiently dry-cleaned.

e. Sleeping bags should be kept clean. Sub-ject to operational requirements, the bestmethod is to wear the minimum clothing inthe sleeping bag. Never wear damp socks orunderwear in the sleeping bag. Dry underwearand socks should be put on before going tosleep and the other set hung up to dry. Perspi-ration will soil a sleeping bag, and cause it tobecome damp, therefore, the bag should beaired as frequently as possible. In the morning,the bag should be opened -wide and air pumpedin and out to remove the moist air within thebag.

f. Teeth should be cleaned daily. If a tooth-brush is not available, a clean piece of gauzeor other cloth wrapped around the finger, orend of a twig chewed into a pulp may be usedin lieu of a toothbrush.

g. Underwear and shirts should be changedat least twice weekly; however, if it is not pos-sible to wash the clothing this often the cloth-ing should be crumpled, shaken out, and airedfor about 2 hours.

3-36. Cold Injurya. Frostbite. Frostbite is the freezing of

some part of the body by exposure to tempera-tures below freezing. It is a constant hazardin operations performed at freezing tempera-tures, especially when the wind is strong. Usu-

AGO 8641A


ally there is an uncomfortable sensation ofcoldness followed by numbness. There may bea tingling, stinging, or aching sensation, evena cramping pain. The skin initially turns red.Later it becomes pale gray or waxy white. Forall practical purposes frostbite may be classi-fied as superficial or deep. Treatment and man-agement are based solely upon this classifica-tion.

(1) It is easier to prevent frostbite, orstop it in its very early stages, thanto thaw and take care of badly frozenflesh. Clothing and equipment mustbe fitted and worn so as to avoid in-terference with circulation. To pre-vent severe frostbite-

(a) Sufficient clothing must be wornfor protection against cold andwind. The face must be protectedin high wind, and when exposed toaircraft prop blast.

(b) Every effort must be made to keepclothing and body as dry as possi-ble. This includes avoidance of per-spiring. For heavy work in thecold, remove outer layers as needed,and replace as soon as work is stop-ped. Socks should be changed asneeded whenever the feet becomemoist, either from perspiration orother sources.

(c) Any interference with the circula-tion of the blood reduces theamount of heat delivered to the ex-tremities. All clothing and equip-ment must be properly fitted andworn to avoid interference withthe circulation. Tight fitting socks,shoes and hand wear are especiallydangerous in very cold climates.

(d) Cold metal should not be touchedwith the bare skin in extreme-lowtemperatures. To do so could meanloss of skin.

(e) Adequate clothing and shelter mustbe provided during periods of in-activity.

(f) The face, fingers, and toes shouldbe exercised from time to time tokeep them warm and to detect, anynumb or hard areas. The ears

should be massaged from time totime with the hands for the samepurpose.

(g) The buddy system should alwaysbe used. Men should pair off andwatch each other closely for signsof frostbite and for mutual aid iffrostbite occurs. Any small frozenspots should be thawed immediate-ly, using bare hands or othersources of body heat.

(2) Some cases of frostbite may be super-ficial, involving the skin. But if freez-ing extends to a depth below the skinit constitutes a much more serioussituation, demanding radically differ-ent treatment to avoid or minimizethe loss of the part (fingers, toes,hands, feet). If a part of the bodybecomes frostbitten it appears yellow-ish or whitish gray. Frequently thereis no pain, so keep watching one an-other’s face and hands for signs. Theface, hands, and feet are the partsmost frequently frostbitten. Theproblem is to distinguish between su-perficial and deep frostbite. This canusually be told with respect to theface. The hands and feet are a dif-ferent matter. A person may be ableto judge by remembering how longthe part has been without sensation.If the time was very short the frost-bite is probably superficial. Other-wise assume the injury to be deepand therefore serious.

(3) For treatment of superficial frostbitein the field—

(a) Cover the cheeks with warm handsuntil pain returns;

(b) Place uncovered superficially frost-bitten fingers under the opposingarmpits, next to the skin.

(c) Place bared, superficially frostbit-ten feet under the clothing againstthe belly of a companion.

(d) Do not rewarm by such measuresas massage, exposure to open fires,cold water soaks, rubbing withsnow.

AGO 8641A


(e) Be prepared for pain when thaw-ing occurs.

(4) In treatment of deep frostbite (freez-ing injury) the following measuresmust be taken: If freezing is believedto be deep, do not attempt to treat itin the field. Get to a hospital or aidstation by the fastest means possible.If transportation is available, avoidwalking. Protect the frozen part fromadditional injury but do not attemptto thaw it out by rubbing, bending,massage. Do not rub with snow; donot place in either cold or warm wa-ter; do not expose to hot air or openfires; do not use ointments or poul-tices. Thawing in the field increasespain and invites infection, greaterdamage, and gangrene. There is lessdanger of walking on feet whilefrozen than after thawing. Thawingmay occur spontaneously, however,during transportation to a medicalfacility. This cannot readily be avoid-ed since the body in general must bekept warm.

b. Trenchfoot. Trenchfoot is the thermal in-jury sustained as a result of exposure to cold,short of freezing, in a damp or wet environ-ment. Arbitrarily, it is said to occur in thetemperature range between 32° F. and 50° F.Partial causes include immobility of the limbs(legs and feet down as in sitting or standing),insufficient clothing, and constriction of partsof the body by boots, socks, and other gar-ments. This type of cold injury is almost iden-tical with gradual frostbite, which might beexpected, since the primary causes are thesame except for differences in the degree ofcold. In the early stages of trenchfoot, feetand toes are pale and feel cold, numb, and stiff.Walking becomes difficult. If preventive actionis not taken at this stage, the feet will swelland become painful. In extreme cases of trench-foot the flesh dies and amputation of the footor of the leg may be necessary. Because theearly stages are not painful, individuals mustbe constantly alert to prevent the developmentof trenchfoot. To prevent this condition—

(1) Feet should be kept dry by wearingwaterproof footgear and by keepingthe floor of shelters dry.

AGO 8641A

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Socks and boots should be cleaned anddried at every opportunity, prefer-ably daily.The feet should be dried as soon aspossible after getting them wet. Theymay be warmed with the hands. Footpowder should be applied and drysocks put on.If it becomes necessary to wear wetboots and socks, the feet should beexercised continually by wrigglingthe toes and bending the ankles.Tight boots should never be worn.In treating trenchfoot, the feetshould be handled very gently. Theyshould not be rubbed or massaged. Ifnecessary, they may be cleansed care-fully with plain white soap and wa-ter, dried, elevated, and allowed toremain exposed. While it is desirableto warm the patient, the feet shouldalways be kept at room temperature.The casualty should be carried andnot permitted to walk on damagedfeet.

c. Immersion Foot. Immersion foot is a formof injury which follows prolonged immersionof the feet in water not sufficiently cold tocause freezing or frostbite. It has been ob-served after exposure in subtropical watersalso. Clinically and pathologically, it is indis-tinguishable from trenchfoot which would beexpected, since its cause is essentially the same,lowering of the temperature of the part of thebody involved. It is usually associated with de-pendency (legs and feet down as in sitting orstanding) and immobility of the lower extrem-ities and with constriction of the limbs byclothing and shoes. Other factors which playmore or less important roles are-body cool-ing, as the result of wind; total immersion;and inadequate clothing (protection), sick-ness, and starvation. The incidence and sever-ity of immersion foot however, is more direct-ly influenced by the other factors listed. Thetreatment is the same as that given for trench-foot.

d. Total immersion. Immersion in nearfreezing water for but a few minutes, or ex-posure to severe dry cold while inadequatelydressed will cause total body cooling, including

47


a marked drop in the inner body (core) tem-peratures. For description and therapy see ap-pendix F.

e. Miscellaneous. The length of time that acasualty may be exposed to the weather with-out danger of cold injury varies directly withthe temperature and wind velocity. The lowerthe temperature and the stronger the wind,the sooner injury will occur. There is a greatvariation in individual reactions to cold. Togive competent care to the injured in extremecold, the medical personnel must have heatedshelter in which to operate. Battle wounds inthe cold are no different from those sustainedin more temperate climates, and should betreated in the same manner. Morale is helpedby the assurance that the sick and woundedcan be rapidly evacuated from the battlefieldto hospitals, and that for the nontransporta-ble cases requiring prompt lifesaving surgery,hospitals with highly skilled surgical person-nel are available adjacent to division clearingstation level.

3-37. ShockShock is brought about by a reduction of

the circulating blood volume within the body.This can be caused by severe injuries, loss ofblood, pain, emotional disturbances, or any ofmany factors. The normal reaction of the bodyto severe cold, reduction of the volume of bloodcirculating to extremities, is very similar tothe reaction of the circulatory system to thecondition of shock. Shock will usually developmore rapidly and progress more deeply in ex-treme cold than in normal temperature.

a. Signs of Shock. The signs of shock areapprehension; sweating; pallor; rapid, faintpulse; cold clammy skin; and thirst. If the pa-tient is not given good first aid treatment im-mediately the condition of shock may progressuntil the patient passes into unconsciousnessand further into death.

b. First Aid for Shock.(1)

(2)

48

The injured person should be madeas comfortable as possible.Pain may be relieved by proper posi-tioning, good bandaging and splint-ing. Aspirin will also help, if it is

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

available and if there is no knownor suspected abdominal injury.The litter should be positioned sothat the patient is comfortable andnot apt to inhale vomitus.The patient should be kept warmwith blankets and sleeping bags.When the patient is conscious heshould be given warm soup, chocolate,coffee, or tea if there is no known orsuspected abdominal injury.The patient should receive medicalattention as soon as possible.

3-38. SunburnAn individual may get sunburned when the

temperature of the air is below freezing. Onsnow, ice, and water, the sun’s rays reflectfrom all angles; in a valley the rays come fromevery direction. Sunlight reflected upwardfrom the bright surfaces attacks man wherethe skin is very sensitive-around the lips,nostrils, and eyelids. The exposure time whichwill result in a burn is reduced in the clear airof high altitudes. Sunburn cream and a chap-stick should be carried in the pocket, and ap-plied to those parts of the face that are ex-posed to direct or reflected light. In mildweather protection of the neck and ears canbe improvised by draping a handkerchief overthe back of the head which is held in place bythe cap in the manner of a desert neckcloth.Soap or shaving lotions with a high alcoholiccontent should not be used because they re-move natural oils that protect the skin fromthe sun. If blistered, report to an aid station assoon as possible, as the blistered area, espe-cially lips, may become badly infected.

3-39. Snow BlindnessSnow blindness occurs when the sun is shin-

ing brightly on an expanse of snow, and is dueto the reflection of ultraviolet rays. It is par-ticularly likely to occur after a fall of newsnow, even when the rays of the sun are par-tially obscured by alight mist or fog. The riskis also increased at high altitudes. In mostcases, snow blindness is due to negligence orfailure on the part of the soldier to use hissunglasses. Waiting for discomfort to develop

AGO 8641A


before putting on glasses is folly. A deep burnof the eyes may already have occurred by thetime any pain is felt. Putting on the glassesthen is essential to prevent further injury butthe damage has already been done. Symptomsof snow blindness area sensation of grit in theeyes with pain in and over the eyes made worseby eyeball movement, watering, redness, head-ache, and increased pain on exposure to light.First aid measures consist of blindfolding,which stops the painful eye movement, or cov-ering the eyes with a damp cloth, which ac-complishes the same thing. Rest is desirable.If further exposure to light is unavoidable theeyes should be protected with dark bandagesor the darkest available glasses. The conditionheals in a few days without permanent damageonce unprotected exposure to sunlight isstopped.

3-40. Constipationa. When operating under cold weather con-

ditions there is a general tendency for individ-uals to allow themselves to become constipated.This condition is brought about by the desireto avoid the inconvenience and discomfort ofrelieving themselves under adverse conditions.This condition is also caused by changes ineating habits and failure to drink a sufficientamount of liquids.

b. Constipation can usually be prevented byadjusting the normal eating and drinking hab-its to fit the activities in which engaged, andby not “putting off” the normal, natural, proc-esses of relieving the body of waste matter.Medical personnel should be consulted if con-stipation persists. Each individual must be ed-ucated concerning the consequences of neglect-ing personal hygiene habits.

3-41. Carbon Monoxide Poisoninga. Whenever a stove, fire, gasoline heater, or

internal combustion engine is used indoorsthere is danger of carbon monoxide poisoning.A steady supply of fresh air in living andworking quarters is vital. Carbon monoxide isa deadly gas, even in low concentration, andis particularly dangerous because it is odorless.

b. Units should appoint a qualified carbonmonoxide safety officer. AR 386-55 and TB

AGO 8641A

Med 269 should be used as references by thesesafety officers.

c. Generally there are no symptoms. Withmild poisoning, however, these signs may bepresent-headache, dizziness, yawning, weari-ness, nausea, and ringing in the ears. Later on,the heart begins to flutter or throb. But the gasmay hit without any warning whatsoever. Asoldier may not know anything is wrong untilhis knees buckle. When this happens, he maynot be able to walk or crawl. Unconsciousnessfollows; then death. Men may be fatally poi-soned as they sleep.

d. In a case of carbon monoxide poisoning,the victim must be moved into the fresh air atonce, but must be kept warm. In the winter,fresh air means merely circulating air that isfree from gases. Exposure to outdoor coldmight cause collapse. If the only fresh air isoutdoors, the patient should be put into a sleep-ing bag for warmth. A carbon monoxide victimshould never be exercised, because this willfurther increase his requirements for oxygen.If a gassed person stops breathing or breathesonly in gasps, mouth-to-mouth resuscitationshould be started immediately. In the lattercase, the operator’s movements must be care-fully synchronized with the victim’s gasps.Breathing pure oxygen removes carbon monox-ide from the blood faster than does breathingair and greatly hastens recovery. Carbon mon-oxide is serious and a victim who survives itmust be kept absolutely quiet and warm for atleast a day. Hot water bottles and hot pads arehelpful in maintaining body temperatures.

3-42. Care of CasualtiesIf any member of a group is injured, the

most important course of action is to get himto competent medical aid as soon as possible.The casualty should be given first aid treat-ment, protected from the cold and shock ef -fects, and evacuated to an aid station with aminimum of delay. He should be placed in acasualty bag, sleeping bag, or the best avail-able substitute. He should have warm drinkingwater or other hot drinks, except in the caseof abdominal injury.

Warning: Once a tourniquet has been ap-plied, the wounded man should be examined bya medical officer as soon as possible.

49


ZflQ O mostqq o

If possible, the tourniquet should not beloosened by anyone except a medical officerwho is prepared to stop the hemorrhage orbleeding by other means and to administerother treatment as necessary. Repeated loosen-ing of the tourniquet by inexperienced person-ne is extremely dangerous, can result in con-siderable loss of blood, and endanger the lifeof the patient. Halting of circulation to theextremities is an invitation to frostbite. Ifmorphine is to be administered, caution mustbe exercised to avoid overdosage.

3-43. Emergency EvacuationPersonnel who have been wounded should be

evacuated to the nearest medical facility by

the fastest means of transport available. Sledscan be used if oversnow vehicles or air evacua-tion facilities cannot be obtained. It may benecessary to use manhauled sleds to move thewounded a safe distance behind the frontlinesbefore they can be transferred to faster meansof transport (fig. 3-19). Speed in evacuationis essential because of the combined effects ofsevere cold and shock on the wounded.

3-44. Body Parasites

a. General. Body parasites are very commonin the more populated cold regions because ofthe crowded living conditions and shortage ofbathing and cleaning facilities. When in themidst of a native population, or when occupy-ing shelters which have been used before, in-dividuals must inspect clothing and body eachnight for parasites.

b. Means of Control. If clothing has becomeinfested with lice, the following methods ofremoving them are recommended:

(1)

(2)

While extreme cold does not kill lice,it paralyzes them. The garmentsshould be hung in the cold; thenbeaten and brushed. This will helprid the garments of lice, but not oflouse eggs.An appropriate insecticide powdercan be used to free the body andclothing of body parasites.

Section VI. BIVOUAC ROUTINE

3-45. Location of Bivouac SitesThe selection of bivouac sites in northern

areas is all-important and requires careful con-sideration. The problem of selection varieswith the tactical situation, weather conditionsand terrain. Terrain hazards such as steep rockfaces concealed by snow, glaciers, crevasses andavalanches are typical, especially in moun-tainous areas. Guides familiar with terrainpeculiarities must be used to the greatest ex-tent during the troop movement.

a. If possible, the bivouac area should betactically located in accordance with theprinciples of security and defense. It should be

50

located so that it would be advantageous forfuture operations. If contact with the enemyis imminent, the bivouac should be located onhigh ground; this, at times, is disregarded infavor of cover and concealment, more suitableground conditions, etc.

b. Cover and concealment against air andground observation is essential for the bivouacarea. Forested areas pose few problems in com-parison to that area north of the treeline. Par-ticular attention must be given in selectingareas in cold regions to insure that local cam-ouflage materials are available.

c. In the winter, protection from the wind is

AGO 8641A


tsc 'i—v (i4i

t \o.çSuQ %—çj QO3 \ uost

a prime consideration. This is particularly truein areas of northern operations, where violentlocal gales frequently occur. In wooded areasthe wind has little effect on tentage or in-dividuals.

d. The condition of the ground is importantand, if possible, the bivouac should be locatedon hard, dry ground.

e. Construction materials play an importantpart in the selection of a bivouac. When mak-ing a reconnaissance for the area, such thingsas the availability of firewood, water, snowfor snow shelters, boughs, etc., must reconsid-ered.

3-46. Bivouac in Forestsa. Most forests in cold regions provide excel-

lent bivouac sites and should reutilized when-ever possible. Forests provide many naturalmaterials such as boughs for insulation, fire-wood, and camouflage construction materials.They also provide excellent concealmentagainst enemy air and ground observation. Co-niferous (cone-bearing trees) provide betterprotection from wind and better insulation ma-terial and firewood than deciduous forests. Pineand spruce forests, normally found on welldrained soil, offer the best hardstand forshelter.

b. Tracks are visible in both summer andwinter. On dry ground, however, they nor-mally are not as noticeable as on wet soil. Con-sideration should be given to building dummypositions for the purpose of misleading theenemy (fig. 3-20). Track discipline must berigidly enforced in the bivouac area. Oncetracks are made, all movement within theareas should be restricted to those tracks.

3-47. Bivouac on Marshy Grounda. In winter, when the ground is frozen, good

bivouac sites may be found in areas whichotherwise would not be usable. Some swampyareas may not freeze during the winter, be-cause of warm water springs or gases. Theyprovide poor facilities for the bivouac site. Ifit becomes necessary to establish the bivouacon swampy ground, flooring for shelters mustbe constructed. If tree trunks are available, a

“float” may be built under the shelter (fig.3-21). In the absence of tree trunks, brushmatting will serve the same purpose.

b. Areas to be used for extended periods oftime require draining, clearing of existingcreeks, digging of ditches around the shelter,or preparing a water trench inside the shelter.

3-48. Bivouac in Open Terrain and on Icea. Due to strong winds, drifting snow, and

poor concealment, bivouac areas in the barrentundra must be carefully chosen.

b. Tents should be pitched where they canbe sheltered by natural windbreaks wheneverpossible. The windbreak may consist of de-pressions in the ground or pressure ridges onthe ice. A visual inspection will indicate thedegree of drifting, direction of the prevailingwind, and more suitable protected areas forlocating the shelters. In areas where naturalwindfalls do not exist, snow walls may be con-structed to provide protection from winds and

AGO 8641A 51


enemy small arms fire, as well as concealmentfrom ground observation. In open areas withhigh winds, snow gathers rapidly on the leeside, making it necessary to clear the sidesand tops of the tents periodically to preventthe weight of the drifting snow from collaps-ing the tent. The entrance to the shelter shouldface downwind from the prevailing wind.This will prevent the snow from blocking theexit and cutting off the ventilation.

c. When the tent is pitched on ice, holesare chopped where the tent pins are normallyset. “Deadmen” are inserted in the holes atright angles to the tent. The holes are thenpacked with snow or filled with water and leftto freeze.

3-49. Bivouacs in Mountainsa. Mountainous terrain is characterized by

strong turbulent winds, cold and general lackof concealment above the timberline. Thewind overhead creates an extensive lee nearthe mountain. The overhead lee resembles thedry space behind waterfalls caused by waterhaving such speed that it shoots over the edgeof the cliff and descends in a curve. An inlandwind blowing 50 miles an hour (43 kts) maynot strike the ground for several kilometersafter passing the edge of a cliff or a very steepslope. While such a lee is an attractive bivouacsite from the standpoint of wind protection itshould be noted that such a lee area is oftenan area of maximum snow deposit. The re-quirement to constantly dig out vehicles, walk-ways, and weapons positions may offset thewindfree advantages of a lee site during snow-fall or snowblowing weather.

b. Cold air is heavier and frequently settlesin valleys. The point where the temperaturestarts changing is low in summer and higherand more noticeable in winter. Therefore, insome instances it is better to establish a biv-ouac up the hillside above the valley floor andbelow the timberline, where applicable. Ava-lanche hazard areas must be carefully avoided.

3-50. Establishing Bivouaca. General. Setting up a bivouac is a routine

based on SOP which enables the commanderto control the bivouac area, have it always

52

protected, camouflaged, and the personnelready to fight. Only the minimum amount oftime should be devoted to pitching and strikingthe shelters and to general housekeeping.Bivouacking in a routine manner allows moretime for daily movement, establishing an ef-fective security system, and defense of thebivouac site. Finally, it allows more time forrest and to make preparations for the continu-ation of the operation.

b. Responsibilities of Unit Leader. On en-tering the bivouac site, the unit leader is re-sponsible for—

(1)(2)(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

Posting a security guard.Checking the bivouac site.Determining exact tent locationsviding the best natural sheltercamouflage.Designating an area from whichstruction material and firewoodbe obtained.

pro-and

con-will

Selection of a water point, or mark-ing off the snow area to be utilizedfor water.Designating latrine and garbage dis-posal sites.Designating a site for weapon andski racks. Temporary placement forweapons and equipment must be ar-ranged until the bivouac has been es-tablished.Breaking a minimum number oftrails between the tent site and areaassigned for firewood and construc-tion material, water point, and la-trine.Maintaining camouflage and trackdiscipline at all times.Organization and assignments forthe work details as follows:

(a)

(b)(c)

Clearing and leveling the sheltersites. In winter the snow is dug tothe ground level or in an emer-gency, packed down by tramplingwith skis, snowshoes, or trackedvehicles.Pitching tents (when used).Cutting, trimming, and hauling

AGO 8641A


(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)(i)

(j)

(k)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

AGO 8641A

trees and boughs for constructionof improvised shelters and boughbeds (when tents are not avail-able).Construction of improvised shel-ters best suited to the area con-cerned.Construction of windbreaks, ifnecessary.Building necessary weapon and skiracks. Special care must be givento the protection of the weaponsfrom the elements.Construction of field latrines andgarbage disposal sites.Preparing a water point.Gathering and cutting a supply offirewood.During cold weather, situation per-mitting, starting fires and prepar-ing hot drinks for all individuals.Upon completion of shelter con-struction, starting a warm meal.

Maintaining and emphasizing clean-liness, tidiness, and teamwork.Upon completion of the bivouac, ar-ranging equipment within the out-side of shelters.Preparing defensive positions andbreaking and marking a trail fromthe shelters to the positions.Maintaining a duty roster for ex-terior guards, fire guards, and similarassignments.Rotating individuals on all jobs on adaily basis.Assigning specific sleeping areas forall individuals in accordance withthe duty roster.Upon establishing the bivouac, re-moving the exterior guard in case theparent unit has taken over the secu-rity of the area.Inspecting the area, examining thesecurity, camouflage, cover, weapons,skis, sleds, vehicles (if applicable),and the conditions of the men andtheir equipment.

(19)

(20)

Outlining and rehearsing the actionto be taken in the event of attack.Assuring that necessary safety pre-cautions are taken to eliminate orcontrol any hazards that could resultin unnecessary accidental loss of menand their equipment.

3-51. Shelter Disciplinea. When a shelter is finished, the first man

entering it will arrange all equipment in theproper place. The stove, water can, firewood,tools, and rations are placed in the most con-venient place by the door of the tent. In asnow shelter, a special storeroom may be dugfor these items.

b. In low temperatures, weapons should beleft outside on improvised weapon racks inorder to avoid condensation. However, as aword of caution commanders must insurethat weapons left outside are properly secured,e.g., providing security guards or securing theweapons in an unheated shelter. When coldweapons are taken into heated shelters, con-densation will form as the warm air comes incontact with cold metal. This “sweating” willcontinue for about one hour. If weapons arebrought into a warm shelter they should beplaced at floor level away from direct heat tominimize condensation. To avoid freezing ofmoving parts, moisture must be removed andLubrication Oil, Weapon (LOW) applied tothe weapon before it is taken outside. If thesituation requires that weapons be taken in-side and later outside before they can be dried,the working parts must be hand operated untilthe moisture is frozen and there is no dangerof parts freezing together.

c. Before entering the shelter, hoarfrostand snow must be brushed off clothing andequipment. This keeps the clothing dry andthe shelter clean.

d. To live comfortably in a shelter is not aneasy art. Individuals usually are crowded andmust keep their equipment orderly and out ofthe way of other occupants of the shelter. Un-necessary running in and out of the sheltershould be avoided whenever possible.

e. The use of fire and lights in the shelter

53


must be carefully supervised. Security, fueleconomy, and the prevention of fire andasphyxiation are essential. When wood isavailable, it is burned in the stoves in place ofgasoline. Lamps must be extinguished beforeretiring for the night. All lamps and cookingstoves must be filled and lighted outdoors. Astand or bracket should be made for the lampsor candles and they should be placed wherethey are least likely to be knocked over. Sparkson the tent or lean-to must be extinguished atonce. Smoking while in the sleeping bag isnot permitted.

f. As many tasks as possible should be ac-complished before retiring in order to con-serve time in the morning. All eating utensilsshould be cleaned, snow melted, canteens orthermos bottles filled, and all weapons shouldbe checked.

g. Upon breaking the bivouac in the morn-ing all personal equipment should be rolled,warm drinks and breakfast should be con-sumed, and last-minute details accomplishedprior to resuming the march.

3-52. Heat Discipline and Fire PreventionHeat discipline presents a paramount prob-

lem during periods of extreme cold.

a. Overheating the shelter is very commonand can and should be avoided. It causes sweat-ing of individuals and increases the firehazard.

b. There are many ways to save fuel. Cook-ing and heating may be combined. The meltingof snow and ice uses large amounts of fueland should be avoided when water from othersources is available. In cooking, liquid fuel isused sparingly. Wood should be burned whenavailable. In extreme cold it may be necessaryto keep the fire burning throughout the nightin order to keep the men warm, especiallywhen living in temporary shelters which pro-vide little heat. The drying of wet clothingand the providing of hot drinks for combatreliefs are also necessary throughout the night.

c. Fire prevention during both summer andwinter seasons is extremely important. Thecombination of low humidity and the drying

effect of continuously heated shelters is con-ducive to fire. Shifts in wind and the accumu-lation of frost or soot in the stovepipe lead tobackfiring of flaming fuel into the shelter. Theexcessive spilling of fuel containers, lamps,and candles create additional hazards. Thestamping of feet to shake off snow or frostmay cause stoves and small heating units tospill and spread fire. The strict enforcementof all regulations is necessary in order to avoidfire hazards. No set rules can be given foreach occasion. Common sense in the handlingof all kinds of fires, fuels, and flammable ma-terials is essential; alert, wide-awake fireguards must be on duty in each shelter at alltimes when men are sleeping and a fire isburning. Applicable technical manuals shouldbe consulted prior to operating tent stoves,cooking stoves or gasoline lanterns.

d. A base made from green logs must beplaced under the stove if the snow has notbeen shoveled away from the tent site. Firereflectors may be used not only to get morewarmth, but also to keep the fire burningevenly and to help avoid sparks.

e. Care must be exercised when lighting thegasoline-type stove; it may flare up and eitherdamage the tent or set it on fire. All stovepipesmust be cleaned frequently. When using woodas fuel, cleaning must be done every day inorder to maintain a good draft and avoid firesin the stovepipes. Stoves burning petroleumfuels tend to accumulate more soot when op-erated at low settings because of cooler pipetemperatures. It is better to turn the stove offin mild weather than to run it at low settings.Detailed instructions for operating stoves arecovered in TM 10–735 (Yukon stove) and TM10–725 (Stove M1941 ). Precautions againstforest and ground fires in summertime are ex-tremely important. Coniferous forests arehighly inflammable during the summer season.Ground fires can burn for months in muskegand are extremely hard to to put out. Afire ditch is always dug before lighting fire.A base of green wood, gravel, or rocks mustbe used under the fire; the fire must be madeon high ground when the forest is dry. Be-fore leaving the campsite, individuals mustalways be sure that the fire is completely out.

54 AGO 8641A


Ltd III V SOIL LID SO*UUL(LIPID DL IlbSU lb LVU I bU0111101 U ODNILODvWI IOSl NE V SONIObI VU 101VIII VU UOIb UAINUNIDMI IlDOVULL VU10110101 rUNS UN Old UN 1 OlIUSO rlbUN lbVU UNOlU SO VUANT NIL IVIUN 00UDLI UNILIMS UNUISOCININIOUN NUllS UNlIONS U UVUSOSUOD DID r.o OWl III SOUL

UNI: UUNUA( rllIIDlbSOflUq Ib rso U LID

Lr lbs 10155

ost ç

UrVLOYCrELEbIf IrEIOlC

DWflA. /ir' ,,jfAE

C*MSJ.ø i.C -

i— 3fl \o o

3-53. Drying Clothesa. Keeping dry is important in low tem-

perature. At times it is impossible to avoidsweating. The drying of clothes and footgearis therefore a necessity. Every opportunitymust be used by each individual to dry hisclothing.

b. When drying outside using an open fire,clothes should not be placed downwind fromthe fire, due to the sparks and smoke. Clotheshung for drying should be frequently checkedand not left unattended. Clothing should neverbe placed too close to the fire or stove in theshelter. Leather items are extremely vulner-able to extreme heat. Clothing being dried inthe shelter is placed on drying lines.

c. The use of a “Christmas Tree” (fig.3-22) for drying in the shelter is handy whenoperating in a wooded area. Branches are cutoff a dry or green tree which is then made tostand up in the shelter next to the center poleso that it is in the air current. This offers anexcellent place for drying heavy items such asboots and parkas. The Tent, 10-Man, Arctic, isalso equipped with strong hooks at the insidepeak for suspending lighter weight clothingfor drying.

3-54. Sleeping Arrangements in Bivouaca. When arranging the sleeping procedures

in a tent or improvised shelter, the positionof every man, especially the position of reliefsfor sentries, is planned. Each man must know

where his relief is sleeping. Therefore, thefloorspace is occupied by the individuals in ac-cordance with the duty roster. The numberone man sleeps next to the door, number twoman towards the rear. In this manner, start-ing from the door, the relief is easily locatedwithout waking up all occupants. The syste-matic sleeping arrangement will also permitexit from the tent in an organized manner incase of alert.

b. Ground insulation is most important.Often the occupants may have to improvise in-sulation using all available material. Back-boards, snowshoes, man-hauled sleds, andempty cartons may be used. In timbered areasevergreen boughs are especially suitable. Onthe tundra, dry lichen, grass, or shrubs pro-vide effective insulating material. To make abough bed, one single bed is constructed forall; the size varies with the number of persons,For improvised shelters, logs approximately 8cm (3") in diameter are pegged or fitted aroundthe bough or grass bed. This helps to keep theboughs in place, If material and time permit, a15 to 30 cm (6” to 12”) thick shingled bed madefrom spruce, fir, or balsam boughs (fig. 3-23)gives excellent insulation and provides a softmattress.

c. The tactical situation dicates whether ornot sleeping bags are used. The amount ofclothing to be worn when sleeping on a boughbed or in the sleeping bag can be best judgedby experience and will depend on temperatureand the tactical situation. As a minimum,outer clothing is usually removed when thesleeping bag is used. The removed clothing isplaced beneath the individual for additional

AGO 8641A 55


insulation and instant availability. In an emer-gency it may be necessary to dress in the dark.In the morning all ice and frost is removedand the bag ventilated before rolling it up.Time permitting, it is hung up by the stringsand thoroughly dried.

d. When sleeping in a heated tent withouta sleeping bag, boots are usually removed, sit-uation permitting. The parka is used like ablanket. The rucksack makes a good pillow.The clothing is always loosened.

3-55. Water Points and Snow AreaLocations

During the winter it may be necessary toobtain water by melting snow or ice. Whensuch a source is utilized for drinking purposes,an area should be set aside and restricted tothis purpose only. A preferable site is one up-wind from the bivouac and isolated from thelatrine and garbage disposal areas. If such anarea is not available, then snow should begathered from the branches of trees or lightlyskimmed from a carefully isolated area adja-cent to the individual shelters. Water obtainedin this manner must be boiled for one minuteor chemically treated. Chemical sterilization ofwater under freezing conditions requires alonger period because the disinfecting com-pounds act with retarded efficiency under suchconditions. The time allotted for contact withpurification tablets should be two to four timesthe normal period of one-half hour. Eating iceor snow is unsatisfactory and may result ininjury to lips or tongue. Contamination mayalso be a hazard. If no other water source isavailable, as in a survival situation, snow canbe eaten but it must first be brought to themelting point by holding it in the bare hand.It may then be eaten slowly and in smallamounts. This is best done during periods oftemporary heat excess, as during marching, orwhile in the sleeping bag. The risk of frostbiteto the hand must be considered and balancedagainst the need for fluids. Should some waterbe available in an uninsulated canteen duringa survival situation, this should be warmedunder the clothing or in the sleeping bag. Thensnow may be added to the canteen after eachdrink to replace the water consumed. Bodyheat stored in the slightly warmed water will

thus melt the snow with less risk of cold injuryto hands or lips. A glass bottle or plastic bagcan be used in place of an uninsulated canteen.

3-56. Bough and Firewood AreasThe areas for cutting boughs and firewood

should be immediately designated when a biv-ouac site is selected.

a. Bough Area. The area for cutting boughsfor bedding as well as for construction of im-provised shelters should be common to all in-dividuals of the group. It is selected in a densearea of woods in which springy, unfrozenboughs are available, and should not be tooclose to the bivouac site. It is advisable to usesleds in hauling material to the shelter site.Due to the camouflage and track discipline,only one well-concealed trail is used. Whencutting boughs, the unnecessary felling oftrees should be avoided because trees lying onthe ground can be easily observed from theair. Instead of felling trees, only the lowerbranches should be used.

b. Firewood Area. It is advisable to have thefirewood area nearby the area designated forbough cutting so that the same track can beused. Dry, dead pine trees make the best fire-wood. If no dead trees are available, greenbirch trees may be chopped; they possess ex-cellent burning qualities even when frozen.The top parts of dead trees should be burnedduring the daytime, as they give off lightercolored smoke. The lower part of the trunkhas more resin and tar, and burns better, butmakes more and much darker smoke.

3-57. StorageStorage problems in winter are increased by

snow, low temperatures, thaws, limited stor-age space, and the increased problems of trans-portation. Space in any shelter is limited. Onlyitems which are affected by cold, or whichmust be immediately available, should bestored inside. All other stores must be con-centrated, well marked, covered, and left out-side. On the other hand, some perishableswhich are difficult to preserve in summer maybe kept during the winter months in a natural“deepfreeze” over an extended period of time.In areas where permafrost exists, a hole can

56 AGO 8641A


1'S.Q %— $\Q l3

be dug or blasted out and then covered withinsulating material, such as boughs. A con-stant low temperature can thus be maintained.

a. Rifle Stand and Hanging of Weapon. Inwooded terrain a weapon rack may be builtfrom poles placed in a horizontal position andcovered with boughs (fig. 3-24). When boughsare not available, various other materials such

as empty cardboard boxes, tent or sled covers,waterproof bags or ponchos can be utilized toprotect the weapons from rain, dust, and fall-ing or drifting snow. When weapons are hungoutside on stacked skis, or suspended abovethe snow in some other manner, they are hungwith the muzzle down to keep falling or blow-ing snow out of the barrel and working parts.

b. Ski Racks and Stacking of Skis. Care of been secured between two growing treesskis in the field is highly important becauseunit and individual mobility depends uponthem. If left lying on the snow in the bivouacarea the bindings and running surfaces willfreeze and render the skis unusable for a longperiod of time, or they may be entirely lostunder drifting snow. Therefore, the skis andski poles are placed on an improvised ski rackmade of one or two long poles which have

TAGO 8641A

horizontal position (fig. 3–24). In open areas,skis are simply stuck upright or stacked inthe snow as described in appendix C.

c. Sleds. Sleds are placed on their sides oron end outside. If loaded sleds are left on thesnow, sticks, poles, or branches are laid underthe runners to prevent them from freezing tothe snow. Heavy cargo sleds, 1-ton or larger,must be placed on top of heavy poles or logs

57


-1.

2o-eocw

MIUE

StSc3. rQ

due to the fact that sled runners remain hotafter extensive usage and tend to settle intothe snow and become frozen, making move-ment of the sled difficult the following day.

d. Vehicles. Vehicles are driven under a bigtree or in lee of a shelter or snowdrift. Ve-hicles should be parked so the least amount ofsnow can get into the engines and parked onbrush, logs, dry ground, or other surfaces notliable to thaw from heat of tires and tracksand refreeze.

e. Ammunition and Fuel. Ammunition andfuel are stored separately outside. Ammuni-tion boxes should be stacked off the groung ina dry place and covered with canvas or boughs.In order to locate stacks if snow-covered, apole should be erected near them. Boughs orpoles are placed under fuel containers to pre-vent them from freezing to the snow.

3-58. Field Sanitationa. Waste Disposal. Field sanitation in the

58

colder regions is based on the same principlesas in temperate climates. The extremes in cli-mate and weather, however, make the problemmore acute. The wastes that present constantand real problems are human excreta, gar-bage, and trash.

(1) In bivouac areas, pit or “cross-tree”type latrines are used for the disposalof human waste (fig. 3-25). One la-trine will usually serve the needs ofindividuals occupying 3 to 4 shelters,or a unit of platoon size. The latrineis placed downwind from the bivouac,but not so far from the shelters asto encourage invididuals to breaksanitary discipline. Ration boxes orsimilar material should be used tocollect waste. A urinal, designated foreach shelter, should be located within4 to 5 meters (4 to 5 yards) of theshelter. A windbreak of boughs, tar-paulins, ponchos, or snow wall should

AGO 8641A


be constructed to protect the latrinefrom the wind.

(2) When breaking bivouac, the humanwaste that has accumulated in thelatrine will be burned or buried. Allclosed latrine sites, tactical situationpermitting, will be clearly marked.

b. Trash and Garbage Disposal.

(1) In winter the edible portion of foodwaste may be collected in receptaclesand disposed of by burial in the snowat a safe distance from the bivouac.Every effort should be made to burnthe bulk of the trash and garbage.During seasons and in locationswhere bears are found, all ediblegarbage should be burned to avoidattracting bears to campsites.

(2)

(3)

All trash and garbage dumps shouldbe marked with appropriate signs towarn troops who might occupy thesedisposal sites at a later time.

Strict camouflage of all trash andgarbage is essential. Dark trash onthe white snow is easily seen fromthe air. Glittering tin cans or bottlesmay be seen by the enemy. Trashand garbage should be placed underany available cover and camouflagedwith snow, branches, or other ma-terials.

c. Rats and Mice. Rats and mice will befound in most of the habitable cold regionsof the earth. They are a definite menace tohealth and property and should be kept understrict control. Rat poisons or traps should beused when available.

AGO 8641A 59


CHAPTER 4

SKIING AND SNOWSHOEING

Section I. INTRODUCTION

4-1. Purpose and Scopea. The purpose of this chapter is to provide

information concerning—(1)

(2)

Techniques used in military skiingand snowshoeing.Application of these techniques to fa-

b.

cilitate the oversnow mobility oftroops engaged in military operations.

This chapter also describes-(1) Equipment available for military ski-

ing and snowshoeing.(2) Maintenance and care of that equip-

ment.

4--2. General Considerationsa. The Need for Individual Mobility.

(1)

(2)

60

Warfare in snow-covered areas re-quires oversnow mobility off theroads. Well-trained ski and snowshoetroops are a definite asset on thesnow-covered battlefield. In deep snow(61 cm (2') or greater in depth) theindividual has almost no mobilitywithout the aid of skis or snowshoes.Troops on skis attain mobility, are notroadbound, and are able to move cross-country over all types of snow-covered terrain. They are ideallysuited for reconnaissance, securitymissions, and deep penetration patrolsconducting unconventional type op-erations. Aggressive action can becarried out with advantage againstthe enemy flanks, rear, or communi-cation lines by lightly equipped, fast-moving troops on skis.Deep snow hinders movement on foot.

By using snowshoes, individual mo-bility will be restored to a point ap-proximately equal to that of footmovement on hard ground. Skis, onthe other hand, provide individual mo-bility usually exceeding that possibleon foot.

b. Need for Certain Techniques.(1)

(2)

During cross-country marches and incombat the soldier on skis or snow-shoes will be required to negotiatevarious types of terrain conditions.He will be moving and operating indifferent weather and snow condi-tions. Carrying a rucksack-and a wea-pon, he will be required to move inforests, over open terrain, uphill anddownhill, and often while pulling asled.In order to execute his mission withthe least wasted effort, the soldiermust apply the proper techniques ofskiing and snowshoeing required forthe various conditions under whichhe will operate.

c. Use of Oversnow Equipment to AchieveMobility.

(1) The means available to the individualsoldier for obtaining oversnow mo-bility are skis and snowshoes. Whenoperating in snow-covered terrain thesoldier must be equipped with eitherskis or snowshoes at all times. Usingskis, he is normally able to executelong marches with less effort and inless time than when using snowshoes.Cross-country movement by soldierson skis can be facilitated by towing

AGO 8641A


avfloLwt - i.Pv2JcnIJ - I3I why?UO1A2J10611J j— why

o auoit)u tooc (0A6L 30GW (i) j— why

(1%) 0 2JJOM)jooç (JGa JJULI 30GW

011 6LLB11)(q6h6uqpJt2—12 whya—si whys-si why

ii—s why

1-3 why 1i—3 why3W .Ot€3S I.Oq

(2)

the skiers with tracked vehicles oranimals (skijoring). Snowshoes aremore suitable than skis in confinedareas, when working close to heavyweapons, or when training time islimited.Rates of movement over snow-covered

gently rolling terrain while individu-als are carrying a rifle and loadedrucksack.

terrain cannot be given in exact timerequirements. They vary in each situ-ation. However, as a guide, the fol-lowing rates are listed. Rates aregiven for movement over flat or

Section II. SNOW AND TERRAIN

4-3. Snow CompositionSnowflakes are formed from water vapor,

at or below 32° F., without passing throughthe liquid water state. Newly fallen snowundergoes many alterations on the ground. Asthe snowmass on the ground packs and be-comes denser, the snowflakes consolidate andthe entrapped air is expelled. These changesare caused by effects of temperature, humidity,sunlight and wind.

a. Temperature. In general, the lower thetemperature, the drier the snow and the lessconsolidation. As the temperature rises, thesnow tends to compact more readily. Tempera-tures above freezing cause wet snow condi-tions. Lowered night temperatures may re-freeze wet snow and form an icy crust on thesurface.

b. Sunlight. In the springtime, sunlight maymelt the surface of the snow even though theair temperature is below freezing. When thisoccurs, dry powder snow is generally foundin shaded areas and wet snow in sunlightareas. Movement from sunlit areas into shadedareas is difficult because the wet snow willfreeze to skis and snowshoes. After sunset,however, wet snow usually refreezes and theease of movement improves.

c. Wind. Wind packs snow solidly. Wind-packed snow may become so hard that skiingor even walking on it makes no appreciableimpression on its surface. Warm wind followedby freezing temperatures may create an icy,unbreakable crust on the snow. Under suchconditions, skiing and snowshoeing are very

AGO 8641A

difficult. Another effect of wind is that ofdrifting the snow. The higher the wind ve-locity and the lighter the snow, the greaterthe tendency to drift. All troop movement isgreatly affected by drifting snow and wind,the effect depending on the relative directionand velocity. In addition, as the wind, in-creases, the effect of extreme cold (windchilleffect) on the body may slow down or tempo-rarily stop movement, possibly requiring troopsto take shelter. The snowdrifts created by windusually make the snow surface wavy, slowingdown movement, especially in darkness.

4-4 Snow CharacteristicsThe characteristics of snow which are of

greatest interest to the soldier are—a. Carrying Capacity. Generally, when the

snow is packed hard, carrying capacity isgreater and movement is easier. Although thecarrying capacity of ice crust may be excellent,movement generally is difficult because of itsslippery surface.

b. Sliding Characteristics. All-important tothe skier are the sliding characteristics ofsnow. They vary greatly in different types ofsnow and temperature variations and material-ly increase or decrease the movement of theskier, according to the conditions that exist.

c. Holding Capicity. The holding capacityof snow is its ability to act upon ski wax insuch a way that backslapping of the skis isprevented without impairing the forward slid-ing capability. Holding capacity changes great-ly with different types of snow, making it

61


necessary to have a variety of ski waxes avail-able.

4-5. Effects of Snow and Terrain onIndividual Movement

a. Skis or snowshoes are usually employedin military operations when the depth of snowis 30 cm (1') or more. This equipment isneeded in deep snow conditions to provide thenecessary oversnow mobility of the individualand the maneuverability of troops.

b. Snow cover, together with the freezingof waterways and swampy areas, changes theterrain noticeably. Generally, the snow coversminor irregularities of the ground. Many ob-stacles such as rocks, ditches, and fences areeliminated or reduced. Lakes, streams, andmuskeg, impassable during the summer, oftenafford the best routes of travel in the winterwhen they are frozen and snowcovered. Dur-ing breakup periods this advantage is reduced,since the snow becomes slushy and the carry-ing capacity is poor. Even so, skiing or snow-shoeing, although slow, is often the only prac-tical way to move during this period. Thedrop in temperature at night will still freezethe snow surface, creating a good route for askier or snowshoer during the night and earlymorning.

c. The effects of snow and terrain on indi-vidual movement vary in different areas.

(1) The arctic tundra and vast subarcticplateaus are similar. They are char-acterized by large plains and gentlyrolling terrain with scant vegetationwhere rocky ridges, scattered rockoutcroppings, riverbanks, andscrubby brush still create obstacles toindividual movement, when encoun-tered. The shallow snow cover nor-

(2)

(3)

really found in these areas, as a rule,is firmly packed by wind action andwill usually support a man on foot.When the snow has not been windpacked and is still soft, mobility willbe increased by the use of skis orsnowshoes.Forested areas include vast conifer-ous forests, dense brush, swamps, andnumerous lakes and rivers. Skiingand snowshoeing are relatively easyon frozen, snow-covered rivers, lakes,and swamps. In wooded areas conceal-ment is best, but movement is ham-pered by vegetation and soft snow,therefore, greater skill is required inskiing to avoid trees and other obsta-cles. These disadvantages are reducedby careful selection of the best routesand following proper trailbreakingprocedures. Woods retard the meltingof snow in spring often allowing ski-ing after the open fields are clear ofsnow. In autumn, the situation is re-versed; the deeper snow is generallyfound in the open fields allowingskiing earlier than in wooded areas.Mountains present special problems.Their varied and steep terrain placeadditional demands upon the skill ofa skier and make movement on snow-shoes or skis very difficult. Slopeswhich are easy to negotiate in sum-mer often become difficult and dang-erous to cross in winter because ofdeep snow cover which is prone toavalanche. Large drifts and snowcornices present other obstacles anddangers. Snow cover on glaciers ob-scures crevasses and makes theircrossing hazardous (FM 31-72 ).

Section III. MILITARY SKIING

4-6. Advantages and Disadvantagesa. Advantages.

(1) In snow-covered terrain the weakestand the most vulnerable points of theenemy are usually the open flanks,rear areas, and the lines of communi-cation. Attacking, defending, or de- (2)

62

laying troops require a high degreeof oversnow, cross-country mobilityto reach these objectives. Units onskis are the most suitable troops tobe used for surprise attack on distantobjectives.A trained individual or a unit on skis

AGO 8641A


(3)

(4)

(5)

can execute cross-country marches onroadless, variable, and snow-coveredterrain more efficiently and quicklythan on snowshoes or on foot.Skiing over snow-covered terrain byproperly trained troops is compara-tively less tiring than marching onsnowshoes or on foot. Sliding char-acteristics obtained by the skier in-crease speed, mobility, and rate ofmarch.Due to increased weight bearing sur-face, a skier or a unit on skis is ableto cross frozen lakes and rivers whenthe ice will not support a man onfoot.The use of oversnow vehicles andother suitable means of towing troopsfurther increases their mobility.

b. Disadvantages.(1)

(2)

(3)

Individuals require a considerableamount of training before becomingproficient in the use of skis for mil-itary purposes.Certain terrain features, such as verydense brush and windfall areas, ma-terially decrease the rate of marchof a ski unit.Skis often require rewaxing forchanging snow conditions, whichconsumes time. Skis also do not pro-vide good traction regardless of waxused, for pulling loads.

4-7. Training Objectivesa. General Considerations. A soldier on skis

must be capable of moving under control acrossdiversified, snow-covered terrain while carry-ing the arms and equipment necessary fortactical operations. Since skis are often themost efficient means of transportation inwinter warfare, the soldier should be so skilledin their use that skiing becomes a naturalmethod of movement. Since the skiing soldierwill utilize his skis for the greater portion ofmovement over snow-covered terrain, it is im-portant that he acquire good skiing techniquein order to be able to move anywhere requiredboth quickly and with theenergy. The soldier must

AGO 8641A

154-616 O - 94 - 3

least expenditure ofdevelop these tech-

niques so that his movement either uphill ordownhill will not delay the movement of hisunit. When operating in mountainous areas,the soldier must possess efficiency in both basicand advanced military ski techniques in orderto move easily and safely over steep and roughterrain; the soldier must possess enduranceand must be in top physical condition.

b. Training Time Required. To walk onsnowshoes, one day of instruction is generallysufficient. However, several days use of snow-shoes during normal training will rapidly in-crease proficiency. In a period of 2 weeks asoldier can be taught enough ski techniquesto enable him as an individual to negotiateflat or rolling terrain with greater speed thanif he were on foot or snowshoes, but he willnot yet be able to operate effectively as a com-bat skier within a unit. At least 8 weeks ofintensive training are needed in order to be-come a military skier capable of operating pro-ficiently in any type of terrain. It should benoted that the level of skiing skill developedby the soldier during any period of ski in-struction is improved by participating in unittraining which is done on skis.

4-8. Ski Equipmenta. Skis. Military skis were formerly issued

in 198 cm (61/2'), 213 cm (7') and 229 cm(7½') lengths. The standard issue ski is now213 cm long (7') ; however, until stocks aredepleted the other length skis may be issuedin lieu of the standard ski. The standard skisare of laminated wood construction withhickory tops and running surfaces. They areall terrain cross-country skis with steel edges(fig. 4-l). The metal edges give better grip-ping action in turns and on icy and hardpacked snow which results in better control.All skis are painted white and have a hole inthe tip through which a cord can be threadedwhen it is necessary to pull them as ski bundlesor as an improvised sled.

b. Ski Binding, All Terrain. The bindingconsists of a toeplate, toe straps, soleplate, heelcup, quick-release fasteners and mountinghardware (fig. 4-2). The toe plate is aluminum;the toe strap and heel cup are made of whiterubber and three plies of dacron, the soleplateis made of fiberglas. This binding will accom-

63


s "

stocks are depleted. Figure 4-3 illustrates the

modate all types of cold weather footgear and iseasily put on and removed. The soleplate isflexible and allows free vertical movement ofthe heel which assists normal foot movement.

c. Ski Poles. Nonadjustable tubular steelpoles, 130 (51"), 137 (54") and 147 cm (58")in length, are the standard item of issue, how-ever, the adjustable ski pole is being used until

64

different parts of the ski pole. In an emer-gency, the poles can also be used for tent poles,markers, or in the construction of emergencylitters.

d. Ski Repair Kit and Emergency Ski Tip.This kit contains pliers, screwdriver, screws,wire, drill, strips of steel edging, and leatherthongs for use in emergency repair of skis,poles or bindings while in the field. An emer-gency ski tip is also available. This can beused to repair or replace broken ski tips andallow the individual to continue the march un-til replacement skis can be obtained. Ski repairkits and emergency ski tips are usually issuedto units and are not intended for individualissue. One ski repair kit per rifle platoon andone emergency ski tip per squad is usuallysufficient.

e. Ski Waxes. Ski wax is used to obtain thesliding and climbing characteristics necessaryfor efficient military skiing. The waxing ofskis is covered in paragraph 4-10.

f. Ski Climbers. Climbers are strips of can-vas with mohair secured to the running sur-face, which are attached to the bottom of theskis by means of straps (fig. 4-4). When at-tached, the mohair material lies with the endspointing towards the heel of the skis. Forwardmovement of the ski does not disturb the ma-terial, thereby allowing the ski to slide. Back-ward pressure, however, causes the materialto become roughened, preventing the skis frombackslapping. Climbers are used by troops tomake the climbing of steep slopes faster andless tiring, providing the ascent is sufficientlylong to justify the time required to put themon and take them off. They may also be usedto give more traction while pulling sleds, andfor descents where sliding is not desired.

4-9. Preparation of Skisa. General. Pine tar or ski lacquer is ap-

plied to the running surface of the skis to fillthe pores of the wood and to furnish a base sothat the skis may be properly waxed. Theyare also applied to the running surface of theskis to prevent moisture from being absorbedby the wood. For military skiing, pine tar ispreferred as a base. If this is not available,ski lacquer is a suitable substitute. They must

AGO 8641A


.-paQqaqb

s, —'• (2)

be used separately since they do not mix to-gether.

b. Application of Pine Tar or Ski Lacquer.(1)

AGO 8641A

Preparation of skis. The running sur-face must be clean to prepare the skisfor pine-tarring or lacquering. If theski has been used, the old base andwax must be removed. The easiestway to accomplish this is to use a

scraper and sandpaper. Cautionshould be exercised to insure that therunning surface of the ski is notdamaged. Old wax can also be re-moved by the use of steel wool or arag moistened with a high flashpointsolvent. Solvent should only be usedin an adequately ventilated workingarea with no smoking or open flames.If conditions are such that these ma-terials are not available, heat can beused to remove the wax.Tarring procedure. After the ski hasbeen cleaned, a light coat of pine taris then applied with a soft brush ora rag. If the pine tar is stiff, it shouldbe heated slightly so it can be evenlydistributed. Heat is then applied tothe running surface to cause penetra-tion of the pine tar into the pores ofthe wood. The source of heat may bea blowtorch (fig. 4-5), one burnerstove, or an open fire (fig. 4-6). Toobtain the best penetration, work

65


L

'—• cSQ.%

(3)

66

progressively on one section at a timerather than heating the whole surfaceof the ski. Care must be taken toavoid burning or scorching the woodby application of too much heat. Itmay be necessary to repeat this proce-dure several times to obtain a suffi-cient coating. Excess pine tar is re-moved during the heating process bymeans of a rag. When finished, therunning surface of the ski should bedry and not sticky to the touch.Lacquering procedure. After the skihas been cleaned, the surface is al-lowed to dry thoroughly before apply-ing the lacquer. The lacquer is ap-plied with a clean brush, rag, orsponge, starting at the tip and work-ing towards the heel using smooth,even strokes in a continuous motion.None of the lacquered areas should betouched until the lacquer incomplete-ly dry. This requires several hours.The application should be made at

room temperature for best results. Atleast two separate coats should be ap-plied, making certain that each oneis completely dry before the next oneis applied. It is recommended that thesurface be lightly sanded with finesandpaper or steel wool, betweencoats. Care must be exercised not toinhale toxic lacquer fumes. For pro-longed or repeated exposure to suchfumes, unapproved respirator shouldbe worn. No smoking or open flamesshould be permitted in or around thework area and adequate ventilationshould be provided.

4-10. Waxing of Skisa. General. There are no standard ski waxes

available in the supply system therefore com-mercial waxes must be procured and used. Thepurpose of ski wax is to provide the ski withnecessary climbing and sliding qualities to pre-vent backslip in various snow conditions. Whensnow conditions and temperature change, the

AGO 8641A


—'• ct osco.cr

type and method of application of ski wax willalso differ. Before wax can be properly se-lected and applied, the individual must learnto recognize the different types of snow con-ditions. It is also valuable to have some knowl-edge of how ski wax performs in relation tosnow. After snow has fallen on the ground,its crystalline structure is continuously alteredby the effects of temperature, wind, and hu-midity. In very cold weather these changesoccur much more slowly than when tempera-ture is near 32° F. Therefore, the most im-portant factor of waxing is the effect thattemperature has on the character of the snowand its sliding qualities.

b. Snow and its Effects on Wax.(1) The effects of snow crystals. It is im-

portant to understand the relation of

wax to the holding and sliding cap-abilities of the snow. For this reasonthere are specific waxes to use incross-country skiing under differentsnow surface conditions.

(a) Proper wax. When the soldier isskiing on the level, or uphill, hisbody weight gives maximum pres-sure to the skis. The soft quality ofthe wax allows the crystal structureof the snow to penetrate the waxunder this pressure and thus keepthe ski from backslapping. Whenthe pressure is lifted and the skiallowed to slide forward, the pene-trating snow crystals will slide freefrom the surface of the wax reduc-ing friction. Continuous forwardmotion, as in sliding, keeps thecrystals from penetrating the wax.

(b) Wax too soft. When the skis slidepoorly, the following condition gen-erally exists: the snow crystalshave penetrated into the wax butwill not slide free. This causes clog-ging of the snow on the runningsurface and may eventually causeice to form. Under these conditionsthe soldier will find that even vig-orous sliding of the ski will notbreak the snow loose from the waxsurface. Little or no forward slidecan be gained.

(c) Wax too hard. When the skis slidewell, but backslip on the level andwhen moving uphill, the followingcondition exists: the snow crystalsare not penetrating the wax. Thesoldier will find he has excellentsliding when going downhill, butclimbing uphill or skiing on levelground is very exhausting becauseof backslip. This is the primarydeterrent to the use of “downhill”waxes for cross-country skiing.

(2) Classification of snow. Snow is classi-fied here into four general types. Thisclassification is intended to assist thesoldier in snow identification, choiceof wax, and its proper applicationunder these different conditions.

(a) Wet snow. This type of snow is

AGO 8641A 67


I

11..,

s%zn.Q •t—w 8 ob

(b)

(c)

mostly found during the spring,but it may also occur in the fallor late winter, particularly in re-gions of moderate climate. Thistype of snow can be readily madeinto a heavy, solid snowball. In ex-treme conditions, wet snow will be-come slushy and contain a maxi-mum amount of water.Moist snow. This type of snow isgenerally associated with early (d)winter, but may also occur in mid-winter during a sudden warmupperiod. This type of snow can bemade into a snowball, but will notcompress as readily or be as heavy

as well as in spring, when abnorm-ally low temperatures occur. Thissnow is light and fluffy. It cannotbe compressed into a snowball un-less the snow is made moist byholding it in the hand. At extreme-ly low temperatures, such as thosefound in the far northern regions,this snow is like sand, and has verypoor sliding qualities.New snow. This is snow which isstill falling or has recently fallenon the ground, but has not beensubject to changes due to the sunor temperature variation. It can bewet, moist, or dry in nature.

as a wet snowball. It will have a c. Proper Selection and Application oftendency to fall apart. Waxes. Cross-country ski waxes are formulatedDry snow. This type of snow is gen- to provide optimum sliding and climbing char-erally associated with winter at its acteristics for various types of snow conditions.height, but it can occur in late fall Each type is labeled with appropriate instruc-

AGO 8641A68


_st $—\. ooI 1u oottQ o\ xir

tions on its intended use, i.e., wet, moist ordry snow conditions. Since the types of waxvary between manufacturers, no particulartype of wax can be prescribed for each classi-fication of snow; however, the instructions oneach container specifies the weather conditionsand type of snow where performance of thewax is best. Proper application of all waxesis important to achieve desired results whetherthey be traction or sliding action. As a generalrule, the wax that gives the best sliding sur-face for all types of snow provides an excellentbase for application of other waxes. To pro-vide traction, varying amounts, combinations,and methods of application of other waxes areused. When pulling a sled or carrying a heavyload, thicker coats of wax may be required toinsure traction.

d. Waxing Procedure.(1)

(2)

AGO 8641A

Whenever possible, the waxing ofskis should be done before the marchwhen shelter and heat are available,as the running surface of the skishould be warm and dry to obtainbest results. When on the march, skiwax should be carried in the pockets,if possible, so that body heat willkeep the wax soft and easy to use.If the skis need waxing during themarch, the running surfaces aredried as much as possible by the useof paper or dry mittens. Wheneverpossible, old wax should be removedbefore rewaxing skis particularlywhen a different type of wax is beingused. Refer to paragraph 4-9 b (1) forproper method for removing old wax.To apply, cover the running surfacewith wax. Next, smooth the wax byrubbing it with the hand, using theheel of the palm or the fingers (fig.4-7), a waxing cork, or a heated iron.When heat is available, this processcan be made easier by warming thewax that has been applied. It is norm-ally best to work progressively on asection at a time, from the ski tiptowards the heel. If the waxing isdone in a shelter, or heat is used, theskis should be allowed to cool to out-side air temperature before being

used. Do not place the running sur-faces of skis on snow immediatelyafter waxing if heat is used or if wax-ing is done in a heated room or shelteras the snow may stick and freeze tothe running surface. For the samereason protect the running surfacesagainst wind driven snow. To insurethat wax is properly chosen and ap-plied, the skis should be tested beforebeing used on an extended march.

4-11. Care of Ski Equipmenta. General.

(1) A broken ski or binding may put a

69


(2)

soldier at the mercy of the enemy andthe elements and prevent him fromaccomplishing his mission. If thesoldier keeps his skis and equipmentin good condition, he will find thatski marches are easier and less tiringand that he will not be the cause ofany unnecessary delays and halts byhis unit. Care of ski equipment is theresponsibility of the individual sol-dier—he must check it before start-ing out on a mission, during breaks,and when in bivouac. At least once aweek the ski equipment should bethoroughly checked by unit leaders.During combat the inspection mustbe done whenever the situation per-mits.Skis must be checked for proper baseof pine tar, evidence of possible warp-ing and splitting, loss of camber, de-fective edges, and broken steel edgesections or screws. At the same timebindings must be checked for wornstraps, missing rivets and screws, andproper adjustment. Ski poles shouldbe checked to insure that wrist straps,handgrips, baskets, and points arefirmly fastened and that no breakagehas occurred.

b. Daily Care.(1) After each day's use, the skis and the

skiing equipment should be checkedand necessary repairs made by the in-dividual as follows:

(a) Skis. Remove any snow or ice thathas frozen to the ski. This may bedone with heat. If heat is not avail-able, this can be done with a mit-ten, wooden stick, or piece of metal.Check the heels and tips of the skisfor cracks. Badly cracked skis mustbe replaced, as they are weakenedand break easily. At the same time,check for and replace defective ormissing edges and screws. The con-dition of ski bottoms is thenchecked and, if needed, additionalpine tar or base wax is applied. Thesurface waxing for the next day’smarch is deferred until snow con-

(b)

(c)

ditions are determined in the morn-ing or shortly prior to departure.After maintenance of skis is com-pleted, they should be placed in-doors, preferably in a ski rack (fig.4-8). Under field conditions, skisare placed in an improvised skirack, planted upright in the snowor stacked.Bindings. Insure that all straps,buckles, screws and rivets are pres-ent and in good condition. Replaceparts which are unserviceable. Ifnecessary, readjust the fit of thebindings.Poles. Check wrist straps, hand-grips, shafts, baskets, and points toinsure that they are in good con-dition. Broken parts should be re-placed at the first opportunity.Temporary repairs can be madewith wire, cord, or tape.

(2) When snow cover is comparativelythin, be careful not to damage theskis while skiing in rocky or stumpyterrain. Sometimes there is waterunder the snow cover on frozen riversor lakes. Try to cross them at a dryplace; make an improvised hastybridge from trees or boughs, if timepermits. If the skis become wet dur-ing a crossing of water, the ice whichforms on the skis must be removedafter reaching the bank. A longmarch or sudden change in tempera-ture may require rewaxing of skisduring the march. When skis are re-moved, do not leave them on the snow.It may stick and freeze on the run-ning surface. Remove the snow fromthe skis and stack them beside the skitracks or lean the skis against a tree.A ski stack can be built by each squad.

c. Repair.(1) General. Repair of unserviceable ski

equipment requires qualified person-nel with necessary tools and facili-ties, Therefore, the soldier will onlybe permitted to make emergency re-pairs such as replacing bindings,screws, and steel edges.

AGO 8641A


•YIUAtVI tu .iwI1flWi

I __________________________________

io Itb o\

s%zn. t—' *U £ñ'

(2) Emergency repair. The repair of skiequipment under field conditions isemergency repair. In many casesbroken skis or worn out parts of skiequipment must be replaced. To fa-cilitate this, the following arrange-ments are necessary:

(a) Every unit should have replace-ment skis, bindings, and poles.There should also be available, skirepair kits, pine tar or lacquer, andwaxes.

(b) Every squad should have one emer-gency ski tip (fig. 4-9 ) and eachplatoon, one ski repair kit.

(c) Every man should have the follow-

(3)

ing in his possession at all times:1. Emergency thong.2. Pocketknife.3. Piece of light wire (malleable) or

nylon cord.Combat repair. During combat, themost suitable time for maintenanceand repair of skis and ski equipmentis when the unit is in reserve.

d. Storage.(1) Proper storing of skis and skiing

equipment is most important , duringoff seasons. Improper care in storage

AGO 8641A

(2)

procedures will damage this equip-ment, making it unserviceable.When the skiing season is over, skisand poles are turned in by the usingunit for storage. Before doing so, the

71


218Yb—

'c Ii

II

escw-flLJ\

11 't'

II\\

1I

ocvt *tI

V

;

bscsq bbLox!wvJ p. p;7LOW W6 bOJf1OU JIG LjJ1 N 'llI PG

—w 'tb ucur

(3)

(4)

(5)

skis must be cleaned and old waxesremoved.Skis and poles are then checkedthoroughly. Those in good conditionare separated from those in need ofrepair or salvage. Necessary repairsare made. Ski bindings are not re-moved. All skis should be pine-tarredor lacquered. If needed, skis are re-painted. Skilled personnel are neededfor repairing skis and poles and forpreparing them for storage.In further preparation, the skis aretied together by matching pairs ac-cording to their factory markings notunit markings. A piece of string orcord is used to tie the skis at theirtips and heels with running surfacesfacing each other. A wooden block(waxing cork may be used) is thenplaced-between the skis at the metaltoe plates. The correct spread is about6 to 8 cm (2” to 3“). After beingMocked, the skis are stored in a verti-cal position, with the tips down. Ifthe skis must be stored horizontally,they should be supported at both endsand at the middle, with the end sup-ports on the top side of the ski and themiddle support beneath and arrangedso that tension is maintained on thecamber. Each ski should be supportedindividually when stored horizontally.The storage room should be dry withan even temperature and good venti-lation (fig. 4-10).After ski poles are checked, repaired,and reconditioned, they should beplaced in the same storage area asthe skis.

4-12. Basic Movementa. General. In moving on skis for the first

time, most beginners find that skis are awk-ward to handle due to the difficulty of obtain-ing the necessary balance and coordination. Toovercome these difficulties, the first instruc-tional phase is devoted to step turns and walk-ing on level ground in order to obtain the bal-ance, correct body position, coordination, andrhythm necessary in skiing. In addition, this

72 AGO 8641A


1

TIk

1r

sst ——OUfIIflGq LG8GJJGq

ponp 11JOIJ2q6 uuq bJc6q bL8JJ6J I1J86 'c!J JJG 11GM 68LG L6CO1J O LUJ6J 86L bjvc!iJ çpG Lipc 2Jq çpc jq; jq jjj pG . V2 UJ1fIJK LGbG!OU2 O 4p2 G2CJG 82 LIGGG228L2 L6

st&

t——coJJu1,6q4}J6 J6I çJJG GCJ6 i cowbJGsq

3 ya 4JJ6 jqç jq boJG uJj ponyç u jouaq

basic movement is a means of forming thefoundation for further instruction. Ski drilltechniques are covered in appendix C.

b. Skiing Without Poles. The soldier willfind that in performing duties, especially incombat, he will be required to ski either withpoles carried in one hand or without poles. For

AGO 8641A

this reason, it is important that he practiceall techniques with and without the use of skipoles. This is especially important in the begin-ning stages of skiing, as practice without skipoles will aid in learning proper transferbody weight, balance, timing, and controlthe skis.

4-13. Step Turna. Use. The step is the simplest means

ofof

ofchanging direction from a standing position.It is particularly valuable in brushy andwooded terrain (fig. 4-11).

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

From the standing position the right(left) ski tip is raised, the ski is ro-tated to the right (left) side, usingthe heel of the ski as a pivot.The ski is placed on the snow andthe body weight shifted onto it.The left (right) ski is moved alongside the right (left) in the same man-ner.Each pole is raised, moved, and placedwith the corresponding ski (i.e., rightski, right pole).The same movement is repeated untilthe desired direction is obtained.

73


ajq ;ibbc6q ii uo sbbLox!wJ 6AGIJ !CJ' tp6jp6 J4p4 jq 4JJ6II aMnU OLMøL uq p6 pe€j

SAt1 t—fl—Oupufl6q

bjwc& uuq o€q nucij !; bnvjjcj JAJ;p ;p6 jq;o aaqu BMB)s LLow çpG pofl yc6but ;pG }166J u

3 JLOW f}J6 A614jCBJ boalc!ou ;p6 x4tyç ajq a sjjoasq

Ic —1wçpG L}J oO truq jq ;o p€ 1.601. 0 JJ4 0UJOflfllLcJn1LGq OL l J(JCJ flLU çO JJ6 L1JJ BMIUJ1J

(6) In confined areas it may be necessaryto use the tip of the ski instead of theheel as a pivot point. In turning tothe right (left) the heel of the left(right) ski is raised off the snow andmoved to the left of its original posi-tion. Then the right (left) ski ismoved alongside the left (right) skiand this sequence repeated until thedesired direction is achieved.

4-14. Kick Turna. Use. The kick turn is a method for re-

versing the direction of a skier when in astanding position. It is used on both flat andsteep terrain. In combat, it is also useful toconceal a change of direction in a ski track(fig. 4-12).

b. Technique.(1) Beginning in the standing position

with skis level, the left (right ) poleis placed alongside the left (right)ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18"to 24") in front of the toe of the foot.At the same time the right (left) poleis placed alongside the right (left)ski about 45 to 60 cm (18" to 24")behind the heel of the foot.

(2) The right (left) leg is swung forwardand upward until the ski is momen-

74

(3)

tarily perpendicular, its heel along-side the tip of the left (right) ski.To obtain sufficient momentum forthis movement, a preliminary back-ward movement of the right (left)ski should first be made.The right (left) ski is then pivotedon its heel and lowered, pointing in

AGO 8641A


4jbSt '—1—COIJ1fl6qbof!oif bBLIJ6J ';i cp p; jq4 JJJIG J64 jq jçq uq L096q LOnUq 0 JI6 J3G4

b. Technique.

(4)

(5)

(6)

the opposite direction and parallel tothe left (right) ski.The body weight is shifted to theright (left) ski, bringing the left(right) ski and pole around andalongside the right (left) ski in thenew direction, placing the ski pole inthe snow.On a gentle slope the procedure isthe same, except the uphill ski shouldbe turned first.On a steep slope, the skis are placedhorizontally across the slope andedged into the slope for necessarystability. The movements in executingthe turn are the same as describedabove except that both ski poles areinitially placed in the snow above theskis and the downhill ski is turnedfirst. Then the uphill ski and pole arebrought around simultaneously tocomplete the turn.

4-15. The Walking Stepa. Use. This is the simplest movement in

skiing and is used as the basic step in forwardmotion. In military skiing, its application isfor situations where walking or climbing isnecessary. On level ground, sliding action ofvariable degrees can be obtained.

AGO 8641A

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

From the position of attention onskis (para C-17) left unweighted skiis slid flat over the surface of thesnow and straight forward as innormal walking.At the same time, both knees are bentand the body weight is graduallyshifted onto the advanced foot. Theheel of the rear foot is raised.The right ski pole is moved forwardand the basket is placed close to theright ski, towards the tip, with itsshaft leaning to the front.A push to the rear with the pole ismade, assisting in the forward bodymotion.The above motion is repeated withthe right ski.On level ground the skis are kept flatand parallel.The skis are not lifted off the snow,and the weight of the skis is carriedby the snow.

4-16. One Stepa. General. The basic movement of the one

step is the walking step. Forward motion andglide are increased when the skier applies moreeffort to his step. This added effort is obtainedby a lunge coordinated with an increased pushfrom the poles.

b. Use. The one step is the most widely usedof all skiing steps. It is applied under all typesof snow conditions on level ground (fig. 4-13).

c. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

The one step is started by a forwardlean of the body, with well bent kneesand ankles. The feet are kept flat andthe body weight is on the right ski,from which the initial movement(lunge) is made.The left, unweighted ski is slid flatand straight forward by a springingmotion from right ankle, knee, andhip, straightening the body andtransferring the weight to the leftsliding ski.The springing motion (lunge) above,

75


,b M4;3 rsq;;QA;i r4.PS4WU!.Id &ow

scq rsu ba1, hpc.q p sPU ptp4 pianô cw ouo

P SLtU RI It

4pm Usc.q IC st tpo.ia . p. bp.c.q oua. b.b.i0s. .4 p04*M• pismq a&I.I qSIlSS!IISI4LSHOWI *(MC 40fl0*MOLE3 I& êII!I •Pq W'

UIqAIIS14 cAc1sp. p.aip .ssq

p. a. jq.i. — p. p.sb.r wai.e ösp. p bssN.... $P —.b'ip — iq 4R1S dpqp.

—S .aq biup M4 pS

t—% Q3 8Qb

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

76

is completed by straightening theright knee and pushing off from theright foot, thus completing the weighttransfer.The body weight is kept on the slid-ing (left) ski and, as the glide nearscompletion, the left knee and ankleare bent in preparation for the nextlunge. Meanwhile, the right leg is re-laxed and moves the ski forward inpreparation for the next step. As thisleg reaches a position approximatelyalongside the left leg, the next stepis made with the right ski by lungingfrom the left leg.When using the poles, the lunge isexecuted as above except that as theleft foot is slid forward the right skipole is swung straight to the frontand placed towards the tip of theright ski or, when the right ski isslid forward, the left ski pole isbrought forward.The slide is increased by a push withthe ski pole. The ski pole is leanedslightly to the front and the armskept close to the body.The pushing action of the ski pole isincreased progressively by the mus-cles of arms and shoulders. The pushis finished off by a sharp straighten-

(8)

ing of the arm for added power.When the push has been completedthe arm is relaxed and brought for-ward close to the body in preparationfor the next poling action.During the coordinated movement ofpoles and lunge, correct timing anda long glide are emphasized. Themain power glide is obtained fromthe lunge executed by each leg, thepoling action provides only a second-ary source of momentum. All motionsare rhythmic and fluent. Poles areused in a relaxed manner and thepressure of pushing is allowed to comeon the wrist strap.

4-17. Two Step and Three Stepa. Use. This step is used to attain a longer

and faster glide on the level. It is also usedas an aid through dips and over bumps.

b. Technique. The technique of the two stepis a combination of an accelerated walkingstep and a one step. In the two step the pushis obtained by the use of double poling (fig.4-14).

(1)

(2)

From a standing position with theknees slightly bent, a walking step ismade with the left ski to start thebody in motion initially.A lunge is then made from the left

AGO 8641A


u•rt144 * avq Po boil, ps,a rnva. o-.a1i1, rnuas 0140 14814

,. aptoq bo1ei %O4tuaNI&aI 1eHJL L

ponq. 4pLMatq r.+ q eiq Q4i boat. psu

4'(O dY

$ bns MI4 bo1.i s pot4o.MaIq suJSu &ASU aq,ua eke1. 01

yq.q .mu M4I n MIIS pi.oci6 asaq

(3)

(4)

(5)

leg, in a continuous rhythmic motion,to produce a long glide on the rightski.While gliding on the right ski, theleft ski is brought slowly forward andeven with the other ski to completethe first two step and in preparationof the next two step. This actionshould be started before the momen-tum of the glide has been lost.As the first step is made, both skipoles are brought straight to the frontin a comfortable reach and set intothe snow alongside the skis in coordi-nation with the lunge of the secondstep.The pushing action with the poles isapplied in the same manner as de-scribed above in using one pole. Asthe poles leave the snow, they arebrought forward in a straight line inpreparation for the execution of thenext step. It is most important to timethis motion properly to coordinatewith the next lunge.

c. Three Step. In addition to the two step,the three step may be used anytime whenchanging ski steps and when sliding is poor.The initial steps are intended to produce moreinitial power. It has an advantage over thetwo step since it allows double poling and lung-

AGO 8641A

ing from alternate feet. The step is made inthe same manner as the two step except thattwo walking steps are taken before each lunge.

4-18. Variations and Applications of SkiSteps

a. In long, cross-country movement, parti-cularly when skiing with pack and rifle, it ismost important to apply techniques properlyaccording to the terrain to insure that energyis spent wisely and conserved as much as possi-ble. To this end, the individual must attemptto obtain as much glide as possible from hisskis during each step. Although lasting onlyfor a short moment, the glide will allow theskier to rest temporarily. In addition, allmovements must be made in a relaxed manner,which necessitates continuous individual train-ing. The constant use of the same step is monot-onous and increases fatigue. To avoid this,various steps are used temporarily. The sameeffect is also necessary in poling. In order torelax arm and shoulder muscles, a series ofsteps may be made without poling. In the onestep, for instance, the first two steps can bemade without using the poles. Any additionalcombination of steps and poling may be madeat one’s discretion for the same reason, placingmore emphasis on leg rather than arm work,or vice versa.

b. In bumpy terrain, ski steps and poling

77


1$•slu. M% tq oii%I LIIP1 0U J16 ajobe

may be used individually or in various com-binations to provide a strong pushoff to providethe skier with sufficient glide for a continuousmotion through a dip and over a bump. Whena series of bumps and dips is encountered, thepoling action is generally applied on the crestof the first bump in order to obtain sufficientmomentum to reach the top of the next bumpin a continuous glide. A step supported bydouble poling may be applied when skiingthrough the dip. There are other situationswhere double poling may be applied to gainor increase forward motion of the ski withouttaking a step.

4-19. Fallinga. General. In military skiing there are two

types of falls, controlled and unintentional.(1) Controlled falls. The controlled fall

has definite value. It can be used toavoid excessive speed or to avoid hit-ting obstacles if other means are notpossible. The controlled fall can bedone safely only at slow to moderatespeeds. It is used to take cover quick-ly, assume a firing position or for a

(2)

quick stop to avoid hitting an object.When properly used, it can be accom-plished without injury to the indi-vidual.Unintentional falls. Unintentionalfalls are undesirable and may causeserious injury. Other undesirable re-sultsof an unintentional fall are in-creased fatigue, possible frostbite, andholes in the snow which may causeother skiers to fall. Factors whichmay contribute to unintentional fallsare poor skiing ability, lack of con-trol, snow conditions, fatigue, and ex-cessive speeds.

b. Technique of Falling.(1)

(2)

If a fall is imminent, an attempt ismade to relax, lower the body, and toland sideways and to the rear.While falling, an attempt should bemade to stretch the body, to extendthe arms and to keep the ski polesto the rear (fig. 4-15). Care shouldbe taken to keep the knees from dig-ging into the snow, as such action isa major cause of injury.

78 AGO 8641A


(I

——C0U!Dff6q5 KGC0A6L L01JJ V WJJ 011 4JJG V10b6

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The impact of the fall should be ab-sorbed by the hips or buttocks.The unintentional fall is avoided asmuch as possibie. It is often preventedby the correction of a faulty ski orbody position.Landing directly on a knee or handmust be avoided since the resultingblow may cause serious injury. Thisis especially serious in heavy wetsnow or breakable crust because theextended arm or knee may penetrateand be locked firmly in place beforethe body has lost momentum.Although falling or “sitting down”with the skis facing downhill is thepreferred method, occasionally a fall“over the tips” cannot be avoided. Theimportant thing to remember is RE-LAX.

c. Recovery.(1) To recover from a fall, the skier

must first figure out what to do beforeattempting to rise. A little planningwill save time and energy.

AGO 8641A

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

If necessary, the pack and other re-strictive loads are removed.Skis are untangled and brought paral-lel, feet together. Knees are pulled upto bring the skis close to the body.The body is then moved forward andraised, pushing with the pole if as-sistance is needed.To use the ski poles, both hands arefirst removed from the straps. Thepoles are then placed together withbaskets in the snow slightly to therear, grasped with one hand abovethe basket, palm facing downward,and with the other hand close to thetop, palm facing upward.The procedure for recovery from afall on a slope is the same except thatthe skis are placed below the bodyand perpendicular (at right angles)to the fall line. To obtain this posi-tion it may be necessary to roll ontothe back, lifting the skis in the airand then in the proper position. Polesare then used as described on the up-hill side (fig. 4-15).

79


5t.Q •

4-20. Straight Uphill Climbinga. Use. Straight uphill climbing is a method

of ascending gentle and moderate slopes.b. Technique.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Take the first step as in walking thebody leaning forward with knees wellbent.On gentle slopes, slide the skis for-ward without lifting them from thesnow. On steeper slopes, more kneebend is required which causes a trans-fer of body weight. It may becomenecessary to lift the ski as the stepis made, and to place it with a stampi-ng action upon the snow. This willgive the ski wax better holding quali-ties because it will not break downthe snow crystals by first sliding overthem.Use the ski poles to assist the bodyin its uphill movement and to mini-mize backslip.The degree of slope which may beascended using this method is limitedby the holding characteristics of thewax used. With repeated backslappingof the skis, the slope should be tra-versed thereby decreasing the angleof climb, or a different method ofclimbing should be used.

4-21. Sidestepa. Use. The sidestep is an effective method

of climbing a short, steep slope, where spaceis confined; it may be the only practical meansof ascending slopes. It is also useful for step-ping sideways over logs, stumps, and otherobstacles.

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

80

The skis are placed together and per-pendicular (at right angles) to theslope (fall line). To prevent slippingsideways, the uphill edges of both skisare forced into the snow by pushingboth knees forward and toward theslope. Avoid leaning into the slope.Initially, the weight of the body isplaced on the lower ski.The uphill is lifted in a sideways stepup the slope (fig. 4-16) and the body

weight placed upon it. The upper skipole is moved at the same time andplaced above and alongside this ski.

The lower ski is then moved up asclose as possible to the uphill ski,while the skier is supported by a pushon the lower pole. This pole is thenbrought up and placed alongside thelower ski. This completes one cycleof the sidestep. Merely repeat untilthe desired elevation is reached.

4-22. Uphill Traversea. Use. This method of climbing is used

when the slope becomes too steep for goingstraight uphill. Although a traverse generallyinvolves a zigzag route, it will often be theleast tiring method of ascending, thereby con-serving time and energy.

b. Technique.(1) An angle of ascent

will allow climbing(2) The skis are edged

is selected whichwithout backslip.into the slope on

AGO 8641A


I .IJ4UpOUG

ttoq* o\ nc)uw%asbI.t.Q t—h• -!Q3..flS%9O3tS

H'1 pGJJ1JJpOU6

(8)

each step with the ski poles used asin straight uphill climbing.In changing the direction of ascenta kick turn or a herringbone turn,(para 4-24d) can be utilized. Longtraverses should be used wheneverpossible, since elevation is gainedmore effectively and with less expen-diture of energy in this manner.

4-23. Sidestep Traversea. Use. This step is a combination of a side-

step and the uphill traverse. It allows greatervertical climb in each traverse.

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

The movement is the same as in theuphill traverse, except the ski israised slightly and placed uphill as itis brought forward with each step.The skis are kept parallel and edged,as in the sidestep.The ski poles are moved in the samesequence as in the sidestep.

4-24. Herringbonea. Use. The herringbone is used to climb

short, moderate, or steep slopes. It providesa quicker ascent than the sidestep. It is moretiring and should be used only for relativelyshort ascents.

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

AGO 8641A

The body is faced uphill with skisspread to form a wide V. This is ob-tained by spreading both ski tips out-ward. The skis are edged sharply in-ward, to prevent backslip, by bendingthe knees forward and inward (fig.4-17).The first step is made by placing theweight on one ski, raising the otherslightly above the snow and movingit forward and upward. This ski isthen placed in the snow, edged in-ward, and the body weight trans-ferred to it. The other ski is thenmoved in the same manner andplaced slightly ahead.The ski poles are used in the samemanner as the sidestep, except theyare alternately placed to the rear of

81


rrL

ftt3S•.

the body and to the outside of eachski to act as a brace and to aid inthe climb.

c. Half-Herringbone.(1)

(2)

Use. The half-herringbone is a varia-tion of the herringbone technique andis used to aid in preventing backslipon gentle to moderate slopes in bothstraight uphill climbing and travers-ing (fig. 4-17).Technique. The half-herringbone isexecuted with one ski in the herring-bone position, the other pointing inthe direction of movement. The polesare used for support to prevent theski pointed uphill from backslappingwhile the other ski is advanced. Thedownward angle and edging of thisski is increased with the steepness ofthe slope ascended.

d. Herringbone Turn.(1)

(2)

Use. The herringbone turn is amethod of changing direction whiletraversing a slope, while climbing, orwhen in confined areas where a kickturn may be difficult to use. It is alsoused to change direction from a her-ringbone position.Technique. From a traversing posi-tion the upper ski is moved first inthe desired direction, using its heelas a pivot point. This ski is thenplaced into the snow, as in a herring-bone step, with the full body weighton it. The other ski is moved up inthe same way and placed into thesnow. This brings the skier into aherringbone position. Both poles areheld to the rear to brace the bodyduring this movement. This cycle isrepeated until the lower ski hasreached the desired direction. The up-per ski is brought parallel with thelower ski into a traversing positionagain, completing the herringboneturn.

4-25. Straight Downhill Runninga. Use. Straight downhill running is the first

technique learned in skiing downhill. It pro-

82

vides the individual with the balance whichhe must have before he can effectively descenda slope or learn more advanced techniques. Al-though it is the fastest means of descending,speed must be kept within the capabilities ofthe skier (fig. 4-18).

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

In a normal standing position withskis flat and parallel, one ski is ad-vanced 10 to 15 cm (4" to 6").Body weight is evenly distributed onboth skis. The knees are bent andpushed forward from the ankles, keep-ing the heels flat on the skis.The body is leaned slightly forwardin a relaxed and natural upright po-sition, head up, knees and anklesflexed without bending the body atthe waist to the front.Ski poles are held pointing to the rearwith baskets above the snow. Thearms are bent slightly at the elbowsand held close to the body with handsto the front.Body and arms are kept relaxed.Knees are kept supple to act as shockabsorbers. The skier must be alert atall times.

4-26. Downhill Traversea. Use. This is the method most commonly

used in descent; either used by itself or incombination with other techniques. An indi-vidual who has learned the techniques and haschosen a gradual route of descent can, in com-

AGO 8641A


't—w osboi

bit 't— 14.U•

bination with a kick turn, travel over a greatvariety of terrain (fig. 4-19).

b. Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

The basic position is that of straightdownhill running, except that the up-hill shoulder and ski is always slightlyadvanced and most of the weight ison the lower ski.Stand directly over the skis and avoidleaning into the slope. Both skis be-ing edged into the slope.If more edging is needed, it is con-trolled by knee and ankle action, andis kept even and constant.The ski poles are held as in thestraight downhill positions.

4-27. Snowplowa. Use. The snowplow is a means for con-

trolling and slowing down forward motion inall types of terrain. In gentle or moderate ter-rain it can be used for-stopping. The snowplowuses fundamental positions which are employedfor furthering other skiing techniques (fig. 4-20).

b. Techniques.(1) From straight downhill running.

(a)

(b)

AGO 8641A

To move into a snowplow, bothheels are pushed outward evenly,keeping the ski tips even and closetogether, forcing the skis to forma wide V.The body weight is kept even onboth skis. The knees are bent well

(c)

(d)

forward in the direction of the skitips, causing the skis to be edgedslightly inward. The heels are keptconstantly on the skis while con-tinuous outward heel pressure uponthe skis is applied.The upper part of the body and theski poles are held as in the straightdownhill running position.To increase the braking action,the skis are moved into a wider Vand edged more.

(2) Half snowplow.(a)

(b)

When only one ski is brought intosnowplow position, this is referredto as a half snowplow. The halfsnowplow is used in confined areasand in traversing where a fullsnowplow is impractical for brak-ing action. It is also used in con-junction with basic and advancedturns.This motion is executed by pushingonly one ski outward in the snow-

83


I 2cLJPI qoupj

S 0" qoMupJJ ILA6LB6

*' 'au bo qr%•

S3 U O$M$ U4.WJ$t —' jwoc O U *ostbom

plow position described above.Braking action is controlled by thedegree of weight placed on this skiand the amount of edging applied.It is important that the ski be edgedto a pronounced degree on the in-side to eliminate the possibility of“catching” an outside edge.

(3) The snowplow while traversing down-hill.

(a) To move into a snowplow from a

fined areas where ability to control descent islimited by snow conditions, terrain features,or obstacles. Two different methods are used(fig. 4-22).

downhill traverse, the body weightis shifted momentarily to the up-hill ski. The lower ski is then moveddownhill into a half snowplow po-sition by dropping the tail andkeeping the ski tips in the samerelative positions and edging slight-ly. The body weight is then trans-ferred back onto this lower ski. Ad-ditional braking action can be ob-tained by increasing the edging ofthis ski and placing more weighton it. To complete the snowplow,the upper ski is flattened and push-ed uphill in full V (fig. 4-21).

(b) If it is desired to continue travers-ing in a snowplow, most of theweight is kept on the lower ski.Braking action is increased by awider spread of the skis and in-creased edging of both skis.

4-28. Ski Pole Ridinga. Use. Ski pole riding is a braking method

which is sometimes necessary to use in con-

84 AGO 8641A


-AI

b. Technique.(1) Poles are kept together and to the

rear and held between the legs forvertical descents.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

From a straight downhill runningposition the lateral spread of theskis is increased and both handsare removed from wrist straps.Both poles are held together andplaced to the rear between the legsand the heels of the skis.The body is placed in a squattingposition with the weight over theskis and one hand grasping thepole handles in front of the bodywith the palm facing upward, whilethe other hand is placed to the rear,grasping the shafts above the bas-kets, palm facing down.Control of descent is obtained byapplying the required pressure onthe ski poles to force the basketsinto the snow.The braking action may be in-creased by using the half snow-plow or snowplow position.

(2) Poles together and on either side ofthe body for traversing.

(a)

(b)

(c)

From a downhill traversing posi-tion both hands are removed fromwrist straps and the poles are heldtogether on the uphill side.The hand on the uphill side graspsboth pole shafts near the basketswith palm facing down and theother hand is held near the polehandles, palm facing upward.The uphill arm is braced tightlyagainst the hips to increase thebraking action.

4-29. Sideslippinga. Use. Sideslipping is a braking method

used in descending slopes at all speeds. It isespecially useful in confined areas and in steepterrain where the snowplow or pole riding isimpractical. It is the least tiring method ofbraking. In addition, it employs a sliding ac-tion which is characteristic in advanced skiingtechniques.

b. Technique.

AGO 8641A

(1) A downhill traverse position is as-sumed. The edging of both skis isdecreased by bending both knees wellforward and slightly outward. Thisminimizes the holding power of bothski edges so thatthe skier to slidehill (fig. 4-23).

gravity will causesideways down a

(2)

(3)

(4)

Care must be taken that the weightis kept well centered on the skis andthat the lower ski pole is not placedin the snow during the sliding action.The uphill pole may be used to initiatethe sideslipping action and for bal-ance. Avoid the tendency to lean onthe uphill ski pole which will hinderthe skier’s ability to maintain a goodsideslipping body position.By shifting the body weight in frontof the center of the skis while side-slipping, the tips will drop towardthe fall line; by bringing the weightto the rear, the heels of the skis willmove toward the fall line. This is ameans of correcting or controlling theangle of descent during the sideslip(fig. 4-24).The speed of descent is controlled bythe degree of edging applied to the


ItSs lSt atoow

\\çIi

\____ t((1'

1

—--=--.=.-.-----—-.%-'

"I,,

— k

b. Techniques.

(5)

(6)

skis. To stop sideslipping, the edgingis gradually increased by pressing theknees forward and toward the slope.In adverse terrain and snow condi-tions the aid of both ski poles may beused on the uphill side while side-slipping. The poles are used in thesame manner as in pole riding on atraverse. This method adds a thirdpoint of suspension and braking ac-tion.At all times during sideslipping, deli-cate control of knee and ankle actionis important to prevent the downhilledges from “catching.”

4-30. Step Turn in Motiona. Use. This method of changing direction

while in motion is useful at slow speeds in allsnow and terrain conditions. It is particularlyuseful in adverse snow conditions and in con-fined areas.

(1)

(2)

Before turning, lead with the skiwhich corresponds with the directionof the turn, i.e., right ski ahead whenturning to the right.In turning to the right the weight isplaced upon the left ski, which is thenedged to the right. The unweightedright ski is then raised and placed onthe snow in the new direction. Theweight is transferred to this ski bymoving the body in the new directionwhile pushing off from the left ski.The unweighted left ski is then liftedoff the snow, and placed close to theright ski to complete the turn. Comp-lete transfer of body weight is es-sential, and the movements mustfollow smoothly and almost simul-taneously. The ski poles are held tothe rear (fig. 4-25). The higher thespeed, the more the center of gravityis lowered by bending the knees andankles. This adds stability and aidsin keeping up with the turn.

(3) If desired, the steps can be continuedas long as the skier is in forward mo-tion and until the desired directionis obtained.

c. Variation.(1) Use. A variation of the step turn in

motion is the skating step. It is usedto accelerate forward motion on levelground or gentle slopes and is a usefulaid in developing balance, weightshifting, and coordination. Basically,the movements of shifting bodyweight from one ski to the other are

AGO 8641A


(2)

the same as in the step turn in mo-tion except that direction is notchanged and the skis are edged in-ward on each pushoff.Technique.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

From a straight downhill positionbody weight is placed upon eitherski and knee and ankle bend isstressed:The other ski is lifted above thesnow with the tip pointed slightlyoutward.The weighted ski is edged inwardas the body is pushed off at a slightangle to the front, i.e., in the direc-tion the lifted ski is pointed.The lifted ski is moved to the front,placed flat on the snow and weightis shifted to it.The unweighted ski is lifted fromthe snow and brought to the frontnear the weighted ski in prepara-tion for the next step. These push-ing steps are alternated left andright.A strong pushoff should be madewith each step to lengthen theglide and gain acceleration. Kneeand ankle bend should be stressedwith each step.The step can be aided by doublepoling, especially to gain initialmomentum.

4-31. Snowplow Turna. Use. The snowplow turn is efficient for

use at slow speeds, especially when carryinga pack and rifle. Because the snowplow positionis retained, this turn enables the individualto maintain good control. In this turn, funda-mental body positions and movements areused which are an important part of advancedturns.

b. Technique (fig. 4-26).(1) Straight down the slope.

(a)

AGO 8641A

In executing a snowplow turn tothe LEFT while snowplowing di-rectly down a slope, the bodyweight is transferred smoothly

(b)

(c)

(d)

onto and over the right ski (notethat this ski is already pointed tothe left) by a rotation of the bodyto the right and by a pronouncedbend of the right knee to drop allbody weight onto the right ski.This transfer of body weight initi-ates the turning action.As the turn progresses, the bodyis not allowed to rotate beyond thenew direction of travel, i.e., facestraight ahead, not uphill. The leftknee is kept well bent with this skiflat and unweighted throughout theturn.Ski tips remain even and the V-angle of the skis constant. Avoidleaning into the slope. Ski poles arecarried as in the snowplow posi-tion. Care must be exercised tokeep them pointed to the rear asthe body is rotated.As the turn is completed the bodyweight is either placed evenly onboth skis to continue in a snow-plow or gradually transferred tothe left ski to start a turn to theright.

(2) From downhill traverse.(a)

(b)

In making a turn while traversing,the snowplow position is assumedas described in paragraph 4-27 b(3) (a). The edging of the lowerski is decreased and the bodyleaned forward and both ski tipsallowed to drop into the fall linein order to bring the skier into thefall line in preparation for theturn, as described above. As thetips come downhill the snowplowposition must be maintained by aholding push on the tails. The turnshould be continued until the skierhas obtained the desired angle ofdescent (fig. 4-27) . As the tips passthe fall line, body weight must betransferred to the downhill ski tocomplete the turn.After the snowplow turn has beencompleted and it is desired to con-tinue with both skis together, as

87


•6uI

it

ally shifted over and onto the otherski in executing a snowplow turn asdescribed above.

in the downhill traverse, the bodyweight is kept on the lower skiwhile the upper unweighted ski isbrought parallel with it into atraversing position (fig. 4-27).This turn is also known as stemturn.

(3) Variation. To make a snowplow turnfrom a traversing downhill positionin variable snow conditions, and whenskiing with a pack, it is advantageousto make the half snowplow with theuphill ski. In this method the bodyweight remains on the lower ski. Theupper, unweighted ski is moved intoa half snowplow, kept flat, and thetips of both skis even. The edging ofthe lower ski is decreased, knees bentmore, and the body leaned furtherforward to bring the skier into thefall line. In reaching the fall line,both skis are brought into a full snow-plow and the body weight is gradu-

4-32. Advanced TurnsThe advanced turns used in military skiing

are the christiania turns. These are applied atall speeds to change directions, to reduce speed,or to stop. These are the most advanced turnstaught in military skiing and are executedwith the basic motions already learned, suchas forward lean, edge control, and body rota-tion. The application of these turns may belimited by terrain and snow conditions, as wellas the degree of proficiency attained and theload carried by the individual soldier. Thechristiania turns are started from a variety ofpositions, but all are completed in the samemanner (fig, 4-28).

4-33. Uphill ChristianiaThe uphill christiania is used to turn uphill,

to reduce speed and to stop. It also forms thebasic movement which is used in completingother christiania turns.

a. In preparing for the uphill christianiaduring a downhill traverse, the upper shoulderis brought well forward in order to increasethe body rotation that will, be applied duringthe turn.

b. The turning action of the skis is startedby decreasing the amount of edging and, atthe same time rotating the lower shoulder andhip forward in the direction of the turn. For-ward lean of the body and knee bend are in-creased and the upper ski leads throughout theturn (1, fig. 4-28).

c. During the turn, both skis are controlledby gradually edging them into the slope. Theweight is directly over the skis. Avoid leaninginto the slope.

d. Forward lean and body rotation are in-creased and continued as the turn progresses.Forward speed will gradually decrease, per-mitting the skier the choice of continuing in anew direction or coming to a stop.

e. Care must be exercised so that the skipoles are not allowed to swing to the frontduring the rotation of the body.

AGO 8641A 88


;q i

$t_ —• oscboit st tç ;csu boor

f. This turn can be made from any angleacross the slope to and including the fall line.

g. From a fall line the turn can be made ineither direction. In preparation, the ski cor-responding with the direction of turn is ad-vanced (i.e., left ski leads for a left turn) andmore of the body weight placed on the otherski. Emphasis is given to body rotation andknee bend to initiate the turning action of theskis.

h. To assist the turning action, a down-upmotion can be used in this turn. As the turningaction is stated as in b above, the body islowered and returned to normal as the turn iscompleted.

4-34. Snowplow Christianiaa. Technique. The snowplow christiania,

also referred to as the stem christiania, is

AGO 8641A

used on turns made downhill while traversingat greater speeds than employed in the basicturns. For this reason the turn looks complic-ated to the student. Basically, it is a com-bination of the snowplow turn and the uphill christiania. The basic techniques of the snow-plow turn made from a traverse position arealso used here to reach the fall line. The uphillchristiania is then applied to either changedirection or to stop. In combining these methodsthe speed must be greater, the body weightshifted more rapidly, and the spread of theskis in the snowplow position at a narrowerangle. Using the snowplow christiania it ispossible to link a number of turns together tocontrol speed in a continuous descent. A break-down of the technique is as follows:

(1) In making a downhill turn to the leftfrom a downhill traverse, the bodyweight is shifted momentarily to theuphill ski. The lower ski is then

89


04t

I flbpIlJ CpLJf,

-I lit

11

c2SU32110 CJJL2U!V uq ALJV4OUr

90

(2)

moved downhill into a half snowplowposition, keeping the ski tips even.At the same time, the lower shoulderis brought forward. The uphill ski isthen pushed uphill to form a snow-plow.Body weight is then transferred backto the upper ski by body rotation,initiating the turning action.

(3)

(4)

(5)

AS the fall line is reached, the un-weighted left ski is brought slightlyforward and parallel with the rightski. The turn is then completed as inthe uphill christiania (2, fig. 4-28).The upper body is kept from leaninginto the slope throughout the turn,especially during the initial turningphase. Forward lean and knee bendare increased. All motions are fluentand smooth and must be well timedduring the turn.When a decrease in speed is desiredbefore starting the turn, there aretwo methods which can be used. Inthe first method the lower ski is firstplaced into a half snowplow position.Temporarily transferring the bodyweight to the ski and edging it willcause a braking action. When speedhas been decreased as desired, theupper ski is pushed upward, the edg-ing of the lower ski decreased, andthe turn continued as in (2), (3), and(4) above. In the second method bothskis are kept parallel and a sideslipfrom the moving traverse position isstarted. Edging of the skis in thismovement will provide braking ac-tion. When speed has been decreasedas desired, the turn is started as fromthe downhill traverse position.

b. Variations.(1) In difficult snow and terrain condi-

tions another method may be used toexecute a snowplow christiania. Inmaking a downhill turn to the leftfrom a downhill traverse with thismethod, the upper (right) ski isbrought into a half snowplow position.Leaning well forward, increasing theknee bend and decreasing the edgingof the lower ski will bring the skiersmoothly towards the fall line; thebody weight is transferred over andonto the right ski in a smooth for-ward and downward motion, assistedby bringing the right shoulder for-ward. As the transfer of body weightis completed, the unweighted left skiis brought forward and parallel with

AGO 8641A


b. Technique.

(2)

the right ski and the turn completedfrom the fall line as in the uphillchristiania.As more skills and balance are ac-quired, the snowplow christiania maybe done at higher speeds with theangle of turn kept closer to the fallline. In this method only a halfsnowplow with the upper or lower skiis used in the preparatory position,or skis are kept parallel and the fallline is reached with a pronouncedknee bend and forward lean of thebody while the turn is completed withan uphill christiania.

4-35. The Lifted Christianiaa. Use. The lifted christiania turn is very

useful in adverse snow conditions and in con-fined terrain where a short radius turn is neces-sary. It is also useful for skiing at night andwith heavy loads, since it is a slow turn madewith one ski pole being used to increaselateral stability.

(1)

(2)

(3)

The turn is started by applying eitherof the methods described for chris-tiania turns, except that the speed isadjusted to suit the circumstances.

For a turn to the left as the skierapproaches the fall line, the left skipole is placed in the snow forwardand down the slope, but not directlyin front of the left ski tip. The reachshould not be overextended. The rightpole is held in the normal manner.Weight is then applied to the left skipole, using it for means of supportand as a pivot point.

Body weight is then shifted to theright ski. Since it is difficult to turnthe left ski in such a short radius,this ski is lifted and placed parallelto, and slightly ahead of, the rightski, and the turn completed as in theuphill christiania.

Section IV. MILITARY SNOWSHOEING

4-36. Purpose and Scopea. Snowshoes are individual aids for over-

snow movement. Like skis, they provide flotat-ion in snow and are useful for cross-countrymarches and other activities which requiremovement in snow-covered terrain.

b. The snowshoe is an oval or elongatedframe braced with two of three crosspieces andthe inclosed space filled with a web lacing. Abinding or harness attached to the webbing se-cures the wearer’s foot to the snowshoe. Flota-tion is provided by the webbing, which isclosely laced and prevents the snowshoe fromsinking too deeply into the snow when weightis placed upon it. Depth and consistency ofsnow will determine the amount of support ob-tained on the snow cover and the rate of move-ment.

c. Snowshoes are particularly useful for in-dividuals working in confined areas such asbivouac sites and supply dumps, for drivers ofvarious types of vehicles, gun crews, cooks,

AGO 8641A

mechanics, and for similar occupations whereaids to movement in snow are necessary.Transporting, carrying, and storing snowshoesis relatively easy due to their size and weight.Maintenance requirements are generally negli-gible and little skill is required to become pro-ficient on snowshoes. However, the require-ment for physical conditioning is as great, orgreater, as that needed for skiing. The use ofsnowshoes when pulling and carrying heavyloads is particularly practical, as the handsand arms remain free. On steep slopes, how-ever, the use of snowshoes is considerablylimited because traction becomes negligible andthe showshoe will slide, causing loss of footing.Generally, the rate of movement in any typeof terrain is slow because snowshoes will notglide over the snow. The gliding properties ofthe ski are not obtained with the snowshoes;this adversely affects the amount of time andenergy spent in movement. In deep snow thetrailbreaker must be changed frequently. Es-pecially when wet, snow tends to stick to the

91


t—W

webbing, thereby adding weight to the snow-shoe.

d. There are three types of standard issuesnowshoes: the trail, the bearpaw, and themagnesium. They can be used with all typesof winter footgear. The trail snowshoe weighsapproximately 6.5 pounds, the bearpaw, 5.5pounds and the magnesium, 4.6 pounds.

(1) Trail. The trail-type snowshoe is long,with a rather narrow body and up-turned toes (fig. 4-29). The two endsof the frame connect and extend tail-like to the rear. The turned-up toe hasa tendency to ride over the snow andother minor obstacles. The excellentflotation provided by its large sur-faces makes the trail snowshoe bestfor cross-country marches, deep snowconditions, and trailbreaking.

“Binding, Snowshoe, Bearpaw and Trail Type”has been developed for use on all three types.This binding consists generally of a toe strapand a heel and instep strap. The straps aremade of nylon and are secured by keepers andcam lever quick-release buckles. The method ofsecuring the binding to the magnesium snow-shoe is snown in figure 4-32.

(2)

(3)

Bearpaw. This type of snowshoe isshort, wide, and oval in shape, withno frame extension (fig. 4-30). Thebearpaw snowshoe is preferable to thetrail type for close work with weaponsand vehicles, in heavy brush, and inother confined areas. Carrying orstoring is also easier.Magnesium. The magnesium snow-shoe is the lightest and most durableof the three types (fig. 4-31). Thesnowshoe has a magnesium framewith the center section made of steel,nylon-coated wire. The magnesiumsnowshoe is 17.70 cm (approx 7")shorter than the standard woodentrail snowshoe but is 9.50 cm (approx4") wider giving it approximatelythe same flotation characteristics.

e. The trail and bearpaw snowshoes havetheir own individual bindings, however, the,

92

4-37. Care and Storage of Snowshoesa. Care. Snowshoes must always be kept in

good condition. Frequent checks are necessary,particularly of webbing and binding, becauseindividual strands may be ripped or worn out.Repairs must be made immediately, otherwisethe webbing will loosen and start to unravel. Ifunvarnished, the rawhide webbing on woodensnowshoes will absorb moisture, stretch andturn white, particularly in wet snow. It shouldbe dried out slowly, avoiding direct flames, andbe revarnished at the first opportunity. Woodenframes may fray from hard wear and shouldbe sanded and varnished. When needed, otherminor repairs should be made as soon aspracticable. When snow cover is shallow, caremust be taken not to step on small tree stumps,branches, or other obstacles, since the webbingmay be broken or damaged. Stepping into wa-ter is to be avoided; the water will freeze andsnow will stick to it. When not in use in the

AGO 8641A


4. uum

JGL AJ6JA

ssc '—vLc dçb ponjq 6 qonpjq pvcjc flU6L Ic66b6L

AGO 8641A 93


%st '— c cui o

1'

l,

field, snowshoes are placed in temporaryracks, hung in trees, or placed upright in thesnow. They should be kept away from openfires and out of reach of rodents.

b. Storage. In off-seasons, wooden snowshoesare stored in a dry, well-ventilated place sothat the rawhide will not mildew or rot andthe frames warp. Each snowshoe is closelychecked for possible damage, repaired if need-ed, and revarnished. As in the field, snowshoesare protected against damage and from rodents.Magnesium snowshoes are cleaned and repaint-ed if necessary. Webbing is examined and re-paired or replaced if needed.

4-38. Snowshoe Techniquea. A striding technique is used for movement

with snowshoes. In taking a stride, the toe ofthe snowshoe is lifted upward, to clear thesnow, and thrusted forward. Energy is con-served by lifting it no higher than is necessaryto clear the snow and slide the tail over it.If the front of the snowshoe catches, the footis pulled back to free it and then lifted beforeproceeding with the stride. The best and leastfatiguing method in travel is a lose-kneedrocking gait in a normal rhythmic stride. Careis taken not to step on or catch the othersnowshoe.

b. On gentle slopes, ascent is made by climb-ing straight upward. Traction is generallyvery poor on hard-packed or crusty snow.Steeper terrain is ascended by traversing andpacking a trail similar to a shelf across it.When climbing, the snowshoe is placed as hori-zontally as possible in the snow. On hard snow,the snowshoe is placed flat on the surfacewith the toe of the upper one diagonally uphillto get more traction. In the event the snow issufficiently hard-frozen to support the weightof a person, it is generally better to remove thesnowshoes and proceed temporarily on foot. Inturning around, the best method is to swingthe leg up and turn in the new direction, asin making a kick turn on skis (fig. 4-33).

c. Obstacles such as logs, tree stumps,ditches and small streams should be steppedover. Care must be taken not to place too muchstrain on the snowshoe ends by bridging agap, since the frame may break. In shallow

94

snow there is danger of catching and tearingthe webbing on tree stumps or snags whichare only sightly covered. Wet snow will fre-quently ball up under the feet, interfering withcomfortable walking. This snow should beknocked off with a stick or pole as soon aspossible. Although ski poles are generally notused in snowshoeing, one or two poles aredesirable when carrying heavy loads, especiallyin mountainous terrain. The bindings mustnot be fastened too tightly or circulation willbe cut off, and frostbite may occur. Duringhalts, bindings should be checked for fit andpossible readjustment.

4-39. TrainingSnowshoe training requires little technical

skill. However, emphasis must be placed on thephysical conditioning of the individual and the

AGO 8641A


I O.Wslso.pab

pnb uçwtst '—'' osos o\ qotq

; pLonIp p. pojo o. pnwb

development of muscles which are seldom usedin ordinary marching. The technique, as such,can be learned in a few periods of instruction.Stiffness and soreness of muscles are to be ex-pected at first. The initial training should begradual with regard to loads carried anddistances covered. It should be progressive,with ample time allowed for the individual toacquire physical proficiency, gradually increas-

ing the distance covered and weight carried orpulled. Overcoming obstacles such as densebrush, fallen timber, and ditches should beemphasized during training. Trailbreaking,with frequent change of lead man, should alsobe stressed. Snowshoe training can be accom-plished concurrently with other training re-quiring individual cross-country movement.

Section V. APPLICATION OF SKI AND SNOWSHOE TECHNIQUE

4-40. Skiing in Variable Terrain and Snowa. General. As a military skier the individual

must be prepared to move in a great varietyof terrain and snow conditions during daylightand darkness. He must be constantly alert inorder to judge conditions on the route aheadand to off set the sudden changes often encoun-tered. The techniques of skiing which he haslearned will allow him to operate effectively onslopes only if he is capable of applying thesemethods properly and of keeping his skis undercontrol at all times.

b. Variable Terrain. The forward lean of thebody must be increased as a slope suddenlysteepens, since skis will slide faster. The oppo-site is true as the slope is lessened. Generally,the body should be nearly perpendicular to theslope regardless of pitch, to insure properbalance. When skiing over bumpy terrain, thestability of the skier is greatly disturbed. Tominimize this the knees are kept supple to actas shock absorbers, permitting the center ofthe body to maintain as straight a line aspossible. To further increase stability on largebumps the skier increases knee bend, loweringthe body when approaching the top of thebump, riding over it in this position, and thenassuming a normal running position as soonas the top is passed (fig. 4-34), i.e., allowingthe skis to drop away. This action will lessenthe chance of the skier being thrown into theair. When moving through a hollow the normalski and body position is maintained, with theknees absorbing the sudden change of pressure.In deep snow the leading ski should be fur-ther advanced to improve balance. The centerof gravity must be kept lower by more bend-ing of the knees. As forward lean of the bodyis not practical under these conditions, weight

AGO 8641A

154-616 O - 94- 4

shift will need to be controlled to a greaterextent by the knees and the advancement ofone ski in front of the other.

c. Variable Snow. When skiing from softsnow onto hard snow the forward lean of thebody must be increased, since the skis willgain speed and have a tendency to run fromunder the skier. The opposite is true when run-ning from hard snow onto soft snow. In thiscase the body leans slightly to the rear andthe leading ski is advanced farther ahead justbefore the soft snow is entered. Lateral stabil-ity can be increased by extending the armssideways as is done when attempting to keepbalance when walking a log or a railroadtrack, but the ski poles must still be kept point-ing to the rear. When skiing on icy crust,stability is improved by keeping the skis far-ther apart or by running in a slight snowplow

95


position. However, if the slope is rutted snow-plowing may become hazardous because thetips tend to get caught. To control speed underthese conditions, sideslipping and pole ridingmay be used. Pole riding is less effective and inextreme cases the use of sideslipping may be-come necessary. On icy snow the skis maychatter in a turn. To correct this, body weightis kept well forward and the edging of theskis carefully controlled as the turn is made.Crusty snow which will not support the skier’sweight (breakable crust) is the most difficultto cope with. Speed is kept slower while mak-ing all turns. It may become necessary to usethe step turn in motion or a kick turn to changedirection.

d. Forest. Due to the limited skiing roomin wooded terrain, movements for changingdirection must be rapid and of shorter radiusthan in open terrain, especially during down-hill movement. In addition, the skier must bemore alert so that obstacles may be quicklyovercome with a minimum of delay. The stepturn in motion is a very useful technique forchanging direction in this type of terrain, butspeed must be reduced to use this technique.In descending narrow trails in wooded terrainor during night movements, the half snowplowor pole riding are useful for control of speed.During unit movement in wooded terrain, oneman falling can block the progress of all per-sonnel behind him. If an individual falls heshould remove himself from the track in thefastest way possible, even if this results in los-ing his original position in the column. Thebaskets of ski poles have a tendency to snagbranches during movement in wooded terrain,resulting in loss of balance. To avoid this asmuch as possible, the shafts of the ski polesshould be pointed directly to the rear.

4-41. Obstaclesa. General. Snow-covered terrain will contain

many small obstacles such as fences, treewindfalls, and small streams or ditches. Theindividual must be skilled enough to cross themeasily to save time and energy. Crossing ob-stacles can be very time consuming for a unit.Wherever possible, the men should be dis-persed so as to enable them to cross on a broadfront. In some cases the overall time needed can

96

be reduced if skis are removed while overcom-ing the obstacles.

b. Fences and Windfalls. Low fences andwindfalls 30 to 60 cm high (1'to 2') arecrossed by skiing or snowshoeing beside theobstacle so that the skis or snowshoes areparallel and alongside it, then stepping overfirst with one foot then the other, or a kickturn may be made over the obstacle. In thecase of rail fences or large diameter windfallsit may sometimes be easier to sit on the ob-stacle and swing both feet simultaneously tothe other side. High barbed wire fences can becrossed by removing pack and rifle and crawl-ing underneath (fig. 4-35).

c. Ditches or Small Streams. These arecrossed by stepping over them sideways, usingthe ski poles for support (fig. 4-35). If theditches are deep and wide it is better to descendto the bottom either by sidestepping or side-slipping and then climb the other side bysidestepping. However, care must be taken toavoid rocks or other obstacles which mightdamage the skis or snowshoes.

d. Steep Slopes. When it is necessary fortroops to descend or ascend slopes which aretoo steep for their ability, or where traversingis not practical, the sidestep should be used orthe skis should be removed and the slope ne-gotiated on foot whenever snow depth will per-mit.

4-42. Skiing With Pack and Weapona. General. When skiing with pack and

weapon the same techniques apply. However,the added weight carried, changes the centerof gravity and will affect the manner in whichmovements are made.

b. Effects on Movements.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Lunges are shorter and pushes withpoles less powerful.To aid in maintaining balance whenskiing downhill over rough terrain, theleading ski is advanced farther andthe knees kept more flexible thanwhen skiing without a load.Speed of descent is reduced and tech-niques are applied more cautiously.Rotation of arms and shoulders is

AGO 8841


N"'r11 (11

ssc '—'I% O%%%

(5)

(6)

(7)

made with less vigor and emphasis.Slopes are climbed with a moregradual traverse.When skiing through woods or inbrushy terrain, care must be exercisedin order to prevent any protrudingparts of the weapon from catchingon branches, causing loss of balance.In the event of a fall it is sometimesmore efficient to remove the pack andweapon before attempting to regainfooting.

4-43. Sled Pullinga. General. Pulling a sled is hard work, but

it will be easier if proper techniques are used,The movements and techniques used should bewithin the ability of all members of the team,and, where possible, teams should be formedwith this in mind. Generally speaking, the

AGO 8641A

methods of hauling sleds apply to both skiersand snowshoes.

b. Preparation for Sled Pulling.(1)

(2)

(3)

The tow ropes must be of the properlength and also properly laid out andfastened by snap buckles in tandemsystem (fig. 4-36 ). The sled harnessesare adjusted to fit loosely on the in-dividuals.If skis are to be used for pulling, theymust be properly waxed. More empha-sis must be placed on insuring goodholding capacity of the wax on thesnow. However, sliding capacityshould not be entirely forfeited.Proper loading and lashing of sledmust be checked before moving out.

c. Pulling on Varied Terrain. When pullinga sled over comparatively flat terrain, skiersnormally use the one step ski technique. When

97


a2

21Vb 8flCKT(

Vb flCKfE 1DM Ob

ss'c '—%—ou;pJrz6q'P HLUG2b uiiia 2J6q. WJJ" LLIJGW6IJ4

D

r •:I.!

,

Aoc

the men to move far enough ahead before theturn is made, the pullers must start the turnby gradually making as gentle a curve as possi-ble while the two men nearest the sled (infront and behind) guide, lift, and otherwiseassist in turning the sled. While turning, thepullers must watch the movements of eachother in order to avoid confusion.

d. Uphill Climbing. To pull a sled uphill thefollowing methods can be applied:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

On short, gentle slopes the herring-bone can be used.On a steep, short slope the pullers canuse the sidestep (fig. 4-37). In thiscase the rear man moves to the frontand side of the sled and, while side-stepping, assists in pulling the sled byusing the rope fastened to the frontend.On very gentle slopes and in snowwith good traceability an uphill tra-verse may be employed. Ski climberscan be used if the length of the slopejustifies the time required to putthem on.In difficult terrain a relaying tech-

crossing small ditches, the sled isthe ditch while the pullers go as

stopped infar as the

two ropes allow. Then, by a simultaneous pull,the sled is brought up out of the ditch. Tochange direction in woods, the pullers con-tinue to move straight forward until the sledcomes to the desired turning point. The pullersthen move in the new direction with the turnbeing controlled by the puller nearest the sled,assisted, if necessary, by the man behind. Whenthe forest is dense and space does not allow

98

nique may be used whenequipment is available.nique a climbing rope,(120') long, or similar

the necessaryIn this tech-36.50 metersitem, is fas-

AGO 8641A


I q66b

14sls '—%& 'tt Q cs ço \o. usq:tILLTI1a1DflHG

tened to the sled. The pullers then (1)climb uphill as far as the rope allows.Standing in place, the sled is thenpulled up to their position. Thisprocedure is repeated as many timesas is necessary to reach the top.When using this technique care mustbe taken to insure that the sled iswell anchored each time the pullersmove up since a runaway sled maynot only damage itself but is a serioushazard to anyone below. Where steepslopes must be ascended for considera-ble distances, less energy will beexpended if the sleds are left behindand the sled load backpacked to theobjective. (2)

e. Downhill Movement. In descending a slopethe following methods can be used:

AGO 8641A

On very gentle slopes and in poorsnow conditions where the sled willnot descend on its own accord, theskier can use a double poling tech-nique or one step. However, it will benecessary to control the speed toprevent the sled from overrunningthe pullers. The rear man can assistin this by braking the sled, althoughin most cases very little braking willbe needed. If the team is on snow-shoes, the pullers can descend nor-mally while the man in the rear in-sures that the sled does not overrunthose in front.

A short, steep slope can be descendedby sidestepping either on skis orsnowshoes. If necessary, the rearman is assisted in the braking action

99


't—%W %oosc prs%

(3)

(4)

by one or more members of the team.Skiers can also use sideslipping forthis type of terrain. For short descentsin wooded areas, the braker shouldposition himself behind a tree foradded stability in lowering the sled.If necessary, a succession of positionmoves are made.On long, moderate slopes skiers canuse the snowplow as a braking method(fig. 4-38). If more braking is neces- (5)sary than can be supplied by the rearman, the puller closest to the sled maymove to one side or he may removehis rope and refasten it to the rearof the sled and assist the rear manfor more effective braking. Snow-shoes on this type of slope may alsochange pullers to brakers to aid in (6)descent.On a long, steep slope requiring theteam to go straight down, all men will

100

be needed to brake the sled. This canbe done by fastening all tow ropes tothe rear of the sled with all men brak-ing from the rear and/or one skiercontrolling the sled by straddling thefront of the sled (fig. 4-38), and con-trolling the sled by himself or assistedby one or more brakers. The snow-plow or sideslipping techniques areused as the braking method.Traversing by both skiers and snow-shoes may be used on long, steepdownhill slopes. In this case the pullernearest the sled and the rear manshould remain above the sled and asfar from it as the ropes will allow.From this position they can brake,preventing the sled from sideslipping.In very steep terrain a long rope,when available, may be used to lowerthe sled straight down the slope. Thisprocedure is the reverse of the uphill

AGO 8641A


SO34

relay method described in d (4) above,and is a very practical method forevacuating wounded.

4-44. Skijoringa. General. Skijoring, as used in this manual,

is the term applied to moving men on skisover snow by towing them with vehicles. Thisprovides a faster and less tiring method forindividual movement than is possible undertheir own locomotion. Oversnow vehicles, trackand wheeled vehicles can be used for pullingskiers (fig. 4-39 ). The best routes for skijor-ing are snow covered roads and trails, frozenlakes, rivers, or paths made by tracked ve-hicles. Speeds up to 24 KmPH (15 MPH) maybe maintained on level ground by trainedtroops, depending on weather and trail condi-tions. Normally, one rifle squad can be towedbehind a light carrier and two squads behinda squad carrier. Towing more than two squadsby one vehicle is impractical, due to the in-creased length of the column, difficulty in mak-ing turns, and the limitations of the vehicleand the skiers using the technique over steepor wooded terrain, and during poor or spottysnow conditions.

b. Use of Tow Rope. (For a description ofknots see FM 31-72.)

(1)

AGO 8641A

Two ropes 36.50 meters (120') longare used for towing a rifle squad be-hind a vehicle and for the purpose ofsecuring sufficient space between theindividuals. The skiers, in columns of

of twos, are spaced at equal intervalsbehind the vehicle and outside theropes. A gap of approximately 4meters (12') is left between indivi-duals.

(2) Several methods of towing can beused according to the situation, theterrain, and the distance of move-ment:

(a)

(b)

(c)

The skier grasps a bight of ropeand makes a 25 cm (10") loop bytying an overhand knot. The loopis held with one hand and polesare held in the other, or a longloop can be formed by tying anoverhand knot in a 1.50 to 2 meter(5' to 7') bight of rope. The skierleans against the loop after placingit around the buttocks. He does notplace the body through the loop(1, fig. 4-40).Using the ski pole method (2, fig.4-40), the skier rests both armsand body and can arrive at thedestination in better physical con-dition. Another advantage in thismethod is that a skier can easilyexercise his hands to prevent frost-bite during movement in extremecold.When being towed through densewooded areas, or when contact withthe enemy is imminent, skiers maysimply grasp the rope without ty-ing a knot or using the ski poles as

101


i roua oAGLpvuq JC1J0

St.Q t—W o\ oi% o.aJci bo1e ua V L64

a rest. Thus, they can maneuverthrough narrow trails and are moreready for immediate combat.

(3) No matter what method of towing is

102

being used, individuals must never beallowed to fasten themselves to thetow rope. In case of a fall they mustbe able to release their hold imme-diately to avoid serious injury tothemselves or other skiers. The skipoles are usually held in one handand available for instant use. Duringtraining and in combat situationswhen contact with the enemy is notprobable, the ski poles may be loadedon the vehicles to avoid accidents.

c. Skijoring Technique.(1)

(2)

(3)

The track is made as simple as theterrain permits. Steep slopes, obsta-cles, and sharp turns are avoided.When these cannot be bypassed thespeed must be reduced in order thatthe skiers can maneuver. A highdegree of cooperation between thedriver of the towing vehicle and theskiers is necessary. One man, usuallythe assistant driver, is responsible forstopping or slowing the vehicle in or-der to prevent casualties due to speedor obstacles. He constantly observesthe skiers and other vehicles, givesthe driver orders, and signals theskiers when the vehicle will slowdown, speed up, or stop.When the vehicle begins its forwardmovement each man on the ropeshould move forward under his ownpower for a few steps, gradually plac-ing tension on the towing rope toprevent being suddenly jerked intomotion, causing a fall. When underway, the skier’s body is leanedslightly backward, the knees are bentslightly, and the upper body is nearlystraight. Skis may be farther apartthan in normal skiing. One ski is keptslightly ahead. The position should beone in which the skier can relax butstill be alert to sidestep quickly inorder to avoid obstacles and maintainmisbalance. If a skier falls, he shouldrelease the towing rope immediately.When approaching a sharp curvewhere the area for movement is con-fined, the vehicle should be slowed

AGO 8641A


down or, in some instances, stopped.When negotiating a sharp turn, thevehicle should be slowed to a walkingspeed and skiers walk around thecurve being careful not to drop orstep on the tow rope. Normal speedis resumed after the last man hasmade the turn. Failure to do this mayresult in being pulled off balance bythe rope as the vehicle completes theturn and proceeds in the new direc-tion. Vehicle stops and starts must bein a gradual manner which allows fora smooth rather than a jerky ride forthe skier.

(4) When descending hills the men canbrake by using the snowplow or half

snowplow, if space allows, to preventoverruling the vehicle or, if condi-tions warrant it, they may move tothe side of the track where the softersnow will decrease their speed. If theterrain will not allow for controlledbraking and collision with the vehi-cle seems imminent, the individualsshould release the rope and disperseto the sides of the track. On shortdownhill slopes the vehicles should in-crease speed temporarily so that theskiers need not brake. On long, steepslopes the men can descend independ-ently of the vehicle and reattachthemselves after the slope has beennegotiated.

AGO 8641A 103


$uc Stb

CHAPTER 5

MOVEMENT

Section I. PROBLEMS AFFECTING MOVEMENT

5-1. GeneralThe lack of roads, the soft, wet terrain

prevalent in the summer, the snow and bliz-zards in winter, thick forests in mountainsand bilk, and the innumerable waterways aresome of the barriers to movement in most coldareas of the world. The ability to overcomethe many obstacles to movement may well bethe deciding factor in winning or losing a warin these cold areas. Mobility begins with theindividual.

5-2. Influence of Seasonal Changes inWeather and Terrain on Mobility

a. Spring Breakup and Fall Freezeup(1) The spring breakup and fall freezeup

(2)

104

periods are by far the most difficultseasons in which to maintain mobil-ity. The period of breakup may lastfrom 3 to 6 weeks and will presentrestrictions to movement (fig. 5-1).The snow becomes slush and will sup-port little weight. Winter roads breakdown, the ice in waterways melts,rivers are swollen and become tor-rents. Movement at this time of yearposes many problems, however, move-ment is possible in cold areas at alltimes. Normally, at this time of year,temperatures drop at night, freezingthe surface, and mobility during thisperiod can be maintained. During theday caution should be exercised inshady areas as they may contain iceand snow even though daytime tem-peratures are above freezing.The period of freezeup with rain andopen or half-frozen waterways will

(3)

also present barriers to movement.Complete freezeup may take up to 3months, often restricting the move-ment of heavy equipment across lakesuntil late January.The early winter period, when thereis little snow and the ground andwaterways are firmly frozen, will pro-vide excellent trafficability for footsoldiers and vehicles.

b. Winter. The low temperatures, snow,blustery winds, and bulky clothing and equip-ment required during winter hinder movementas it is known in more temperate climates. Bythe proper use of specialized equipment forcold weather operations, mobility can be main-tained. Using skis, snowshoes, oversnow vehi-cles, and aircraft, mobility is possible. In thebarren tundra or on icecaps the hard snowfound in these areas will readily support anindividual on foot as well as oversnow vehicles.In the forested areas the snow will normally

AGO 8641A


be deeper and the temperatures lower. Thedepth of the snow and the trees in these areaswill prove to be the greatest obstacles to mo-bility. With oversnow equipment such as skisand snowshoes, properly trained, equipped,motivated and conditioned troops can maintainmobility.

c. Forested Areas. A great portion of theNorth is covered with evergreen forests and

with numerous swamps and water courses.Few trails exist through the forests and thosethat do exist are of poor construction, makingprogress difficult and slow. The numerous wa-terways, once they become frozen, will nor-mally provide excellent routes for foot andsome vehicle movement. Whenever possiblethey should be used to the maximum for theease of movement they offer.

Section II. FOOT MOVEMENT

5-3. GeneralWinter cross-country travel in the North is

difficult and complex. Of necessity, travel willbe slower, However, with the proper trainingin the use and maintenance of equipment, theproper enthusiastic leadership, and the will toaccomplish the mission, nothing is impossible.

5-4. Basic Rules for Foot MovementThe following guides are based on experience

factors and should be considered in preparingfor cross-country movements in the northernareas.

a. Insure that all personnel participating inthe move are fully aware of the mission, route,etc. Equipment must be checked and loadsevenly distributed. Dispatch trailbreakingteams far enough in advance to insure con-tinuous, uninterrupted movement of the mainbody. Men should be dressed as lightly as pos-sible consistent with the weather to reduceexcessive perspiring and subsequent chilling.Complete cold weather uniforms must be avail-able while operating in cold environments. Alarge proportion of cold weather casualties re-sult from too few clothes being available toindividuals at such time as a severe change inthe weather occurs. Therefore, unit clothingdiscipline must be enforced consistent withprevailing weather.

b. The first halt after initiating a marchshould be made in approximately 15 minutes.This will allow adjustment of clothing andequipment. Subsequent halts should be fre-quent and of short duration to insure rest andto prevent chilling. Halts should, so far as pos-sible, be made in sheltered places which will

AGO 8641A

provide protection from the elements. Warmdrinks should be provided during the marchif possible.

c. The buddy system is mandatory in theNorth and men must be instructed to watchtheir buddy carefully for early signs of frost-bite. Individuals must not be allowed to fallout of the line of march, except in an extremeemergency. If this should occur, proper caremust be taken to insure that he does not be-come a cold weather casualty. Normally, thesecond-in-command will bring up the rear ofthe column and, in each halt, will check themen and report their condition to the leader.

d. Prior detailed reconnaissance is most im-portant to insure successful mobility in thenorthern areas. Maps may or may not existand those that do exist may not always beaccurate. In planning a move, maximum ad-vantage must be taken of map studies, aerialphotographs, ground and aerial reconnaissance.Without detailed reconnaissance and priorplanning, unit movement may be slowed orstopped by long detours or obstacles.

e. Marching in single file is often the bestformation. It maintains track discipline, cam-ouflage, and reduces the number of trailbreak-ers and reconnaissance parties required. Nat-ural obstacles may limit the use of otherformations. Large units in single file however,become excessively long and will be slow toreact to enemy action to the front or rear. Tac-tical considerations will often require the useof other formations. The double track of vehi-cles may be used as pathways for foot troops,but will rarely afford ease of movement forski or snowshoe mounted troops.

105


Section III. TRAILBREAKING

5-5. Generala. Purpose.

(1)

(2)

The purpose of trailbreaking is tomake the march of the main body aseasy and fast as possible in order thatthe troops will arrive at their destina-tion in good fighting condition. Trail-breaking accomplished at any time ofthe day or night through deep snowand difficult terrain is hard and time-consuming work. The progress oftrailbreaking is dependent on the ter-rain, weather and snow conditions,vegetation, physical condition of thetrailbreaking detachment and, finally,on the tactical situation. Therefore,plans must be carefully made andtrailbreaking parties well organized.In addition to trailbreaking, the mis-sion of providing frontal security forthe main body is a normal functionof the trailbreaking party. Approxi-mately one-fourth of a unit is giventhe mission of trailbreaking andfrontal security for the march, Forexample, the battalion normally as-signs one rifle company this mission.The quartering party may accompanythe trailbreaking party or may followlater. The company in turn assignsone rifle platoon to lead, functioningsimultaneously as a trailbreakingparty for the lead company. Since thetrailbreaking unit is the first to ar-rive in the new bivouac area, its com-mander is also responsible for estab-lishing temporary security of thearea. When the quartering party ar-rives in the bivouac area they willperform the normal functions of aquartering party as outlined in FM7–20.

b. Planning. Based upon an estimate of thetactical situation, terrain, weather and snowconditions, the most suitable route is selectedfor the movement. As a general rule terrainfeatures which offer least resistance will befollowed. In selecting a route, considerationmust be given to all of the following:

106

(1)

(2)

(3)

Openmaintrailsopenreally

terrain. In order to keep thebody sufficiently dispersed, skiare more widely separated interrain. For concealment, nor-only one ski trail is broken

across open terrain. When possiblethe trail is broken close to the edgeof the forest so shadows will helpconceal the trail and troops movingover it. In open terrain light trackedvehicles should be used for breakingtrail and for towing the trailbreakingparty by skijoring to the maximumextent to save time and energy of theindividuals. At times it may be de-sirable to break additional trails toexpedite troop movement across openareas.Covered terrain. Whenever possible,time and situation permitting, thetrail should follow along forest ter-rain with little or no underbrush. Itprovides good concealment and pro-tection against wind. The trail shouldbe broken close to bushy trees in orderto provide better concealment. Thick-ets and windfall forest areas shouldbe avoided, as it requires a greatamount of effort to break a trail inareas of this type. If a triple trailis broken for sleds, wide curves mustbe made when changing directionand the bushes and branches must becut from the inside of the curve. Thethoroughness with which the smalltrees, bushes, and branches on bothsides of the broken trail are clearedwill depend on the time allowed thetrailbreaking party.Hilly and mountainous terrain. Whenthe situation permits, valleys willmost often provide the easiest route.Frozen rivers frequently afford theeasiest route in this type of terrain.If the valleys cannot be used, thetrail may be broken on the lee sideof the ridge line or hill mass thatdominates the valley. Care must beexercised to detect avalanche snowconditions and bypass these areas as

AGO 8641A


(4)

AGO 8641A

necessary. Use gentle inclinesclimbing uphill or descending.trails are broken downhill theof the trailbreaking party isslow, because of soft and deepHowever, when packed, the

whenWhenspeedoftensnow.same

trails may make the speed of the ski-ers in the main body too fast. Thiswill result in many falls, especiallyduring darkness.Water routes. Frozen lakes, rivers,and creeks offer the most suitableroutes for the trails. They also helpin land navigation. For best protec-tion and concealment, the trailbreak-ing party skis very close to the shoreor on the bank, as this facilitatesbetter concealment of the individualsand units, their trail, and any quickmovements into the wooded areas ofthe shore. Sometimes in winter, andespecially in the spring, there may bewater under the snow surface onsurfaces on the lakes and rivers, thuscausing the running surfaces of theskis to freeze. Check for concealedwater under the snow before startingto break trail across the ice. Areas inwhich water is found under snowshould be bypassed. If this is notpossible, the crossing site must bereinforced with snow or with a com-bination of brush and snow. Also, thethickness of the ice must be carefullychecked before using any ice route.The minimum thickness of ice for onerifleman on skis is 5 cm (2") ; for aninfantry column in single file on foot,10 cm (4") ; and for the single lightartillery piece or 1/4-ton truck, 4 x 4,20 cm (8"). See load bearing capacitytables in FM 31–71. Warm watersprings are prevalent in northernareas of operations and create a haz-ard to both foot and vehicle move-ment. Many of these springs do notfreeze, even in extremely low temper-atures, and may cause streams to havelittle or no ice and some lakes to haveonly thin ice. Their presence inmuskeg or tundra areas can causeweak spots in otherwise trafficable

(5)

(6)

(7)

terrain. These areas should be eitherbridged, reinforced, or bypassed.Obstacles. Since even minor obstaclesretard the march, they are bypassedwhenever possible. If a wide obstacleis met, such as a ridge or a steepriverbank, several trails are brokenover the obstacle so that the mainbody can cross it on a broad front.Trees and brush are cut well belowthe bottom of ski tracks in order toavoid twigs and branches entanglingin ski bindings and tow ropes. Ob-structions such as fences may be cutin order to allow the skier to passthrough.Weather and snow condition. Inearly winter there is more snow inopen terrain than in dense forest;therefore, the trail should be brokenclose to the forest edge. In late winterthe reverse is true. In early springmore snow can be found in ditches,ravines, and on the shadowy side ofhills. Maximum advantage should betaken for movement during periodsof reduced visibility, such as snow-storms. These storms will concealmovement and at times completelycamouflage the trail after the unit hasmoved over it. Care should be exer-cised to preclude moving directly intoa strong wind. Movement in the samedirection of the wind usually requiresmuch less effort. Under the most ad-verse conditions, navigation will alsobecome extremely difficult. Trails maybecome covered very quickly afterbeing broken, requiring the distancebetween the trailbreaking unit andthe main body to be shortened. Ad-verse conditions such as driving snow-storms will slow the movement butwill facilitate security.Darkness. Skiing and snowshoeing atnight is slow and exhausting. There-fore, the trail for a night march mustbe broken along the easiest terrainavailable. Avoid all rough terrain ifpossible. Navigation of the trailbreak-ing party demands special skill in

107


(8)(a)

(b)

108

darkness and during periods of re-duced visibility. Rivers, creeks, ridgelines, and forest boundaries should beused as aids to navigation in spite ofthe fact that the broken trail mightbecome longer. Because of the dark-ness it may be necessary to leaveguides posted at locations where themain body may take the wrong course.Enemy activity.

When breaking trail within thefrontline area, the requirementsfor concealment are most impor-tant. Therefore, the trailbreakingparty is forced to ski along coveredterrain whenever possible. How-ever, if the mission requires fastmovement, a trail is broken alongthe shortest course, paying less at-tention to concealment. The se-curity mission normally given thetrailbreaking unit will take onadded importance and may requiremore support for this unit.These responsibilities affect thecourse of trail. In frontline areasthe trail should be broken alongterrain features which facilitateobservation and deployment of themain body. Also, the route shouldfollow terrain which offers a soundapproach and suitable places fortemporary defense. Sometimes it isnecessary to check critical terrainfeatures located near the trail be-fore the trailbreaking party movesforward. Elements of the trail-breaking party may occupy certainsecurity positions and remain sta-tionary until the main body haspassed these critical points, atwhich time they may rejoin therear of the column. For the purposeof deceiving the enemy, it may bedesirable to create numerous falsetrails crisscrossing and angling offin all directions. In burned-overareas or thin deciduous forests,concealment from aerial observa-tion is practically impossible. Asingle trail clearly indicates the

(9)

whereabouts and approximate sizeof the unit making it. Miscellane-ous trails, therefore, create confu-sion. Of course, the breaking offalse trails is time consuming andwill also acquaint the enemy to thefact that a sizable unit was requiredfor the amount of work accom-plished.

Number of trails used. The numberof trails to be broken depends uponthe size of the column using them,the tactical situation, and time avail-able for trailbreaking. An organiza-tion of battalion size normally re-quires two or more march trails andone or more communication trails formessenger service and control of themarch column. In cases where timeis very limited for preparations, onlyone trail may be established for a bat-talion. When contact with the enemybecomes imminent, greater emphasisis placed on security and less empha-sis placed on trailbreaking. The pos-sibility for a rapid deployment of thetroops requires that the number oftrails or tracks be increased fromthat of a routine cross-country march.

c. Organization. The trailbreaking partypreceding units mounted on skis should alsobe mounted on skis. The trailbreakers of ele-ments on snowshoes should also be mountedon snowshoes. Mixing of skiers and snow-shoes on the same track is not recommended.Snowshoes tend to compact the snow on skitrails making it difficult for the main body tofollow on skis.

(1) The lead company normally will beassigned the mission of breakingtrail for one complete day. It is re-placed by another company on thefollowing morning. One rifle platoonat a time is assigned as lead platoonand is called a Trailbreaking Party.It may also include engineers whoseduties would include reconnoiteringice routes, seeking suitable terrain forpermanent type winter roads, prepar-ing ice reinforcements, and perform-ing other engineer tasks. Forward

AGO 8641A


U 7 — it 5$ * list tWisf O U1 Wa —

T •

I cais w)S iSW•

_ __s_• - is it(ais) isisTi is i_S— — - — I _SW 1i_ — S SISS. —

• ' iso

I —a —ci -I is USI? ' SW — lOis• • U_i TU — il uI

011• _STU —, I_iSIS — 50055 CWI

I Is thisI UhIUis is_iS V3 lisTISa Stis is JS50

I — — — U SIPS 5isU_U is UUWO isT? U

I-

1A%1t 'a—s' 4 u9aUyç%f% sdstwç'

Tat wa mama' vs

mats mis sass' vs

vat ma a sa a at at .puucs'mana na' Vt man air en a ma a

(2)

observers may also accompany thetrailbreaking party.Depending on terrain conditions, 1 to2 oversnow vehicles, when available,should be assigned to the party to beused for breaking trail in open ter-rain, skijoring, and carrying individ-ual loads and platoon equipment. Inunfavorable terrain conditions the ve-hicles remain under company controlor with the higher echelon. The trail-breaking party consists of its organicrifle squads, called TrailbreakingSquads. A trailbreaking party is ex-pected to break trail approximatelya half a day at a time, but may berotated sooner depending on localconditions. Trailbreaking squads, inturn, are normally rotated as oftenas necessary in order to maintain thespeed necessary to complete the mis-sion in time.

d. Trailbreaking Squad. The organization,duties, and special equipment of the trailbreak-ing squad are indicated in figure 5-2. Squadleaders must insure that their men have a suf-icient number of tools of proper size beforemoving out. The tools are part of the tentgroup equipment and are used in preferenceto entrenching tools. To conserve energy and toassure an uninterrupted march, the leadingman (breaker) of the squad is regularly re-lieved. In very deep and heavy snow a reliefmay become necessary every 150 meters (150yds). When the change is ordered by the teamleader, the man to be relieved steps sidewaysout of the path and falls in at the rear of theteam. The man following him then becomesthe breaker. Special equipment is exchangedby passing it to the next man in line duringthe rotation. The breaking team will be re-lieved by the reserve team as directed by thesquad leader whenever the point team tends toslow down due to fatigue.

e. Trailbreaking Party. The trailbreakingparty consists of two or more trailbreakingsquads. Normally a rifle platoon will be as-signed this mission, especially if the snow isheavy and the weather severe.

(1) One of the squads is always desig-

AGO 8641A

nated as the base squad and is re-sponsible for navigation and the gen-eral direction to be followed. Theplatoon leader and the navigation de-tail directly under his control willfollow the base squad. When deadreckoning is required, the base squadbreaks the center trail and worksslightly ahead of the other squads forthe purpose of maintaining the properdirection of the squads which aremoving on both sides of the trackmade by the base squad (fig. 5-3).In cases where the party followseasily recognizable terrain features,such as small creeks or the edge ofopen terrain, the base squad followsnext to this terrain feature, makingnavigation easier. The other squadsare echeloned to the right or left, andtheir breaker (the first man) to theright or left of the last man of thesquad ahead (fig. 5-4).

109


brVl. FDb————

I

I

brv.i eei.—rr

4St$.Q —'' u

IIII ii

$4

III

III

LIIc 300)

!I (UOYI*b$3,flt oivir21% IiVAlCV1IO4

a

Iw

.LYCKYCH

1*

.LMYCKCOVffiflIIICYI$014

ii'

1YCKNVCN

.1

$c —%• qsu% bc141 (çQa cotss%y

(2) Interval between the trails variesfrom about 15 meters (15 yds) incovered terrain to approximately 100meters (100 yds) in open areas, de-pending on the local situation. Thedepth of the party varies from 100to 200 meters (100 to 200 yds). Mem-

110

bers of the weapons squad may beassigned to the navigation detail, toflank security missions, to assist thevehicles in breaking their trail off theski trails, and similar duties. Theweapons squad may follow and im-prove the trails being established, asdirected by the leader of the trail-breaking party. From the area wherevehicles are temporarily halted due tothe close proximity of the enemy, onetrack may be widened into a tripletrack to facilitate the movement ofheavy weapons, ammunition, and

AGO 8641A


IEVIAJ

BBEVKMC

2

±EVVJ EVDEB

2OflVD EVDEI

.L. V V'IbE2EBAE

T

..LEVVJ EVDEB

ci ci.j.1. E'VbN

%—.• BtS .s•bQ CFI O1CJ0U O JJ6 4LiJpL6BJcJu BdflBq

III

warming tents. This equipment isusually moved forward by man-drawnsleds.

(3) The trailbreaking party moves farenough ahead of the column to per-mit a steady rate of march by themain body. This distance varies ac-cording to the tactical situation,snow, weather conditions, and ter-rain encountered. For covered move-ments through territory controlled byfriendly troops, the trailbreakingparty normally precedes the mainbody by 1 hour for each 5 km (3miles) of marching distance. For ex-ample, if a 25 km (15 miles) marchis planned, the trailbreakers leave 5hours in advance of the parent unit.For uncovered moves, the trailbreak-ers precede the main body by a dis-tance dictated by the tactical situa-tion.

f. Techniques. The trailbreaking squad maybreak a normal or triple track as required. Onnormal track the first man makes his tracksso that the grooves are a little wider apartthan usual, approximately 30 cm (1'). Thetrailbreaker usually uses the one step tech-nique. In deep and soft snow, however, hissteps will be shorter than normal and he willbe forced to lift his skis at each step to preventthe tips from running under the surface of thesnow. Progress will be slow and may be ex-hausting. Therefore, the man in the breakerposition must be rotated often.

(1) When track-laying vehicles and cargosleds cannot be used any furtherdue to the tactical situation, thecrew-served weapons, ammunitionand warming tents must be moved tothe units in man-drawn sleds. There-fore a triple track is broken becausethe normal trail is too narrow. Whenstarting a triple trail (1, fig. 5-5),the leading three men of the breakingteam will break a normal trail of twogrooves. The third groove is startedby the fourth man who keeps one skiin the already broken groove andmakes a new groove with his left(right) ski, depending on which side

of the original groove the new trackwill be broken. Alternate men behindthe fourth man, both in breaking andreserve teams, ski along the originaltracks made by the first three leadingmen, the others following the tracks

AGO 8641A 111


jbj 4LVGJ

—t---COuwJt16q

(2)

made by the fourth man. This createsa trail with three tracks, a tripletrail (2, fig.5-5). This provides theproper type of trail for pulling man-drawn sleds. Due to the fact thatsleds tend to destroy the ski trails,only one of the ski trails will be pre-pared as a triple trail and this trailwill be used for man-drawn sleds only.Ski trails must be kept separate fromthe trails and roads established forvehicles and cargo sleds, due to thefact that the vehicles tend to destroythe ski trails and, conversely, the ski-ers on the winter road tend to harassthe vehicular traffic. Signal wirelayed alongside the ski trail must belocated far enough to the side so asnot to become entangled with skis andski poles. When crossing the ski trailthe wire must be buried well belowthe trail or secured overhead, which-ever is most desirable.

5-6. Marking the Trailsa. The trailbreaking squad marks its trails

as uniformly as possible. The types of mark-ings used must be known to the unit that fol-

112

lows. When several squads are operating,marking by the base squad is usually sufficient.The marking is simple, and recognizable bynight as well as by day. Temporary trailsthrough new snow need simple markings onlywhere the trails or roads are crossed by othertrails. Trails that are frequently used for longperiods are more permanently marked. Thefollowing can be used as trailmarkers:

(1) Twigs on trees and shrubs broken ina predetermined manner, or blazes(nicks) in tree trunks made by usinga hatchet or machete.

(2) Poles or guiding arrows planted inthe snow.

(3) Markers made of rags or coloredpaper.

(4) Trailmarkers (willow wands).b. Snowfalls, fog, poor observation, and uni-

formity of the terrain necessitate thoroughand frequent markers spaced at uniform inter-vals and numbered successively in the directionof march. To avoid the destruction of trail-markers by traffic, the markers are placedabout 1 meter (3') off the trail. When strangetracks cross the trail of the unit they are ob-literated at the point of crossing. Guides areposted at crossings, if necessary, to direct unitsthat follow.

AGO 8641A


Section IV. LAND NAVIGATION

5-7. Effects of Environmenta. General. Basically, mapreading, as well as

navigation under cold weather conditions, fol-lows the same principles as in the temperatezones. In addition to the normal procedures,every individual must be most familiar withcertain conditions peculiar to the cold weatherregions and the techniques applicable to navi-gation. Due to the fact that a technical failureor human error may easily, and especially inthe winter, be fatal to the individual or to aunit, great care must be exercised when navi-gating in low temperatures.

b. Navigation Problems. The following con-ditions, characteristic of the cold weather re-gions, will make accurate navigation verydifficult:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

AGO 8641A

Lack of adequate large scale maps inthe sparsely populated areas whichwill increase the requirements for andthe use of aerial photographs.Photos of many areas will be difficultto read and interpret because of theabsence of relief and contrast, andabsence of manmade works for useas reference points.Dense forests and wildernesses offerfew landmarks and limit visibility.Also, barren, monotonous tundraareas north of the tree line are char-acterized by lack of landmarks as aidsfor navigation.In winter, short daylight, fogs, snow-fall, blizzards, drifting snow, espe-cially in the barren areas, drasticallylimit visibility. At times an overcastsky and snow-covered terrain createa phenomenon called whiteout whichmakes recognition of irregularities interrain extremely difficult.Heavy snow may completely obliter-ate existing tracks, trails, outlines ofsmall lakes, and similar landmarks.Because the appearance of the ter-rain is quite different in winter fromthat in summer, particular attentionmust be paid to identifying land-

(6)

(7)

(8)

marks, both on the ground and inaerial photos.Magnetic disturbances are encoun-tered, making magnetic compassreadings difficult and sometimes un-reliable.Magnetic declination in different lo-calities varies considerably, and mustbe taken into consideration whentransposing from a map to a compass.Handling maps, compass, and othernavigation instruments in low tem-peratures with bare hands is difficult.Removing handgear may often bepossible for a very short period oftime only.

5-8. Methods of Land Navigationa. The normal methods of land navigation

under cold weather conditions remain the sameas anywhere else. Maps and aerial photos maybe used alone during daylight in terrain whichoffers enough distinctive terrain features toserve as useful landmarks. They may also beused in conjunction with a compass, especiallyin terrain which contains insufficient land-marks or under circumstances when visibilityis limited. However, in most instances, utiliz-ing the map and compass together will providefor the surest land navigation in northernareas of operation.

b. Depending on various conditions, certainsupplementary methods, such as position of thesun in daytime, North Star and Big Dipper atnight, as described in FM 21-26, may be usedto aid in land navigation. Where possible, thesemethods should be employed in conjunctionwith the normal methods described above.

c. It is obvious that on vast barren groundsas well as in wide forest, navigation by deadreckoning often becomes the only practicalmethod. Dead reckoning is the process bywhich position at any instant is found by ap-plying to the last determined position the di-rection and distance of the course traveled.This method should also be used in areas wherelandmarks are very limited or totally nonex-

113


istent. It is also desirable when the landmarksare obliterated by the limited visibility.

5-9. Navigation by Dead ReckoningNavigation by dead reckoning is performed

in accordance with FM 21-26. Due to the pe-culiarities of the cold weather regions, thefollowing hints should be observed when ap-plicable:

a. Responsibility for navigation is assignedto a detail of one officer or noncommissionedofficer and 1 to 2 men, all thoroughly experi-enced in navigation techniques. The detail isplaced directly under the control of the unitcommander and must be released from the car-rying of individual heavy loads and fromdetails such as trailbreaking in order to per-form their duties properly. Using a small detailrather than a single navigator is based uponthe fact that the method of pacing distancesin deep snow has to be modified as describedin c below.

b. In general, the navigation detail is re-sponsible for—

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Accumulating necessary instrumentsand equipment.Keeping instruments and equipmentserviceable.Performing the detailed duties of tak-ing and recording necessary data forprecise location at all times.Maintaining liaison with the com-mander of the unit.Supplying data to keep the columnon course.

c. Due to the sliding capacity of the skis,normal pacing system is very inaccurate or, incertain cases, such as on steep slopes, entirelyuseless. Pacing on snowshoes can be done inemergency. It must be borne in mind, however,that an individual mounted on snowshoes takesmuch shorter paces than on foot. The onlyrecommended method for accurate groundmeasurements is a piece of line or field wire

preferably 50 meters long (50 yds) used bytwo navigators.

d. Keeping a log is mandatory. The prepara-tion of the log, as well as plotting the routefrom the log data on the face of the map or ona separate piece of paper at the same scale asthe map, must be completed prior to the de-parture to minimize the use of instrumentsand equipment in low temperatures with barehands.

e. Certain mechanized aids are highly valu-able for

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

navigation by dead reckoning.A magnetic compass has been devel-oped for mounting in all vehicles.Odograph Ml is an instrument whichautomatically plots the course of amoving vehicle. It consists of threeprincipal units-the compass; theplotting unit; and the powerpack. Allcomponents are interconnected byelectric cable and flexible shafts. Itwas originally designed for use in the1/4-ton truck, but can be used in othervehicles to include track-laying vehi-cles and sleds for operation underwinter conditions.Odograph M2 is much more accurateand convenient to use than the Ml.It utilizes the miniature gyro-com-pass for the input of direction. Innormal operations, if the map coordi-nates of the starting point are set onthe instrument, it will provide thetrue coordinates of any point alongthe course of travel.The use of rotary wing aircraft for“pathfinding” in bush country greatlyassists in land navigation. From thetactical point of view, however, it isless feasible because it tends to dis-close the movement. Troops can re-veal their position to the aircraft bythe use of colored smoke. The pilotcan then give them their position lo-cation by radio or dropped message.

Section V. ACTION WHEN LOST5-10. General rizing details of the country to be traversed.

Prior march reconnaissance includes memo- Routes should be plotted and as many land-

114 AGO 8641A


marks located as possible to insure that person-nel will not be without recognizable featuresfor any appreciable length of time. If on barrenterrain, all navigation instruments must bethoroughly checked and one of the most ex-perienced men should be given the job ofnavigating and maintaining the “dead reckon-ing log.” It is possible to become temporarilylost while operating in friendly areas of enemyterrain, as on a long range patrol. Each situa-tion should be considered separately, and themain point to remember in any case is toremain calm.

5-11. When Lost Within Known LocalityIf the sector is quiet and there is an absence

of war noises or aircraft to guide the patroltoward friendly lines, stop in place. In awooded area steps should be retraced to thelast known point. If this is not practical, esti-mate the present location and send a smalldetail in search of the next known point. Opin-ions should be taken from the group as a wholeif it is felt they will contribute. Search partiesmust mark their trail carefully in order thatthey may return and guide the main groupforward or rejoin the group should theirsearch be fruitless. In the meantime, the re-mainder of the group should seek shelter. If

it is still not possible to locate the route, carryout the group action discussed in paragraph5-12.

5-12. Conduct When LostAt the first suspicion that a patrol or unit is

not on the right course, it should not keepmoving in the hope that it will come across aknown landmark. The leader should halt thepatrol, not cause unnecessary panic by appear-ing concerned, and immediately make a de-tailed check of the route starting at the lastknown point passed. If extensive checking ofthe position does not clarify the situation, in-form all concerned personnel of the circums-tances. When it has been determined thegroup is definitely lost, the patrol leader mustaccomplish the following:

a. Seek a shelter, evaluate the situation, andformulate a plan.

b. Gather all food and drink and institutea rationing system.

c. Send a few selected personnel to searchfor a route, while the balance of the party re-mains in a sheltered position.

d. Arrange necessary ground-to-air signalsappendix B.

Section VI. MECHANIZED AID TO MOVEMENT

5-13. Track-Laying Vehiclesa. General. So far as small units and indi-

viduals are concerned, vehicles of the track-laying type are the best aid to movement innorthern regions. Deep snow and extreme coldimpose special problems of operations andmaintenance (app. F). Mandatory character-istics of any vehicle to be used in support ofsmall units and individuals in the Far Northduring all seasons are mobility over muskegand tundra, through brush and light timber,and the ability to break trail in deep snow. Acomplete discussion of these problems is beyondthe scope of this manual. This manual is lim-ited to a brief discussion of the generalcapabilities and employment of vehicles whichare capable of tactical cross-country move-ment during all seasons. In order to conserve

AGO 8641A

the energy of troops, mechanized transporta-tion of heavy weapons, ammunition, tentage,sleeping equipment, rations, and individualpacks must be utilized to the maximum. Troopsburdened with carrying or pulling these itemssoon become exhausted and lose their mobilityand fighting capacity. Wheeled vehicles aregenerally restricted to road movements andhave little use in cross-country operations ofsmall units. The series of pictures containedin figures 5-6 through 5-12 illustrate construc-tion problems entailed in negotiating wintertrails with track-laying vehicles.

b. Tractor Trains. The purpose of tractortrains is to furnish oversnow movement ofsupplies and equipment. Tractor trains will beutilized normally from a railhead, truckhead,or airhead to the division or brigade support

115


bg&.A .pA couUAI46 bEb2OIII4E AEFI1CE2 EdflIbdEM1 Dfl11E2 TE2OwMEr

2bECIV

von ,9UO1 O pnt*39r3

9UO'1 O pnhieii1pI'si2 •\i1Eq noi d b9ti5m

pntI,gd3 rnm n ,no1

GCD4I!IU1 U (I4PI 21eruonta iq F

exA F

1921113 931 I992 qSrdZ3 woT F rt s; r

-1o1IJ—III v.n 3Pfl$1139M

9Vt1O I

DO (D\D8):

4 bACFC(? A61J1CJ623 bL qa boje 24ZUC6 ;o ai9jjGq

CnIUd pøuc'jju8CJ6LVUCG O p*.fl2p

j ba. 2U0M2P062 ;nwb2 r ponjq6l.2___________ 64 OOJ &.6bY.L €woAgJ o

HI cozwoop1ud

O 5 A6PICJ6 ?

DLIA6L.(JIdIJ;JA jo9qsq)J.lq4uâ ou ps j6qWI1Q tQW ID LZ

j iw.pvS ?POA6J D—pauqJ6J 9M pncS ICG CI12GJ2

uJugjJIug Q 4i.j4L66 4_LO4I L9IJ

L6WOA9J O4 PLM2 gODGI.9IO.

w iriuc ni nnct

S fltç6. pncabjG6

j jsu' J-w9u cow-J IOM C9PJG' 66Jgff2

' 4C6o&.cGw6uça ou i.oq

COUZP.flCOU OjO8 .6G2

qi3dd4ud

IA6IJICJG2I

ya;gucG o ;jjsqIO.c6w6U2) ;uicçou 21;6

I (LO&. MLç6I.40d M96 4O ;p COU-Ewb;?. qMwJ' d9J o.

U-—---1J.. 1 .1

qud Ou jJG ijsq J 29M' pnclc 169W 6XC6b o&.46UJ (2 Lw) S VX6 2911* 9 0A. NVJ,I

jeg:C 110 3 AGPICJ6 ' C9140

•M!UIIJCIJUTJ IDW IOfH •WDG I IUDUI !(I[Vfl ,, ,wa r beTh,9qo

q 9rbn61—a ,219vo112 S zdwo3 F Ieie .Fd3 wol F

VOlE?: j rcq AGIJICJS .jja pcpuq qot6&. Mpeu oc6q o p qGGb 2UOM'

J3 fncc2gcczou2 oL. (j )DuluW o nsj

CG$*JtC$O3t cçQ \o.

ccowbjzpcq AIi-bOM.L. (q6C9j $0 PG L61UoLC6q)i qoeL. Z U0 VALjJGpJG I.GWOAGJ 04, uq pnzp WflIC PGS1WPG. G$C

area. The tractor train is a means of movinglarge quantities of supplies cross-country. Thetrains are composed of cargo sleds drawn byconstruction type tractors and normally, dueto their size and slow rate of march, are notused forward of the brigade support area. Thetractor train in no way takes the place ofwheeled cargo carriers that may be able tooperate on roads or trails.

116

5-14. The Full Track Personnel CarriedThe full track cross-country carriers are con-

sidered to be the best vehicles for use by com-bat troops in the North. The armored andunarmored carriers are capable of transportinga complete rifle squad together with its equip-ment and impedimenta. In an emergency thesevehicles can furnish limited heat, shelter, andsleeping accommodations. The design of these

AGO 8641A


4 .'_, ' $ sbINKrIo *IH's',. ' s&uvr rwiu o\_ , A 1 -i;' NI'7

- th' ' _____ —' f

isow: ooq $ç ross LO IMESWISH O SCAIHS O $. O 1 DItL*V

—% oaq o.cQç t1D q

LK2

irocr.ieroe 2JVKEe 2,-L roMe 2NDIVWEi.E

ci dIbtb .- .LVPILLI.-QNDVdft

- is,— I—.- - - s- , ,oix: LvoeBneEo

.,x jo,,

1j. OWOflMD4. 2.-.F 2, 3. -- 3.4:

1iliLlii it -ON M4E$VVID CM ICE

1i& jj hII I 4u III I

iILiIti'It

(I It 111I

krv'gv .i&n m Iwfvb

3t 3O S4O.C

carriers permits their functioning as cargoand weapons carriers, as command posts, orfor evacuation of litter patients. While thearmored carrier is capable of reconnaissance,mounts armament, and has armor protectionfrom small arms fire, the unarmored carrierprovides better mobility and greater range onless fuel. The inclosed watertight hulls providean amphibious capability and some protectionagainst radioactive fallout.

5-15. Tanks employed to transport personnel in an ap-

Tanks are designed for cross-country mobility preach march and, in an emergency, to towto include traveling in deep snow. In addition skiers. Windchill factors must be taken intoto their normal tactical missions they may be consideration prior to moving troops on tanks

AGO 8641A 117


- e. roes u1enwovir NiE 2,— , rowe x 2 DIYYIEiEpsi— - -H

)

1e,1- eaiIk,eE'Oil ACObDflbOA OVD

- --.p3 diE- 2IEEbEB2

p.

- HVAA CODflbOA *1114

r2'i ..

AvsIOn OODflOA %OVD2

coaa 2E011011 DEilr Ok

00140W0M2 — -. •

h .- DEbEWD2 014

•:• Mliii 2fb2 (ooMrEiE;

$t Lrb o\ o.qsn.oZt

X 2, DIVELEV$LVKE2—2,iO, rode

I3T3MAIO N. ci "a 3O1IfiT

EJIAR ORAUD RO R38$T TAHT T$3V3 3HT III 3101 ,3JaAJ,& YJIaA3R 1041 31 R3O$IRT3 QuA

R3)4RAM HUR6 O 3OAM RO Q3TTIMO 3 YAM Y3HT

W 26Ci0U o z.ovq COWbjG46q

a

VflMDE P

$c —w CO..OItflRG q ft MJJOLR6 OL wBJq1J PLnaP piwqjer

118 AGO 8641A


Ats 8co-th -boq csr .oscb

for any appreciable distance to insure against characteristic of tanks. Tank tracks may pro-frostbite. Tanks may also be used to pull cargo vide routes of advance for troops, especiallysleds; however, damage can be caused to sled in the assault phase of the attack.tongues by the fast, jerky starting which is

Section VII. SLEDS

5-16. Man Hauled Sleds

a. Sled, Scow-Type 200-Pound Capacity.(Ahkio). Man-hauled sleds are necessarilylight. They can carry a load of 200 pounds overdifficult terrain and are used for carryingtents, stoves, fuel, rations, and other necessaryitems of each tent group. They are also usedfor carrying weapons and ammunition. Theymay be used as a firing platform for machine-

guns in deep snow and are particularly usefulin the evacuation of casualties. Sleds are sel-dom used by small reconnaissance patrols be-cause of the decreased speed of the individuals.Strong combat patrols, however, frequentlyuse them for carrying their equipment or forevacuation in cases when faster means are notavailable. Sleds are provided with white canvascovers for camoflauge, to hold the contents in

AGO 8641A 1 1 9


$t.g —t 'r ctob -;ox•

place and protect them from the elements(figs. 4-36, 4-37, 5-13).

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

The sled has an approximate weightof 38 pounds, is 223.5 cm (88") long,61.0 cm (24") wide, and has a depthof 20.3 cm (8"). It is towed by ateam of four men. For the purposeof towing, a harness, sled, singletrace, is provided. It consists of aloose-fitting web belt which is fas-tened at the side by a quick releasebuckle, an adjustable shoulder strapwhich supports the belt at the desiredposition on the hips, and a 2.75meter (9') towing rope with snapbuckles at each end. Metal D-ringsare positioned at the front and rearof the belt.Normally, sleds are towed by man-power only for short distances overprepared trails during an approachmarch or a similar type movement.Usually, the sled and equipment istransported on cargo sleds or bytracked vehicles. A number of loadedsleds, can be placed in cargo sleds(1 ton or heavier) or, in an emer-gency, can be hooked on improvisedtow bars and towed behind thetracked vehicles. A triangle made ofgreen poles and attached to the rearof the vehicle or cargo sled providesan excellent “tow-bar.” Four smallsleds can be towed by each vehiclewhen sleds are tied in tandem toallow two sleds to follow each vehicletrack.The sled, because of its boatlikeshape, is easily maneuverable undera variety of snow and terrain condi-tions. It is superior to flat surfacedtoboggans in maneuvering over diffi-cult terrain, especially in deep snowand in heavily wooded areas.It is important to distribute the loadof the sled properly (fig. 5-13). Inloading, place heavy equipment onthe bottom and slightly to the rearand lighter equipment toward the top,in order to prevent the loaded sledfrom being top heavy. After the sled

has been loaded, the canvas covers ofthe sled should be folded over theload. To keep snow from getting un-der the canvas and to keep the loadfrom shifting, lash the load tightlyby crisscrossing the lashing rope fromthe lashing ring on one side of thesled to the other. Place tools such asshovels, axes, and saws on top of theload outside the canvas so that theyare readily available for trailbreakingand similar purposes during themovement.

b. Improvised Sleds. Different types of sledscan be improvised from skis, plywood, lumber,or metal sheeting.

5-17. Cargo Sledsa. For military purposes sleds are classified

light or heavy. Lightsleds are under 5-tonpayload capacity, and sleds with payload ca-pacity of 5 tons or over are considered heavy.

b. Light sleds presently in use are designedto carry 1- or 2-ton payloads. The l-ton cargosled (fig. 5-14) is normally used with a lighttracked vehicle as a prime mover; and 2-tonsleds (available in limited quantities but not astandard item) with the squad carrier or trac-tor as a prime mover. Care must be exercised,when towing these sleds with tracked vehicles,to avoid snapping the sled tongues in quickstarting, Light sleds are suitable for use whenrapid travel is involved and in areas wherethe freezing season has mean temperatureswhich do not form more than moderate thick-nesses of ice on rivers and lakes.

AGO 8641A120


c. Heavy sleds (of a commercial type) whichmay be used are of 10- to 20-ton payloadcapacity. It is anticipated that the bulk ofsupply will be transported on heavy sleds asopposed to light sleds. The operating radius ofsleds is restricted only by the terrain and capa-bility of the prime mover. The heavy sled is

5-18.The

in theuse of

Section VIII.

Aircraftlack of ground communication routesnorthern latitudes causes an extensiveair transportation. Both fixed-wing and

rotary-wing type aircraft are used. Troops andsupplies may be transported from one existingor improvised airfield to another. In some situ-ations both supply and evacuation by air maybe the only feasible method. Bad weather maylimit air operations for short periods of time.

a. Fixed-Wing. The vast stretches of thenorthern regions can be reconnoitered with aminimum time and effort by liaison fixed-wingaircraft. The ability of the ski-equipped air-craft to land on frozen lakes, streams, and inopen fields in winter affords advantages andopportunities to supplement the ground recon-naissance. In addition to reconnaissance, fixed-wing aircraft are used to supplement theoverland movement of troops and supplies,evacuation, and many other purposes.

b. Rotary-Wing. The dominant characteris-tics of this type craft, such as vertical ascentand descent and requirement for short landing

best suited for use over flat or gently rollingterrain and in areas where rivers and lakesare frozen to sufficient depths to permit use as“highway.” In some cases specially constructed“iced roads” are required to operate motorizedsled trains with heavy sleds.

AIRCRAFT

areas, make it valuable for reconnaissance,evacuation, troop movements, command con-trol, resupply, and many other types of mis-sions. Aviators must exercise caution whenhovering over loose snow as it may swirl upand cause loss of visual reference.

5-19. AirfieldsThere are many potential landing sites in

the area of northern operations. Runways canbe constructed by grading and compactingsnow. In general, airplanes equipped with skisrequire about 15 percent more landing andtakeoff space than those equipped with wheels.Aircraft can use airfields constructed on frozenlakes and rivers, after a suitable ice recon-naissance has been made (FM 31-71 ). Designcriteria for Pioneer, Hasty, and DeliberateArmy airfields and heliports are listed in TM6330. As a rule of thumb for planning pur-poses, the airfield for liaison type aircraft(0-1 and U-6) should be a minimum of 30meters (30 yards) wide and 400 meters (400yards) long. Refer to the Flight Handbook forexact landing and takeoff distances of variousaircraft.

AGO 8641A 121


CHAPTER 6

COMBAT TECHNIQUES

Section I. THE INDIVIDUAL

6-1. Problems of Northern WarfareTwo opponents face the soldier in northern

warfare-the enemy, who must be defeated,and nature, which must be made an ally. Wefight the enemy, but we must accept nature asit is, making nature fight with and for us.Proper clothing and equipment will help over-come the hazards of nature. Training teachesthe individual how to use natural conditionsfor movement concealment, and protection, aswell as how to operate efficiently when theweather is good or bad, and in all types ofterrain. The trained soldier moves, fights, lives,and works easily and confidently because heknows his job.

6-2. Nature of Northern Warfarea. During winter the vast, empty spaces of

the northern regions permit unrestricted ma-neuver and movement for troops sufficientlyequipped and trained to operate in these cir-cumstances. Dispersion is simplified; hostileartillery and mortar fire can be evaded oravoided. A mobile force can gain surprise andstrike deep in the flanks and rear areas of theenemy, disrupting his lines of communications

AND NORTHERN WARFARE

and finally destroying him. However, themountainous areas of the northern regions willhave the same limitations to movement asthose in more temperate climates.

b. The principles of war remain unchanged.Tactics used in the northern latitudes are thesame as anywhere else in the world. The wag-ing of successful warfare in the extreme colddepends on the use of a great number of tech-niques. For the purpose of carrying out theirmission, all individuals and units concernedmust be indoctrinated and thoroughly trainedin these techniques.

c. There is always opportunity for eachsoldier as an individual to display his initia-tive. Initiative is shown not only in combat,but also in the small things which can be doneto make life more comfortable and more in-teresting in the North.

d. In the isolated areas of the North it ismost essential that a system of teams be de-veloped. Pair men together as “buddies” andinsure a higher standard of efficiency, safety,and morale. If it can be avoided, never sendone man alone on a mission—at all times tryto keep “buddies” together.

Section II. INDIVIDUAL WEAPONS AND INSTRUMENTS

6-3. Effects of Northern Conditions on 6-4. Care, Cleaning, and MaintenanceWeapons and Instruments a. Weapons will function under extreme

The year-round necessity for supervised conditions, provided they are properly main-care, cleaning, and maintenance cannot be tained. Normal lubricants thicken in coldoverstressed. Effects of cold weather on vari- weather and stoppages or sluggish actions ofous types of weapons are covered in detail in firearms will result. DURING THE WINTER,appendix D. WEAPONS MUST BE STRIPPED COM-

122 AGO 8641A


PLETELY AND CLEANED WITH A DRY-CLEANING SOLVENT TO REMOVE ALLLUBRICANTS AND RUST PREVENTIONCOMPOUND. The prescribed application ofspecial northern oils should then be made.These lubricants will provide proper lubrica-tion during the winter and help minimize thefreezing of snow and ice on and in weapons.

b. Soldiers must insure that snow and icedo not get into the working parts, sights, orbarrels of weapons. Even a small amount ofice or snow may cause malfunction of the weap-ons. Muzzle and breech covers should be used.Before firing, the weapon must be examinedcarefully, especially the barrel, which may beblocked with ice or snow and will burst whenfired. Snow on the outside, if not removed,may drop into the breech and later form ice,causing malfunctioning of the weapon.

c. Condensation forms on weapons whenthey are taken from the extreme cold into anytype of heated shelter. This condensation isoften referred to as “sweating.” For this rea-son weapons should be placed near or at thefloor level where the temperature will be lowerand there will be less condensation. Every ef-fort must be made to remove condensation assoon as possible or the film will freeze whenthe weapons are subsequently taken into thecold. The ice so formed may seriously affectthe operation of the weapon unless it is man-ually operated until the moisture freezes. Thisprevents the parts from freezing together andallows continued operation. If security condi-tions permit weapons should be left outdoors,in racks or unheated shelter.

d. When weapons are taken into a heatedshelter, “sweating” may continue for as longas 1 hour. When time is available, men shouldwait 1 hour and then remove all condensationand clean the weapon.

e. During the freezeup and breakup seasons,the danger of rust and corrosion is at itsgreatest. In the winter the lack of moisturein the air decreases this danger, but the prob-lem of ice and snow will necessitate frequentchecking and cleaning of weapons,

f. Should parts of a weapon become frozen,warm them slightly and move them graduallyuntil unfrozen. If the weapon cannot be

warmed, all visible ice and snow should be re-moved and parts moved gradually until actionis restored. Ice in the barrel can be removedwith warm (standard issue) gun oil if slowwarming is not possible.

g. When firing, do not let the hot parts ofthe weapon come in contact with the snow. Thesnow will melt and, on cooling, form ice. Whenchanging barrels, do not lay them on the snow;rapid cooling may warp them.

h. Snow, even of the lightest variety, hasa tremendous smothering effect on fragment-ing munitions. Even a few inches of light snowcan drastically affect the lethality of this typemunition. Understanding this, commandersmust insure that antipersonnel mine direc-tional paths are cleared in snow to prevent lossof velocity to fragments and deflection of frag-ments by snow. Grenadiers should always at-tempt to obtain airbursts by placing fire onthe brush in the target area rather than in thesnow. Indirect fire weapons should make maxi-mum use of airbursts provided by time andproximity fuzes.

6-5. AmmunitionExtreme cold does not materially affect the

accuracy of weapons nor the performance ofsmall arms ammunition. Ammunition shouldbe kept at the same temperature as theweapon. It should be carried in the bandoleersand the additional ammunition placed in thepockets of the outer garment and in the ruck-sack. Ammunition clips, and magazines mustbe cleaned of all oil and preservative and mustbe checked frequently; all ice, snow, and con-densation should be removed. Cartridge con-tainers, magazines, and ammunition drumsmust be kept closed in order to prevent theformation of rust or ice.

a. Ammunition should be stored in itsoriginal container, raised off the ground, andcovered with a tarpaulin. Ammunition sostored should be suitably marked in order tolocate and identify it in the event it becomescovered with snow.

b. Resupply of ammunition may be re-stricted. All personnel must be made aware ofthe necessity for ammunition economy and firediscipline. Loaded clips, magazines, or single

AGO 8641A 123


rounds dropped into the snow are quickly lost;therefore, careful handling of ammunition isessential.

6-6. Care and Maintenance of Special Itemsa. The liquid in the lensatic compass, aiming

circles and in weapons sights congeals in ex-treme cold. This situation will cause sluggishmovement of the arrows and bubbles and in-crease the probability of error. The compassshould be carried near the body in inner cloth-ing in order to keep the liquid warm and thin.Other instruments and sights should be keptas warm as possible and should be exposed tothe cold only during periods of actual use.

b. Binoculars and other liquid-free opticalinstruments are not affected by cold weather.

Section III. FIRE

6-7. Blowing Snow and Foga. These restrictions will affect both friendly

and enemy forces, Full advantage must betaken of them in order to effect concealment,surprise, and eventual success.

(1)

(2)

b. By

Defense positions should be locatedon high ground, thus forcing theenemy to attack uphill in deep snow.Each weapon must be assigned a fieldof fire and emplaced on an impro-vised platform which will insure firebeing brought to bear at man-heightlevel on the likely enemy approaches.Thus during fog, storm, or darkness,effective unobserved fire can bebrought to bear.In areas of fog, if possible, outpostand observation post positions shouldbe located where warmer air or windeliminates fog or at least makes itless dense.

proper reconnaissance and the use oftrailmarkers it may be possible for an attack-ing force under cover of fog or blowing snowto approach very close to the enemy before thefinal assault. During blizzards or blowing snowthe attacker should, if possible, attack down-wind or at a slight angle to it in order thathe will force the enemy to face into the fullforce of the storm.

124

However, condensation does form when theseinstruments are taken from cold air into warmair. Therefore, these instruments should be leftoutside.

c. Extreme cold will lower the efficiency ofall batteries and eventually they may freeze.Batteries must be kept from freezing and, ifpossible, men should carry radio and flashlightbatteries close to the body in order that fullefficiency will be available when needed.

d. Low temperature dry cell batteries maybe issued for cold weather use. These batteriesare distinguished by 2000 series-type numbers,such as BA–2030 for a flashlight battery. Thesebatteries must be stored at temperatures near0° F. to conserve

AND MOVEMENT

their shelf life.

c. Ice or vapor fogs are very common inextreme low temperatures. Such fogs are pri-marily the result of natural phenomena, butalso result from many other causes such asvehicle exhausts, cooking, breathing, and weap-ons firing. Fogs of this nature hang overheadand could be clear markers of a position. Theywill also limit visibility. The observed fire ofautomatic and direct fire weapons is handi-capped considerably by the fog, smoke, andwhirling snow caused by muzzle blast. Placingobservers away from the weapons positionsmay be necessary to control the fire. Placingtarpaulins under the guns, or packing or icingthe snow, will assist in reducing the effect ofmuzzle blast. Pauses in firing or change ofposition may be necessary in order to obtainbetter fire effect.

6-8. Fire Positionsa. Digging firing positions in soft or hard

snow is relatively easy and quick. In a staticposition every effort must be made to improvethe position and, if time permits, to dig it intothe frozen ground. The use of explosives to digemplacements and fires to thaw the groundwill help. A position in the snow is only tem-porary and cannot withstand artillery andcontinuous small arms fire. Icing of the posi-tion or use of tree trunks and branches will

AGO 8641A


oIIr 1IOM I l1LM- - .iflI*I(I coAcvrD

1ViW O ICE Iva o •wvMCMC ICED *iO*tIII(E hOIJJOI4 __

J.vHbtD

OM C(D SMOM

nMI4[r ohEI4IMe

ijsc —' s o\ boo o.scq socw

bO2IiIO.l2

EDCE O

o\s o\ icooq

afford added protection (fig. 6-l). Sandbagsfilled with snow may be used quite effectivelyfor this purpose.

b. The digging oppositions in snow and thetypes constructed are, in general, similar tothose discussed in FM 5-15. Foxholes, trenches,and other types are used.

c. Every effort must be made toward im-provement of positions; snowblocks, iceblocks,sandbags, logs, and branches can be used tostrengthen them. In addition, water may bepoured onto the snow to form ice. In staticpositions, when time allows water mixed withdirt, sand, or gravel can be poured into woodenforms. This is called “icecrete.” The icecretemust be well tamped as it is poured to makeit compact. Usually there is no necessity forremoving the forms unless the wood is re-quired for other purposes. Icecrete is darkerthan ice and will absorb more heat from therays of the sun, causing melting. Icecrete con-struction must therefore be covered with snow,both to overcome its melting and to camou-flage its contrasting color. Icecrete is muchstronger than ice, provides considerable pro-tection from small arms fire and shell frag-ments, and is a useful material for preparationof defensive positions. Icecrete, however, isbrittle, and sustained fire reduces its protec-tiveness, thus requiring frequent repairs.

d. The action of winds and tides duringwinter rips the sea ice surface and then forcesthe ice into high piles extending in lines formiles, These ice barriers afford excellent firingpositions and protection because of their thick-ness and the fact they command the usuallyflat expanses between ridges. Iceblocks can becut from numerous sources and used to

AGO 8641A

strengthen a position. The ice should be cov-ered with packed snow which will help camou-flage and assist in eliminating the possibilityof ricochets, shell fragments, and lethal icesplinters.

e. In a woods the thickest and strongesttrees provide the best protection for the indi-vidual. In order to use the added protectionafforded by the trees, perimeter positionsshould not be on the edge, but should beslightly deeper in the woods, depending on itsdensity and consistent with the required fieldsof fire (fig. 6-2), A tree 50 cm (20”) in diame-ter will provide protection from small armsfire. If the tree selected is smaller, packed snow,dirt, branches, or deadfalls may be used toincrease protection.

f. The improvement of fields of fire in woodsis most important. The lower branches of trees,up to 2 meters (6’) high, which restrict fieldsof fire must be removed. Underbrush and per-haps even a few trees will have to be cut;however, do not strip the area. In the firstphase of improvement, crisscrossing snow tun-nels under the trees is carried out. Then, iftime allows, those fields are extended widerand deeper. In the final phase, obstacles andtraps are constructed and mines laid in theseareas (fig. 6-2).

6-9. Use of Ski Poles and Sleds in Firinga. When firing in snow, it is necessary that

a firm support be used, as snow will compact.On hard packed snow the weapon may slide.Therefore, any item available in the area or


/1

%—'a. uq bosor

n the men’s possession should be used to insurea solid base; e.g., branches, skis, snowshoes,or sleds.

b. Skis and ski poles can be used in a varietyof ways to form weapons rests while firing onthe move. Figure 6-3 illustrates the standingposition. Use this position only in hasty situa-tions, as when surprised by enemy fire.

c. Ski poles may be used as an elbow restor as weapon support when firing from akneeling position in shallow crusted snow(fig. 6-4). For firing in deep, soft snow theposition of the poles can be reversed for addedstability.

d. When firing from the prone position, theskis or ski poles may be used as an elbow restor as supports for the weapon (figs. 6-5,6-6, and 6-7).

126

e. Automatic weapons may be fired from theprone position using a snowshoe or ski polebasket as a rest for the biped (fig. 6-8). Afairly wide strip of canvas maybe permanentlyattached to each leg of the biped. On openingthe biped, the canvas will stretch out betweenthe legs over the snow and stop the legs fromsinking.

f. To prevent weapons from sinking in deepsnow, machineguns may be fired from sleds incase of emergency (fig. 6-9). The weapons canbe mounted either with regular or improvisedmountings. However, it is essential that weap-ons be placed in a dug-in position as soon aspossible.

6-10. Strength of Snow, Ice, and FrozenGround for Cover

a. General. The soft, spongy ground of the

AGO 8641A.


••"• •

•

L tL O*

' V

Q' %O gq boç

North in the summer, and the snow surface ground or ice, when not covered with snow,in the winter, have a smotheringfrom all types of weapons. Hard

AGO 8641A

154-616 94 - 5

effect on fire greatly increases the number of ricochets andfrozen, bare fragmentation effects. The resistance or pro-

127


j%sns %—& bouow n€ç U2 staboMa troi.ç

/.

j%sns q—j bot:çoir bos nq cm

1' .

128 AGO 8641A


—• o\ so o. mcbo &bo

tection offered by snow, ice, or frozen ground deflect the bullet at each new layer. Looseagainst enemy fire is variable. snow spread over a defense position will help

b. Penetration. A rifle bullet rapidly loses its smother ricochets. The minimum thicknesspenetrating power depending on the density of for protection from rifle bullets and shellthe snow. Snow packed in layers tends to fragments is shown in the following table:

AGO 8641A 129


—• \.on

jj

—ic $

* WuCGL!VJd ItflI qanaLvf6 flJ6L ati*4vjIJGq 1JL6

IC6CL6l —IEL0S6U 21JO/A-MflGL WJflJTLG --2110M

L!LWJX tLOSGU

M6iAJ7 tJ!6U auot

maç

20100

4co2 130f°120soo

gcOIO QO200oo

lQ*$ 0saçnu€çQ&SWU!MWI$t wcttu8I*

12

6-11. Effect of Snow, Ice, Frozen Ground,and Muskeg on Shells and Grenades

a. Loose snow greatly reduces the explosiveand fragmentation effects of shells. The depth,type of snow, and ammunition are naturallythe main consideration. The use of a delayedaction fuze will generally cause the shell topenetrate the snow blanket and explode under-neath, smothering and reducing the effect of

the fragmentation. One meter (3’) of snowwill provide some protection against mostlight artillery fire. A superquick fuze settingwill increase the effect of artillery fire, whileairbursts will inflict still more casualties onsurface targets.

b. In the summer the many areas of muskegand water will also limit the effects of artilleryfire. On ice or frozen ground, and duringperiods of freezup, the effect will be greatlyincreased as the result of flying ice splintersand frozen clods of ground. In these seasonsand areas, covered positions must be increasedin strength. Overhead protection must besought whenever possible.

6-12. Crew-Served Weapon Positionsa. Detailed information and guidance for

construction of emplacements and shelters iscontained in FM 5-15. The dimensions areapplicable for both winter and summer. Thegun emplacements for MG’s, rocket launchers,

AGO 8641A130


43\ uonbqsc c-t boiso3 (\.ot

L..

1t.€ bo (\os tc&

:.,.

\&OMt ct.Qq).—1V bo;soar

and recoilless rifles are square-type positions.The gun platform can be made from packedsnow and is about waist high. Open space mustbe left behind the gun to allow for the backblast of the rocket launcher and recoilless rifle.

b. Mortar positions in snow are normallyround shaped (fig. 6-10). Because of the frozenground a mat made from tree branches orsandbags filled with snow must be placed underthe baseplate when firing. See FM 5-15 andFM 23-90.

c. Bunker-type positions will give betterprotection for the gun crew against enemy fireand weather than will open positions (figs.6-11, 6-12, and 6-13). A hasty bunker-typeposition is normally built as follows:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

A square shaped hole is dug in thesnow, the dimension depending on thepurpose of the bunker position.A heavy log or a tree trunk is placedlengthwise on each side of the snowhole. They are supported by fourheavy, forked poles.A layer of logs is placed crosswise inthe top of the two support logs.A layer of boughs is placed on thefirst layer of logs in order to preventmelting snow from dripping into thebunker.Two or three more layers of logs areplaced on the top of the boughs.

AGO 8641A

(6)

(7)

(8)

Finally, the roof is covered bysmoothing and packing the snow inorder to eliminate any sharp featuresthat may produce shadows.A small embrasure reinforced withsandbags and snow is left open, in thedirection of the field of fire.The rear entrance is covered with awhite tarpaulin or a white camou-flage suit.

d. Tents are often used in temporary defensepositions to shelter the men. They must be closeto the combat positions and should be in de-filade. The tents must be dug into the deep

131


st o cosc mwo%oW

snow, or even into the ground in order toprotect the men against enemy fire. The tentropes must be well anchored by using deadmananchors or upright poles placed deep in packedsnow. Immediately outside the tent, defensepositions must be dug for use in case of suddenalert (fig. 6-14).

e. When near the surface the covering snowis easy to dig with individual entrenching tools;the difficulties will start when ground isreached. Several small holes should be dug inthe ground and attempts made to break thefrozen ground between them. The men shouldtemporarily exchange the different types ofentrenching tools in order to make the diggingfaster. During darkness, or in areas not underthe enemy’s direct observation, heavy toolssuch as picks, crowbars, and shovels are usedso that positions can be completed rapidly.

f. Using explosives provides the easiest and

fastest way to break the frozen ground. How-ever, the use of demolitions will be restrictedwhen under enemy observation. CompositionC–4, tetrytol, and TNT are the best explosivesfor use in northern operations because theyretain their effectiveness in cold weather. Diga hole in the ground in which to place theexplosive and tamp the charge with any mate-rial available to increase its effectiveness.Either electric or nonelectric circuits may beused to detonate the charge. For a foxhole, 10pounds of explosive will usually be sufficient.Another formula is to use 2 pounds of explosivefor every 30 cm (1’) of penetration in frozenground. Shaped charges can be used very effi-ciently to make holes in frozen ground as de-scribed in TM 5-349.

g. Some improvised means as listed belowmay be used to break the frozen ground whenno others are available:

(1)

(2)

(3)

In rear areas frozen ground can bethawed by starting a campfire in theplace where it is desired to dig.Two or three handgrenades tied to-gether can be used to blast a hole inthe frozen ground.Existing craters caused by enemy orfriendly artillery fire can be utilized.

h. Often the tops of ridges or hilltops will berocky and with very little snow on the groundbecause of wind action. If the time and situa-tion allow, the snow situation can be improvedby erecting snow fences in the place plannedfor defense positions. Within a few days thesnow fences will collect drifting snow in bank-like forms in which it is easy to dig positions.

Section IV. FIGHTING TECHNIQUES

6-13. Formations good flotation and will facilitate skiing for the

Squad and platoon formations for tacticalindividuals. Since the trailbreaking require-ment is reduced and may under favorablemovements remain basically the same as for

temperate regions; however, terrain and deep circumstances be nonexistent, line formations

snow cover will necessitate some modifications. may be used without loss of speed. DownhillIn deep snow, when speed is of the essence, movement, even in deep snow, may also indi-a column formation may be preferable to a line cate the use of line formations when it wouldformation because it will require fewer trails. not be considered feasible on level terrain un-Old, well-settled snow will normally provide der the same snow conditions.

132 AGO 8641A


kJi

;;rNTha ': • :•

%—1c ççm %8

7.

;

rn

o

6-14. Handling of Ski and SnowshoeEquipment and Individual Weapons

a. The purpose of using skis or snowshoes incombat is to expedite the movement of indi-viduals over deep snow in the most rapid man-ner, thus exposing them to hostile fire for theshortest possible period of time. In order toobtain the maximum advantage of skis theyshould be used as far forward as possible,leaving them behind only when the objectivecan be reached more quickly and easily on foot.It is finally up to the small unit leader to decideat which phase in the attack this may be done.As a rule of thumb the skis are left at thefinal coordination line, because close combat onfoot is more effective and easier to execute thanif mounted on skis. Conversely, deep snow mayforce units to close into the objective on skis.

Individuals using snowshoes may keep them onthrough all phases of the attack. Under favora-ble snow conditions they may be left piled to-gether at the final coordination line or fastenedto the individual’s equipment where they willleast hinder him.

b. As friendly forces approach the effectiverange of enemy weapons, they move by fire andmaneuver. The individuals proceed by shortrushes on foot, on skis, or on snowshoes which-ever is most feasible. Rushing on foot, the skisare dragged by holding them together by thetips (poles through the two straps) in onehand, with the weapon readily available foraction in the other (fig. 6–15). Skis may alsobe tied to the belt with the emergency thongslipped through the holes at the ski tips.

c. The quick-release feature of the All-Terrain ski binding provides the means toquickly dismount from skis when hostile firebecomes effective. Under favorable snow con-ditions, as well as in emergencies, the skibindings are kept on when lying down andfiring between rushes (fig. 6–16).

d. When contact with the enemy is not ex-pected, the individual weapon is carried acrossthe back with the sling over either shoulder,the butt at the side or attached to the rucksack(if carried by the individuals) (fig. 6-17).When contact with the enemy is imminent, theweapon is slung around the neck and in frontof the body thus releasing both arms for rapid

AGO 8641A 133


I

—1• KK Qhc (ttcCI' n't

Q—W tbo scs .ovwq McV•

AGO 8641A134


IFlcthc

4fl3• %—ç 'av tR•

I,

c.

skiing (fig. 6–18). When contact with theenemy has been established, the weapon iscarried in one hand and the ski poles in the

other so the weapon is readily available foraction (fig. 6-19).

e. Under conditions where the depth of thesnow is less than 50 cm (20”), skis may beleft in the attack position if it becomes evidentthat launching an attack on foot can be exe-cuted in a more rapid and efficient manner thanusing skis.

AGO 8641A 135


pp1 1%

_lff

:1 :

r

rrr

:'!

f. As soon as the objective has been seized, 6-15. Additional Techniquesthe skis, ski poles or snowshoes may be re- a. In deep, loose snow under hostile fire itcovered and brought forward. A two-man team may be more advantageous to advance in acan quickly make a ski bundle (fig. 6-20) and high crawl position by holding the skis withdrag the skis of an entire squad at one time. hands through the toe straps and taking full

advantage of snowdrifts and bushes. A positionsuch as illustrated in figure 6–21 should beadopted. Snowshoes may be used in the samemanner.

b. Sliding forward in a low crawl on skis isanother method of advancing, especially overfirm snow (fig. 6–22). The rifle can be slungover the shoulder or laid on the skis directlyin front of the individual. The latter is possibleonly when the snow is hard so that it cannotget into the rifle.

c. In deep snow, trenches may be dug in thesnow leading in the direction of the objectivewhen it is too difficult to be reached by over-snow movement. Snow trenches are dug on azigzag course (fig. 6-23 ) by throwing the snowout under cover of darkness or, in an emer-gency, the digging may be masked by smoke-screens. The snow shoveled from the trenchshould be placed on the enemy side of thetrench to allow the individuals to crawl alongthe trench without being observed by theenemy.

136 AGO 8041A


—• \cos e\

ICE

d. Snowdrifts and vehicle tracks may beutilized when found in the battlefield. Snowfills in ditches and rolling ground and tends toflatten the terrain in general. The wind buildsup snowdrifts and cornices and can changethe contour of the ground a great deal. Snow-covered terrain must be continually studied andevery feature utilized. On the downwind sideof every obstacle, tree, house, and bush thereis always a hollow which may provide anexcellent observation point or firing position(fig. 6-24) .

e. The wind, particularly in open areas, mayform long, wavy snowdrifts which are almostnatural snow trenches. They may at times beused as an approach to the objective.

f. Frozen streams or sunken riverbeds maybe used as another means of advance (fig. 6–

all 35) ; often they may represent a longerbut safer route.

g. An early fall frost will form a layer of iceon creeks or streams when the water level ishigh. Later, when the flowing water becomeslower and reaches its winter level, the topsurface will again freeze so that there are twolayers of ice. This is called shell ice or overflowice and is not always safe.

h. Certain swampy areas do not freezesolidly during the coldest periods of winter.They are often covered with snow, hiding thewater underneath and making the swamps anobstacle. Only experience and the knowledgethat they exist in the local area, will preventaccidents. Suspected areas should be avoidedand bypassed with no attempt made to cross.

i. Snowbanks beside plowed roads and tracksoften provide excellent cover in wintertime.These banks or drifts will remain far into thespring thaw period, especially in areas of heavysnowfall.

j. The tracks left by tanks and oversnowvehicles in snow may provide routes of advance.Continuous traffic packs the snow and mayallow movement on foot without skis or snow-shoes. In the advance, infantry may utilizetracks left by their advancing armor.

k. In static situations the ski equipment be-comes vulnerable to small arms fire and shellfragments. When troops are expected to remainin the same position for an extended period oftime, skis, poles, and snowshoes should beplaced in a covered position.

Section V. CAMOUFLAGE AND CONCEALMENT

6-16. General Considerations movement will be concealed. Camouflage andconcealment from air observation is of the

a. In winter the whiteness of the countryside greatest concern.emphasizes any item which may not blend in -

b. In the northern landscape, backgroundsnaturally with the surroundings. Furthermore,every movement by vehicles or dismounted are not necessarily all white. Rocks, scrubtroops leaves tracks in the snow. Before every bushes, and shadows make sharp contrast with

the snow.movement, consideration must be given to howthese tracks can be kept to a minimum. Nature c. Snow-covered terrain in the wooded re-may assist by covering tracks with newly gions, when viewed from the air, reveals afallen snow or by providing a storm in which surprising proportion of dark areas.

AGO 8641A 137


6-17. Vapor CloudsFiring of weapons, vehicle exhausts, and

breathing will, in extreme cold, cause local fogor vapor clouds which can be seen by theenemy even though the weapon, vehicle, orsoldier is well concealed. Smoke from fireshangs immediately above and will disclose theposition if there is no wind to blow it away.Under certain conditions, if the position is ona high point, smoke may flow downward intodepressions and may be used as a deceptivemeasure. It may be necessary to move weaponsfrequently, shut off vehicle motors, or leavevehicles in rear areas. Conversely, deception orconcealment might be gained by deliberatelycreating vapor fogs or clouds.

6-18. SoundsThe still, cold air of the North carries sound

much farther than in temperate climates. Allsounds must be kept to a minimum. Noisecaused by motors, men coughing, and skiersbreaking through snow crust may warn theenemy of activity at extreme distances.

6-19. VisibilityThe long hours of daylight in the North dur-

ing the summer allow for longer periods ofaerial reconnaissance and increase the possibil-ity of detection. The short hours of daylightduring the winter months materially decreasethe time available for reconnaissance. As anexample, during the period 15 December to 15January at 68° N. Lat. the sun will neverappear over the horizon. Daylight will consistof only twilight and will last for only 4 or 5hours.

6-20. Tracksa. Tracks made in a soft surface may be-

come quite firm if the temperature drops duringthe night, and will remain indefinitely as indi-cations of movement. Special considerationmust be given to the tracks in bivouacs andbase camps. Number and size of trails must bekept to a minimum. All unnecessary “streets,”turnaround loops, and parking areas must beavoided. Individuals may be forced to use onlya certain trail. From the air, tracks, eventhrough wooded areas, appear like a white scar.

Coniferous branches can be laid in a staggeredpattern on each side of the track as well ason it. Strict track discipline both during move-ment as well as in bivouacs and base campsmust be maintained at all times.

b. Aerial photographs are closely examinedand from them can be gathered a great dealof information. The depth of a track will showthe amount and the direction of movement.Vehicle or sled tracks may indicate the type ofvehicle and conclusions can be made as to thetype of weapons. Every effort must be madeto mislead the enemy. It may be advantageousto make more tracks or trails and showgreater signs of strength. All marks made inthe open are generally visible to the camera.

6-21. Camouflage Materialsa. White is the predominant color in winter

and snow is the most important camouflagematerial, By intelligent use of camouflageclothing and equipment together with whatnature makes available, effective individual andgroup camouflage can be achieved.

b. Improvised camouflage clothes can bemade from sheeting, tape, whitewashed sack-ing, or painted canvas. White paper, when wet,can be applied and allowed to freeze on allkinds of surfaces. Snow thrown over theobject helps to increase the camouflage effect.

c. White paint has many uses in wintercamouflage. Weapons, vehicles, skis, and sledscan be effectively painted with white non-glossy paint.

d. On occasion, white smoke may be used tohelp the camouflage plan. The major problemis to make the installation blend in with thecountryside.

e. Camouflage face paint, white and loamcolor combination, may be applied to exposedareas of the face and hands to blend effectivelyin with the snow cover.

6-22. Individual Camouflage andConcealment

a. During the summer the normal principlesof using camouflage clothing will apply. How-ever, as winter approaches, men must use par-tial white winter camouflage to match the

138 AGO 8641A


t&s r

4:

.•..••'.) .

j?ttu.Q fl O' ob

15t -w cot ob gtoc cossouv

changing conditions; men should be trained toavoid areas of local growth and dark outlines(fig. 6-26).

b. In fairly open forest areas during thewinter, men wearing “whites” should avoid thedark background of trees. In the same manner,if wearing dark clothing, men should stayunder trees and avoid the open.

c. In mixed surroundings frequent changesof camouflage clothing become necessary. Theuse of mixed clothing is often the most pre-ferable (fig. 6-27).

d. All equipment worn on the outside should

AGO 8641A

154-616 94 - 6

139


tc s MOK

——I

__j

Q—% CO$. I

be camouflaged. Contrasting equipment wornon the camouflage suit will increase the possi-bility of enemy detection. Loose items such asgrenades or fieldglasses should be kept con-cealed inside the suit.

6-23. Camouflaging EquipmentSkis, rifles, and sleds may be painted white

prior to issue. If they are unpainted, whitecamouflage paint or improvised local materialscan be used. Sleds will be issued with whitecovers for concealing the load. Finally, indi-vidual weapons can be camouflaged with stripsof white garnish or white adhesive tape. Thetape also provides protection for the handswhen handling the weapon in extreme cold.

6-24. Camouflage and Concealment ofSmall Groups

a. In selecting a position, enemy groundand air observation must always be considered.A location which requires the least amount ofmodification is the most suitable, since thereis less requirement for disturbing its “natural”appearance. The camouflaging of a positioncommences before occupation of the position.The most suitable covered approaches must beused and tracks, if not hidden, must be keptto a minimum. Where possible, approachesshould be made under the concealment offeredby trees or bushes, behind snowdrifts or slopes,and in shaded areas. Poor camouflage at thispoint may make position camouflaging in-effective. If tracks cannot be concealed, thentracks should lead through the position to oneor more dummy positions. On occupation of aposition, disturb its appearance as little aspossible. Snow or earth removed from the po-sition should be thrown to the enemy side. Ifthe position is of snow or ice construction, itmust be rounded off in order to avoid reflec-tion and marked shadows. Overhead tarpaulinsor camouflage nets should be used to cover anyextensive digging in snow or earth.

b. In placing the individual and the weaponit is most important that he is not silhouettedor contrasted with his background. Low posi-tions that Mend into the background is thesecret.

c. If time allows, positions can be greatly

improved by constructing an overhead cover ofsuitably camouflaged materials such asbranches, nets, blankets, etc. (fig. 6-28).

d. The tent is one of the largest items to becamouflaged (fig. 6–29 ). Although large, bycareful site selection using both artificial andnatural camouflage material, it can be readilyhidden. A decreased number of tents andstoves, due to tactical reasons, will automati-cally assist in keeping the bivouac area cam-ouflaged. Occasionally, the camouflage of thetents in sparse vegetation, barren tundra, andespecially under winter conditions becomesvery difficult. Use white materials such as in-dividual overwhites or snowblocks to protectthe dark material from observation. In emer-gencies the white inside liner may be removedand placed on the top of the tent. Frequentlyall fires in the stoves as well as the open firesmust be extinguished and the warming factorsacrificed for camouflage and safety reasons.

6-25. Camouflage of Vehiclesa. In winter all vehicles should be painted

AGO 8641A


jbrn.Q q— ou qt3 o t .cyq

IUflI U %.Uo

white to fit the predominantly white terrain.In forested areas it is relatively easy to darkena white vehicle with issued or improvised cam-ouflage material. In areas with definite con-trasts, for example in the wooded areas, orduring breakup and freezeup periods, a mottledeffect should be used. See FM 31-71.

b. In addition to the vehicle painting, eachvehicle should be equipped with an all seasonalcamouflage net to be used when required. Con-cealment will be more effective if vehicles areparked close to dark features or in shadedareas. Always try to break the silhouette andavoid vehicle shadows. Try to make it appearflat when observed from the ground or air.

c. In wooded areas lean-tos can be built toconceal vehicles. In a static situation a snowshelter can be constructed to provide cover andconcealment.

d. In extreme cold consideration must begiven to the exhaust from vehicles since it willform ice fog and provide the enemy with ad-ditional means of detection.

6-26. Deceptiona. More opportunities for unit or individual

deception exist in the North during winterthan possibly in any other areas. However,deception measures are not sufficiently effec-tive to lessen the requirement for good con-cealment. Unless unit and individual camou-flage is effective, the value of any deceptionplan will be greatly reduced. Deception mustbe based on well-coordinated plans which mustbe logical and not too obvious. Dummy posi-tions must be positioned to follow the tacticalplan, but far enough removed from actual po-sition so that fire directed at the dummy po-sition will not endanger the real position(fig. 6-30).

b. A few skiers or oversnow vehicles cancreate a network of trails or tracks to misleadthe enemy as to direction, strength, location,and intentions.

c. Regular pneumatic deception devices areinoperable and should not be used in tempera-

however, can be made from snow, branches,canvas; and any other available material.Dummy weapons, positions, tents, and vehiclesof all kinds can be constructed (fig. 6-31).They must not appear obvious but should ap-pear camouflaged and only “discovered” as aresult of a camouflage violation. A dummybivouac area must appear to be ocupied. Smallgasoline or oil flames may be used to simulatestoves or idling engines. In a bivouac area theplace must appear to look occupied; a fire orsmoke could easily be used to produce thiseffect.

tures below zero degrees. Improvised devices,

AGO 8641A 141


vi. Pfl$E HEVAA bVMK

V4V.L

vi. iiuecu OVD ED

OVWOflWVOE

OOAE$

Ok AvIOfl9 .LAbEabrvl4LIIIo 04 $ME 041 8fb0b.LOVD BED

rr r

cQ

Section VI. MINES

6-27. Use of Antitank Mines

a. Antitank mines must be placed on asolid base, otherwise when pressure is appliedthey will sink into the soft ground or snowand lose much of their effectiveness. In shallowsnow a hole may be dug and the mine placedon the frozen ground. In deep snow they mustbe supported. Additional charges will helpovercome the smothering effect of deep snow.The snow may be tamped down or frozen, orthe mine may be placed on a plank or somethingsimilar to provide the required firm support(fig. 6-32). In all cases they must be covered

AND OBSTACLES

with snow or dirt, but not buried too deeply;otherwise the top layer may accept the weightand not detonate the mine. A piece of card-board over the mine will protect it frommoisture which may freeze and hinder theworking parts.

b. In snow-covered terrain, the minesshould be painted white to aid in concealment.All minefield must be marked and recorded.

6-28. Antipersonnel Minesa. Antipersonnel mines are adaptable to

northern operations. If using pressure-type

142 AGO 8641A


b

—=I 1 eLc\

ICE

tiIiiIF []Jj[ (I IH DIVVI O_1 '

LAE miMINt N. ON NONL 1 OOMW4NIOII

MUA uw 1 4 2fl.CV&I fl(U I

LELW'.LOr OW C-5,cwvwcll0r1osusL

t'. ft10 I$ 1ELIUC ow c-s

st —%' bCWn )t13r Of U

igniters, solid support for the mine is neces-sary. If mines are buried too deeply in snow itis possible that the snow will provide a“bridge” and prevent the mine from detona-ting. Therefore, when using the pressure-typeigniters, place the mine about 3 cm (l”) be-neath the snow.

b. Tripwires should be placed at variouslevels above the snow when using pull-actionigniters. Tripwires placed beneath the surfaceof the snow often freeze in and fail to function.Time permitting, tripwires should be paintedwhite.

c. Mines can be placed on ski or snowshoetrails (fig. 6-33 ). Tripwire firing systems are

the best when using antipersonnel mines inthis manner. If pressure-type igniters are used,insure that the mine is placed in such a man-ner that the maximum weight of the individualwill be brought to bear on the mine. Careshould be taken to insure that the mine willnot be “bridged” by a ski or snowshoe, andfail to detonate.

6-29. Use of Demolitions in Icea. In summer, the thousands of lakes, rivers

and swamps of the northern regions provideformidable obstacles to armor and personnel.In winter, however, when frozen to sufficientdepth, they provide excellent avenues of ap-preach. They also lengthen the frontline of agiven sector, requiring more troops and wea-pons to defend it than in summer. Necessaryaction must be taken to deny these naturalroutes to the enemy under winter conditions.

b. Preparing Ice Demolitions.(1) In order to create water obstacles

during winter conditions, explosivesare used to blow gaps in lake andriver ice to make it impassable toenemy personnel and armor. To in-stall the demolition in ice (fig. 6-34), holes are sunk 3 meters (10’)apart in staggered rows by use ofaxes, chisels, ice augers (fig. 6-35 ),steam point drilling equipment, orshaped charges. The shaped charges

AG0 8641A 143


V

YfiGEb

t—%%• L' 4 os asttea uac sot

I (A

(2)

will not make a hole large enough topass the charge through but musthave the hole widened by othermeans. Charges are suspended in thewater below the ice by means ofcords tied to sticks bridging the topsof the holes. The charges should be

of an explosive not affected by water.Plastic explosives should be protectedfrom erosion by water currents. Dem-olitions laid early in the winter mustbe placed deep enough so that theywill not be encased in the ice as itgrows thicker.

The normal thickness of fresh waterice is approximately 120 cm (4') orless. In extremely cold areas 150 cm(5') of ice is not uncommon. At thetime the minefield is established, it isdifficult to determine how thick the icewill be at the time the ice demolitionis detonated. As a rule of thumb, ifthe ice is expected to be 120 cm (4')thick the charges should be approxi-mately 10 pounds. In the event thedepth of the ice is expected to exceed120 cm (4'), an addition of 2.5pounds per additional 30 cm (1') ofthickness should be emplaced. Elec-trical firing devices are attached tothree charges in each underwaterdemolition, one in each end chargeand one in the middle charge. Therest of the charges may be primedwith concussion detonators or elec-trically primed. The large number of

(3)

charges does limit the use of elec-trical means of firing. An ice demoli-tion may consist of several blocks ofcharges echeloned in width anddepth and has at least two rows ofmines, each row alternating with theone before it. Blowing a demolitionsuch as this creates an obstacle forenemy armor and vehicles for ap-proximately 24 hours at – 24° F (FM5-25).Great care must be exercised whenhandling electrical firing devices un-der winter conditions. Because of im-proper grounding of an individualcaused by the snow and ice coveringon the ground, the static electricitythat builds up might possible det-onate the device. Individuals must in-sure that they are properly groundedprior to handling any type of elec-trical firing devices. Care should be

AGO 8641A144


EIIEWA

rVKE

) )}

U Ia. £Ufl

J.Vb1VIft

. Tt'r ncInrTITtIa)

st g-jq çoosr

taken to insure that no radio trans-mitters are operating in the immedi-ate area. The type of radio signalsemitted by this type of equipmentcan detonate electrical firing devices.

c. Advantages.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Long sectors of the frontline may becut off at a critical moment fromenemy infantry and armor.Number of personnel and AT weap-ons needed to defend a given sectoris reduced.Friendly troops may advance orwithdraw at any place over thecharges without being restricted tothe cleared lanes.Charges laid under thick ice aredifficult, and often impossible, to de-tect by use of mine detectors.When the holes over the chargeshave refrozen, the field is very diffi-cult for the enemy to breach.The charges are not affected byweather or snow conditions.

(7) After a snowfall, detection of thedemolitions by the enemy is ex-tremely difficult.

d. Disadvantages.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Emplacing the explosives requiresconsiderable time even when ice cut-ting equipment is available.The charges can be set off when hitby artillery fire.The gaps blown in the ice tend tofreeze over rapidly in low tempera-tures.Continued exposure of the demoli-tion firing system to weather reducesthe reliability of the system.

e. Tactical Use. Ice demolitions are used forprotection from frontal or flanking attacks.Normally, one or more sets of charges are laidclose to the friendly shore and others fartherout in the direction of the enemy (fig. 6-36).If desired, the enemy may be allowed to ad-vance past the first set of charges and thenboth detonated at the same time. The enemythus will be marooned on an ice floe, unable

AGO 8641A 145


to continue to advance or retreat, and can bedestroyed. The same trapping method may beused against enemy armor, or the charges maybe detonated directly under the advancingtanks. Ice demolitions must be kept under ob-servation and secured by friendly fire.

6-30. Natural Obstaclesa. Snow-Covered and Icy Slopes. A steep

slope is an obstacle to troops and vehicles evenunder normal conditions. When covered bydeep snow or ice, it becomes much harder tosurmount. The bogging-down action and theloss of traction caused by deep snow frequentlycreate obstacles out of slopes which might beeasily overcome otherwise. Pads of track-lay-ing vehicles should be removed when en-countering this type terrain.

b. Windfalls. Occasionally, strong windsknock down many trees in a wooded area.These fallen trees are known as windfalls.They are very effective obstacles when coveredwith snow, especially to personnel wearingskis or snowshoes.

c. Lakes and Streams. Not all natural ob-stacles are equally effective in the winter as inthe summer. Normally, bodies of water areconsidered natural obstacles, but under winterconditions the ice which forms may turn theseformer obstacles into excellent avenues of ap-proach. This illustrates an important reasonfor reevaluating defensive positions beforecold weather arrives.

d. Avalanches. An avalanche makes an ex-cellent obstacle for blocking passes and roads.Since it occurs in mountainous country wherethere are few natural avenues of approach,an avalanche can have a far-reaching influenceover combat operations. The problem withthose avalanches which occur naturally isthat, unless their timing and location are justright, they may be of help to the enemy. It ispossible to predict in advance where an ava-lanche can and probably will occur. Then bythe use of recoilless rifle or artillery fire,bombs, or explosives it is possible to inducethe avalanche to slide at the desired time. Thistype avalanche is an artificial obstacle in thetechnical sense. Generally it will be of morevalue than the natural type. Precautions

146

against avalanche hazard are31-72.

6-31. Artificial Obstaclesa. Barbed Wire. There are

artificial obstacles used under

covered in FM

many types ofsummer condi-

tions which are appropriate for winter use.Barbed wire normally employed makes an ef-fective obstacle in soft, shallow snow. Tripleconcertina is especially effective since it is easyto install in addition to being difficult to cross.As the snow becomes deeper and more com-pacted, a point is reached where it is possibleto cross the barbed wire on top of the snow.One type of barbed wire obstacle built to over-come this problem is known as the Laplandfence (fig. 6-37). Types of wire entanglementsand winter obstacles are covered in FM 5-15.

b. Lapland Fence. The Lapland fence uses afloating type of anchor point or one which isnot sunk into the ground. Poles are used toform a tripod. The tripod is mounted on atriangular base of wood. Six strands of wireare strung along the enemy side of the fence,four strands along the friendly side, and fourstrands along the base. As the snow becomesdeeper, the tripods are raised out of the snowwith poles or by other means to rest the obsta-cle on top of newly fallen snow. The base ofthe tripod and the base wires give enoughbearing surface to prevent the fence fromsinking into the snow.

c. Abatis. An abatis is similar to a windfall.Trees are felled at an angle of about 415° tothe enemy’s direction of approach. The treesshould be left attached to the stump to retardremoval. Along trails, roads, and slopes, abatiscan cause much trouble for skiers and vehicles.

d. Iced Road Grades. A useful obstacle canbe made by pouring water on road grades. Theice that forms will seriously hamper vehiculartraffic.

6-32. Means of Improving Obstacles AfterHeavy Snowfalls

a. Knife Rests. Knife rests are portablebarbed wire fences, usually constructed priorto the snowfall. The fences are constructed bytying two wood poles at their center, formingan X. A similar X is made out of two otherpoles and then the two Xs are lashed at either

AGO 8641A


e, Q

1k— se-so. EI4EPU

4

brv$1

RV9CD MINE oly

Q21VMD2

bABVVII DbrvI4 OE 2flbbObi. 210E EEAViIOI4

____________ • 3LVVWO3

BVb\\VEO M1VE

YbBED M1BEaLbv'qoa

e 2.LYIlD2

%—'• tsq ç9q 1t.Q

_J$t _3%• yt$•\ c

end of a 3 meter (10’) to 3.50 meter (12’)pole. This forms a framework to which barbedwire is fastened on all four sides. The obstaclecan be stored until needed and then easilytransported to the desired location (fig. 6-38).

b. Concertina Wire. Concertina wire is an-other quick way to improve on snow-coveredobstacles. The concertina comes in 15 meter(50’) sections which can be quickly anchoredto the top of existing obstacles.

c. Additional Barbed Wire. The possibilityof using additional barbed wire strands shouldnot be overlooked. Frequently, obstacles willhave protruding poles to which extra barbedwire strands can be tied. Also, additionalstrands placed underneath such floating obsta-cles as Laplandhelp prevent thethese obstacles.

fences and knife rests willenemy from tunneling under

147AGO 8641A


CHAPTER 7

SMALL UNIT LEADERS

Section I. General

7-1. Leadership Traitsa. The traits, qualities, and abilities requisite

to good leadership in any theater of operationsassume their greatest importance during op-erations in cold weather areas. Leaders mustbe impressed with and made clearly aware ofthis fact. With proper training, leadership, anddiscipline, few men will be unable to meet therigid standards and the difficult service re-quired of northern operations.

b. Military leadership is the art of influenc-ing and directing men to an assigned goal insuch a way as to obtain their obedience, con-fidence, respect, and loyal cooperation. Theindividual who demonstrates the traits of aleader and applies the fundamental principlesof leadership will be a successful leader of menin cold weather areas.

c. All leadership traits as outlined in FM22-100 are of importance to the leader assignedto units operating in cold weather areas. Pe-culiar conditions of cold increase the necessityfor certain traits to a marked degree. Traitsof utmost importance to the leaders are-

(1)

(2)

148

Initiative. The energy or aptitude dis-played in the initiation of action, self-reliance, enterprise and self-initiatedactivity must be an outstanding char-acteristic of leaders who are involvedin such operations, especially whenunits may become isolated. This re-quirement is more pronounced in theNorth than in other theaters of opera-tion. In all training of leaders, initia-tive and improvisation must be care-fully encouraged.Endurance and mental and physical

(3)

stamina. Extremes of climate and thevastness of the area increase thenecessity for strong mental and phys-ical endurance. These conditions maycause early physical and mental fa-tigue, but can be overcome by deter-mination, forcefulness, and aggres-siveness.Unselfishness. This is exemplified bythe leader who does not take advan-tage of a situation for personal gainor safety at the expense of the unit.The physically competent, vigorousleader who can resist the natural de-sire of first providing for his owncomfort will be a successful and re-spected leader of his unit.

7-2. Leadership PrinciplesAs in leadership traits, all leadership princi-

ples as outlined in FM 22-100 apply to leadersdirecting operations in cold weather latitudes,with particular emphasis placed on the follow-ing:

a. Know the Job. Every leader must knowthoroughly the job at hand. The leader’s ac-tions must demonstrate to his subordinates hiscapabilities as a leader and his genuine desireto accomplish the mission with a minimum ofeffort expended by the men. The leader shouldfrequently visit isolated units in adverseweather and show the men that he is a memberof the team. He must earn the respect of themen and the right to command by a thoroughunderstanding of the technical and tacticalaspect of the task.

b. Know the Men and Look Out for TheirWelfare.

AGO 8641A


(1)

(2)

(3)

The small unit leader must know themental and physical capabilities ofeach of his men. Knowing this, hewill be able to utilize them effectively.As an example, a strong stable soldiershould be matched in the “buddy sys-tem” to guide and assist a weakersoldier.In isolated areas recreation facilitiesnormally are not available. It will bethe leader’s responsibility to insurethat, during periods of rest or off-duty hours, men are not allowed tobecome psychological casualties. Agood leader will gainfully employ hismen, but not run the risk of “hound-ing” them. The good leader will, withingenuity, devise projects which willoccupy their minds and at the sametime improve their professional quali-fications as soldiers during periods ofinactivity in isolated places.In cold weather areas the problem ofobtaining supples assumes majorproportions. Supply economy must beenforced at all times. Clothing andequipment must be checked frequentlyand maintained in first class condi-

Section II. PECULIAR PROBLEMS OF LEADERS

7-3. Mental Processesa. Cocoon-Like Existence. Many men, when

bundled up in successive layers of clothing andwith the head covered by a hood, tend to with-draw within themselves and to assume whathas been termed a “cocoon-like existence.”When so clothed, an individual’s hearing andfield of vision are greatly restricted and hetends to become oblivious to his surroundings.His mental processes become sluggish and al-though he looks, he does not see. These symp-toms must be recognized by leaders and over-come. The leader must realize that it can hap-pen to him and must be alert to prevent thegrowth of lethargy within himself. He mustalways appear alert to his men and preventthem from sinking into a state of cocoon exist-ence, The remedy is simple and basic: AC-TIVITY. Throw the hood back and engage in

AGO 8641A

(4)

tion. Continuous individual supervi-sion on the part of the leader ismandatory.Under adverse conditions the stand-ards of personal hygiene and groupsanitation will gradually becomelower if not carefully supervised.These lowered sanitation standardsare a sure indication that supervisionis lacking and that morale is slipping.Men must not be allowed to becomelazy about their personal habits. Rulesof personal hygiene and sanitationmust be enforced by the leader at alltimes.

c. Insure That the Task is Understood, Su-pervised, and Accomplished. Orders issuedmust be well thought out. When required theleader must be prepared to take the leadingpart in carrying them out. Issuing an order isonly the first and relatively small part of theleader’s responsibility. The principal responsi-bility lies in supervision to insure that the orderis properly executed. Cold regions can befriendly, but at the same time do not allow forerrors or carelessness. An effective commanderleads, not drives, therefore he must be able todifferentiate between the two.

physical activity. Although the remedy is sim-ple, the recognition of the condition requiresleadership.

b. Individual and Group Hibernation. Thisprocess is again a manifestation of withdrawalfrom the surrounding environment. It is gen-erally recognized by a tendency of individualsto seek the comfort of sleeping bags, and bythe group remaining in tents or other shelterat the neglect of their duties. In extreme cases,guard and security measures may be aban-doned and the safety of the unit jeopardized.The remedy is simple: ACTIVITY. The leadermust insure that all personnel remain alertand active. Rigid insistence upon proper execu-tion of all military duties and the prompt andproper performance of the many group“chores” is essential.

c. Personal Contact and Communication. It

149


is essential that each individual and group bekept informed of what is happening. Due tothe normal deadening of the senses a man leftalone may quickly become oblivious to his sur-roundings, lose his sense of direction and hisconcern for his unit, and in extreme cases, forhimself. He may become like a sheep and mere-ly follow along, not knowing nor caringwhether his unit is advancing or withdrawing.Each commander must take strong measuresto insure that each small unit leader keeps hissubordinates informed. This is particularlytrue of the company commanders keeping theirplatoon leaders informed, of platoon leadersinforming their squad leaders, and the squadleaders informing their men. General informa-tion is of value but greatest importance mustbe placed on matters of immediate concernand interest to the individual. The chain ofcommand must be rigidly followed and leadersmust see that no man is left uninformed as tohis immediate surroundings and situation.

d. Time and Space. Northern operations re-quire that tactical commanders be given everyopportunity to exploit local situations and takethe initiative when opportunity is presented.Because of the increased amount of time in-volved in actual movement and the additionaltime required to accomplish even simple tasks,deviation from tactical plans is difficult. Tac-tical plans are developed after a thorough re-connaissance and detailed estimate of the situ-ation. Sufficient flexibility is allowed eachsubordinate leader to use his initiative andingenuity in accomplishing his mission. Timelags are compensated for by timely issuance ofwarning orders, and by anticipating changesin the tactical situation and the early issuanceof fragmentary orders. Recognition of timeand space factors is the key to successful tac-tical operations in northern areas.

e. Conservation of Energy. Two environ-ments must be overcome in cold regions; onecreated by the enemy, and the second createdby the climate and terrain. The climatic en-vironment must not be permitted to sap theenergy of the unit to a point where it can nolonger cope with the enemy. The leader mustbe in superior physical condition or he cannotexpend the additional energy required by hisconcern for his unit and still have the neces-

sary energy to lead and direct his unit in com-bat. He must remember that there are seldomany tired units, just TIRED COMMANDERS.

7-4. Summary a. The leader who is selected to lead troops in

areas of the world where the extreme cold andrugged, trackless terrain make living andfighting more difficult, will face one of thegreatest challenges of his lifetime.

b. He must possess the highest qualities ofleadership and have the initiative, the confi-dence, and the endurance to utilize these qual-ities to the utmost. He must have the woodsman’s knowledge of bushcraft and be able tonavigate over rugged, trackless terrain. Hemust be physically strong, mentally alert, andable to stand on his own two feet and makedecisions when on independent missions.

c. He must be more proficient than others,not only in command but in actual doing. Hemust be able to improvise and to teach his mento do likewise. He must be able to enduregreater hardships than his men and be quickto recognize indications of mental lethargy. Hemust know the weaknesses and strengths inhis men so that he may pair them more effec-tively in the buddy system. He must be firmwhen issuing orders but must also realize thatas the men become colder and more miserablethe time required to accomplish a task will begreatly increased. He must have patience andunderstanding and be able to lead without driv-ing. In short, he must be the prototype of allleaders.

d. Military operations can be carried outsuccessfully under the extreme conditions aridover the difficult terrain conditions peculiar tothe cold areas of the world. The task of thetroop leader under conditions such as thesebecomes more difficult, but not impossible.

e. The leader must face up to his responsi-bilities and expend unselfishly and tirelesslyof his time and his talents toward the better-ment of the safety, the welfare, and the moraleof his men.

f. The troop leader who knows his job andwho makes proper application of the principlesof leadership will earn the confidence and re-spect of his men and will be successful in theaccomplishment of his mission.

150AGO 8641A


APPENDIX A

REFERENCES

AR 40-501AR 320-5AR 320-50AR 380-5AR 380-40AR 380-41AR 385-10AR 600-20AR 700-8400-1FM 1-100FM 1-105FM 1-110FM 3-8FM 3-10FM 3-12FM 5-15FM 5-20FM 5-21FM 5-25FM 5-26FM 5-29FM 5-3lFM 5-36FM 7-11FM 7-15FM 7-20FM 7-30FM 8-35FM 9-6FM 10-8FM 10-60FM 11-50

FM 17-1FM 17-15

Standards of Medical Fitness.Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms.Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes.Safeguarding Defense Information.Safeguarding Crypto Information.Control of Cryptomaterial.Army Safety Program.Army Command Policy and Procedures.Issue and Sale of Personal Clothing.Army Aviation Utilization.Army Aviation Techniques and Procedures.Armed Helicopter Employment.Chemical Reference Handbook.Employment of Chemical and Biological Agents.Operational Aspects of Radiological Defense.Field Fortifications.Camouflage, Basic Principles and Field Camouflage.Camouflage of Fixed Installations.Explosives and Demolitions.Employment of Atomic Demolition Munitions (ADM).Passage of Mass Obstacles.Boobytraps.Route Reconnaissance and Classification.Rifle Company, Infantry, Airborne and Mechanized.Rifle Platoon and Squads, Infantry, Airborne, and Mechanized.Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry Battalions.Infantry, Airborne and Mechanized Division Brigades.Transportation of the Sick and Wounded.Ammunition Service in the Theater of Operations.Air Delivery of Supplies and Equipment in the Field Army.Supply of Subsistence in a Theater of Operations.Signal Battalion, Armored Infantry, and Infantry (Mechanized)

Divisions.Armor Operations.Tank Units, Platoon, Company and Battalion.

AGO 8641A 151


FM 17-30FM 17-36FM 19-45-1 (Test)FM 20-15FM 20-32FM 21-5FM 21-6FM 21-10FM 21-11FM 21-26FM 21-30FM 21-40FM 21-41

FM 21–50FM 21-75FM 21-76FM 22-5FM 22-100FM 23-90FM 24-1FM 24-17FM 24-18FM 24-20FM 29-3FM 30-5FM 31-71FM 31-72

(C) FM 32-5FM-41-1OFM 44-1FM 54-2FM 55-35FM 57-10FM 57-35FM 61-100

(S) FM 100-lFM 100-5FM 100-10FM 101-5FM 101-10-1

The Armored Division Brigade.Divisional Armored and Air Cavalry Units.Rear Area Protection.Pole and Frame Supported Tents.Landmine Warfare.Military Training Management.Techniques of Military Instruction,Military Sanitation.First Aid for Soldiers.Map Reading.Military Symbols.Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Defense.Soldier’s Handbook for Chemical and Biological Operations and

Nuclear Warfare.Ranger Training and Ranger Operations.Combat Training of the Individual Soldier and Patrolling.Survival, Evasion and Escape.Drills and Ceremonies.Military Leadership.81mm Mortar M29.Tactical Communications DoctrineTactical Communications Center Operations.Field Radio Techniques.Field Wire and Field Cable Techniques.Direct Support Supply and Service in the Field Army.Combat Intelligence.Northern Operations.Mountain Operations.Signal Security (U).Civil Affairs Operations.U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Employment.The Division Support Command.Motor Transport Operations and Motor Transport Units.Army Forces in Joint Airborne Operations.Airmobile Operations.The Division.Doctrinal Guidance (U).Field Service Regulations; Operations.Field Service Regulations; Administration.Staff Officers’ Field Manual; Staff Organization, and Procedure.Staff Officers’ Field Manual; Organization, Technical, and Logis-

tical Data—Unclassified Data.Staff Officers’ Field Manual, Nuclear Weapons Employment, Doc-

trine and Procedures.FM 101-31-1

AGO 8641A


(S) FM 101-31-2

FM 101-31-3

Pam 108-1

Pam 310-1Pam 310-2Pam 310-3

P a m 3 1 0 - 4

P a m 3 8 5 - 1S B 1 1 - 6SB 700-20TA 50-901TB Med 81TB Med 269

TB Sig 189TB Sig 346TC 10-8TM 1-300TM 3-210TM 3-215TM 3-220TM 8-366TM 3-4240-202-15TM 5-315TM 5-330

TM 6-349TM 8-601TM 9-207

TM 9-278TM 9-1300-203

TM 9-1900TM 9-1960TM 9-8662TM 10-228TM 10-275TM 10-725TM 10-735TM 21-305TM 21-306TM 38-760TM 55-404TM 743-200-1

Staff Officers’ Field Manual; Nuclear Weapons Employment EffectsData (U).

Staff Officers’ Field Manual; Nuclear Weapons Employment EffectsData (Unclassified).

Index of Army Films, Transparencies, GTA Charts, and Re-cordings.

Military Publications-Index of Administrative Publications.Military Publications-Index of Blank Forms.Military Publications—Index of Doctrinal, Training, and Organ-

izational Publications.Military Publications—Index of Technical Manuals, Technical Bul-

letins, Supply Bulletins, Lubrication Orders and ModificationWork Orders.

Unit Safety Management.Dry Battery Supply Data,Army Adopted Items of Materiel.Clothing and Equipment (Peace).Cold Injury.Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, Etiology, Systems, Treatment and

Prevention.Cold Weather Photography.Maintenance of Radiac Equipment.The Lightweight Rucksack: Nylon OG 106.Meteorology for Army Aviation.Fallout Prediction.Military Chemistry and Chemical Agents.Chemical, Bilogical and Radiological (CBR) Decontamination.Flame Fuels.Mask, Protective, Field, M17.Firefighting and Rescue Operations in Theaters of Operation.Planning, Site Selection and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heli-

ports in the Theater of Operations.Arctic Construction.Nutrition.Operation and Maintenance of Ordnance Materiel in Extreme

Cold Weather (0° to – 65° F.).Lubrication of Ordnance Materiel.Ammunition for Antiaircraft, Tank, Anti-tank, and Field Artillery

Weapons.Ammunition, General.Rockets.Fuel-Burning Heaters for Winterization Equipment.Fitting of Footwear.Cold Weather Clothing and Sleeping Equipment.Stove, Tent, M1941, Complete, and Burner, Oil Stove, Tent, M114.Stove, Yukon, M1950.Manual for Wheeled Vehicle Driver.Manual for the Full Track Vehicle Driver.Army Equipment Record Procedures.Fundamentals of Army Airplane Maintenance.Storage and Materials Handling.

AGO 8641A 153


I 'I I I OI 1> 1

I I I I I II I I '—' I

I I

I II I I r..111 I 1 x 0 T 1 v I

I I '= I I 1 T

I I

I I I I —

I I 1 A I I I mlIIH IL'lI

a 2iivr r,I

I •iit I I T i riI 1FH'-5IVU

Ast.c ThY

APPENDIX B

GROUND/AIR EMERGENCY CODE FOR

USE IN AIR/LAND RESCUE SEARCH

B-1. GeneralExperience has shown the requirement for

simple visual signals for use in an emergencyby personnel who have become lost, crashed,or parachuted (or who are members of search

parties), and who have need for medical as-sistance, food, information regarding the routeto be followed, etc. Three types of such visualsignals are contained in figures B-l, B-2, andB-3.

B-2. Visual signals structions will be adhered to with respect toThe use of one or more of these signals or the signals contained in figures B-1, and B-2:

types of signals will depend on individual cir- a. Form signals by any available means.cumstances and availability of signal material. (Some of the means usually available in anHowever, as far as possible, the following inemergency situation are strips of fabric, para-

154 AGO 8641A


'I

a .a

io AW

1IA

T

i

OT

T

I

a

cMT

O

T II

TIC

uT

VIZ

M

DIT

IooJ

JIw

JI

nina

ia

cg

I1IT

A1K

eI

HT

,aII

DIW

OM

A5t

h

4- iq

'I rt

;

.aw

aTI

rIJI

LaL

LUW

I

DI

IIDIT

A5W

ID

TO

I(Z

ØA

IW

OIa

TZ

B

AGO 8641A 155


I . I 'W I I I II I I ?U I W I I

I I V L ViIL'I I'ViI 111IIUI (iI.I Alt 11.1WIDICWOflUSICIIAN AN DIOb V**WVLSM MIOVUM 01

1 OMIVIMO DO MOl

I I I L1P]I ! I I I -' I II&III III I IIII Ill V UI

!" WEV 1W 1R

I a I I ii I i 1wvctw

fVHD NS vn OS bYill DODV*IS* IWOSIfA- WICWVMICW IVWI YVYW

pI (.I5 —

'iIi m1uA$t —% ost\t. istcx poçI \o. im

chute material, pieces of wood,or by marking the surface byor staining with oil, etc.).

stones, boughs,tamping snow

b. Make signals not less than 3.5 meters(10.5’) in length.

c. Take care to lay out signals exactly asdepicted to avoid confusion with other sym-bols.

d. Provide as much color contrast as possiblebetween material used and the background.

e. Make every effort to attract attention byother means such as radio, flares, smoke, or re-flected light. Smoke is one of the best attrac-tion methods, because it can be seen for a greatdistance and will be investigated by all pilots,both military and civilian, as a routine mat-ter. Be sure to give your signal while the air-craft is approaching you. Do not wait untilthe aircraft is straight above or has passed by.

f. The emergency signals included in thismanual should be reproduced for use by in-

156

dividuals and/or small units which are re-quired to accomplish independent or semi-in-dependent missions.

B-3. Conveying and AcknowledgingInformation

a. When it is necessary for an aircraft toconvey information to individuals who havebecome lost or isolated, or to search parties,and two-way radio is not available, the crewwill, if practicable, convey the information bydropping a message or by dropping commu-nication equipment that will enable direct con-tact to be established.

b. When a signal has been displayed and isunderstood, the pilot will acknowledge bydipping the aircraft’s wings from side to sideor by other prearranged signals.

c. When a signal has been displayed and isNOT understood, the pilot of the aircraft willso indicate by making a complete right turnor by other prearranged signals.

AGO 8641A


CV %JO%SIOU O

APPENDIX C

SKI DRILL

Section I. INDIVIDUAL DRILLC-1. General

Ski drill and ski training should be givenconcurrently. Ski drill is kept to the minimumnecessary for assembly, organization, instruc-tion, and speedy reaction to commands. Onlythose infantry drill movements in FM 22-5which are easily performed on skis are used.If weapon is included, it is either carried acrossthe back with the sling over the left shoulder,butt at the right side, or attached to the ruck-sack, if used. Before falling in for drill, skisare strapped with running surfaces together,tip to tip, using one strap to secure them tight-ly together between the toe and heel sectionof the bindings. Poles are interlaced by draw-ing the shaft of one through the basket of theother.

C-2. Fall InThe command is FALL IN. A normal in-

terval, 100 cm (40”), is taken and skis areheld in the position of Order Skis.

C-3. Order Skis(fig. C-1)

This is the position of attention with skis,except during Inspection of Skis. The skis aregrasped with the right hand between the toeand heel section of the binding and held in avertical position with the edges to the front.The tips of the skis rest cm the ground, on linewith and touching the toe of the right boot.The poles are held by placing the left handthrough both wrist straps and grasping bothhandgrips. They are placed in a vertical posi-tion with the baskets on line with and touch-ing the left boot. Both elbows are held closeto the body.

C-4. At Ease and RestThe same procedure is

AGO 8641A

followed as in FM

157


st C— %osqqs.

22-5, except that the skis take the place of therifle.

C-5. FacingsFacings are executed as prescribed in FM

22-5rifle.

C-6At

Skis,

except that the skis take the place of theThe ski poles are held in the left hand.

Hand Salute, Dismountedthe position of Order or Right Shoulderthe salute is rendered in the same man-

ner as the rifle salute. To accomplish this, re-lease the grip on the ski poles with the lefthand allowing the poles to hang from thewrist while the salute is executed. Regrasp thepole handles after execution of the salute.

C-7. Right Shoulder Skis(fig. C-2)

This is a four count movement. Being at theposition of Order Skis, the command is RIGHTSHOULDER SKIS. At the command SKIS, theskis are lifted vertically until, the upper rightarm is horizontal. At the same time, the lefthand grasps the skis over the front edges andapproximately 30 cm (1’) below the front of thetoe section of the binding. The ski poles remainon the left wrist as the movement is executed.(TWO) The right hand moves down and graspsthe skis over the front edges, midway betweenthe ski tips and the front of the toe section ofthe binding. (THREE ) Skis are lowered so thatthe balance point rests on the shoulder and theskis are at an angle of approximately 45° tothe horizontal, with the right elbow close to theside. (FOUR) The left arm is cut smartly backto the side and the grip on the ski poles re-sumed.

C-8. Order Skis from Right Shoulder SkisThis is a four count movement. The com-

mand is ORDER SKIS. At the commandSKIS, the left hand grasps the skis midwaybetween the toe section of the binding and theright hand. The poles hang from the wrist bythe straps. (TWO) The skis are brought downuntil they are in a vertical position approxi-mately 45 cm (18”) from the ground.(THREE) The right hand grasps the skis overthe rear edges between the toe and heel sec-tion of the bindings. (FOUR) The skis arelowered gently to the ground. At the same

158

time, the left hand grasps the handgrips of thepoles and is brought back to the left side.

C-9. Open and Close RanksSame as FM 22-5 except that each rank

takes double the distance.For example:

a. Front rank takes 4 steps forward.b. Second rank takes 2 steps forward.

AGO 8641A


—i

41S C' \,O$cSM o\

c. Third rank stands fast.d. Fourth rank takes 4 steps backwards.

C-10. Inspection SkisBeing at Order Skis, the command is IN-

SPECTION SKIS (fig. C-3). At the commandSKIS, the skis are unstrapped with the lefthand and the loose strap placed in the pocket.The skis are separated and the position of at-tention assumed, holding one ski in each handbetween the toe and heel section of the bind-ings, running surfaces to the front and the tipof each ski in line with and approximately 8 cm(3”) outside the toe of the corresponding boot.The ski poles are placed in the snow besidethe left foot. After the inspecting officer hasexamined the running surfaces, the skis arerotated 180° to display the top surface. Whenthe inspecting officer has passed, the skis arerefastened and the position of Order Skis re-sumed.

C-11. Ground SkisThis movement is done in 3 counts. Being at

Order Skis, the command is GROUND SKIS.At the command SKIS, take two steps to therear, leaving the ski tips in place. Lower theskis partially to the ground by sliding the righthand toward the heels of the skis. (TWO)The skis are then placed on the ground, onedge. (THREE ) A position is taken driectlyto the left of the ski bindings, facing the tipsof the skis. The poles are placed on the left,parallel to the skis, baskets to the rear, mid-point of the shafts even with and close to theleft boot, The position of attention is then as-sumed.

C-12. Take Skis From Ground SkisThe command is TAKE SKIS. At the com-

mand SKIS secure ski poles, reverse the threemovements of Ground Skis, and assume theposition of Order Skis.

C-13. Stack Skis(fig. C-4)

This movement is done in four counts. Thecommand is STACK SKIS. At the commandSKIS, the first two movements of Ground Skisare executed. (THREE) The ski poles are sep-

AGO 8641A

arated and the points placed in the ground oneach side of the ski heels, approximately 1meter (3’) apart. A V is made of the hand-grips by interlacing each wrist strap over theopposite handgrip and crossing the right polein front of the left. The poles are then graspedwith theintersect.pcked up

right hand at the point where they(FOUR) The heels of the skis arewith the left hand and placed, edges

159


Ir

A

1t.Q 0;0t 4 i$

up, running surfaces together, into the V-formed by the handgrips. At the same time,the poles are tilted forward so that they areapproximately 45 cm (18”) from the ski heels.This increases support. A position of attentionis then assumed beside the ski bindings, withthe stack to the right.

C-16. Take EquipmentThe command is TAKE EQUIPMENT. At

the command EQUIPMENT, the rifle, pack,and equipment are removed and a position ofattention resumed beside the skis.

C-17. Mount SkisThis movement is done in 5 counts. Being in

line at open ranks, the command is MOUNTSKIS. At the command SKIS, the first threemovements of Ground Skis are executed.(FOUR) The skis are straddled. (FIVE) Theski’s are separated (from each other ) placed on

C-14. Take Skis from Stack SkisThe command is TAKE SKIS. At the com-

mand SKIS, the movements of Stack Skis arereversed and the position of Order Skis as-sumed.

C-15. Stack EquipmentWith skis stacked, the command is STACK

EQUIPMENT. At the command EQUIP-MENT, the pack is hung over the heels of theskis by both shoulder straps with the body ofthe pack to the right of the individual as hefaces to the rear. The rifle remains attachedto the pack when applicable or, when unat-tached, it is also hung to the right, verticallyand with the receiver down. Any additionalequipment is hung in a similar manner.

160

the ground axial the boots are secured to thebindings. Poles are then separated and grasp-ed with the left hand. The right hand is in-serted up through the wrist strap from un-derneath so that the wrist strap is around theback of the wrist. Then the handgrip isgrasped. This procedure is repeated with theleft hand and the position of attention is as-sumed. On skis this is as follows (fig. C-5):

a. Skis are parallel and approximately 8 cm(3”) apart, with the weight of the body evenlyon both skis.

b. Poles are placed vertically with each bas-ket in line with, and touching the toe of, thecorresponding boot.

c. Elbows are close to the body, with the po-sition of the hands dependent on the lengthof the pole.

C-18. Dismount SkisThe command is DISMOUNT SKIS. At the

command SKIS, the movements of Mount Skisare reversed and the position on Order Skisassumed.

C-19. At Ease and Rest, Skis MountedWhen mounted on skis, the right ski must

be left in place when At Ease is given. AtRest, both skis may be moved.

C-20. Hand Salute, Skis Mounted(fig. C-6)

When mounted on skis, the hand salute isrendered the same as prescribed in FM 22-5.The right hand is removed from the wriststrap if time permits. If time does not permit,

AGO 8641A


It—• i.

LI

I I

I :

'I3lLIIlk J:!I! •tL..

st —• O2O &

the pole hangs from the wrist byuntil after the salute is executed.

C-21. Ski Interval(fig. C-7)

the strap than a face to the left in marching. The in-terval is measured as described above. If it isdesired to straighten the ranks after ski in-terval has been taken, the command AT SKIINTERVAL, DRESS RIGHT DRESS is given.

Maneuvers on skis are done at ski interval.If skis are already mounted, ski interval willbe taken by each individual when falling in,unless otherwise specified. The ski interval isapproximately 3 meters (9’) and is measuredby extending both the right arm and right-ski pole and the left arm with the left polehanging from theorist. When skis are mount-ed in ranks while at normal interval, the com-mand is TAKE SKI INTERVAL TO THERIGHT (LEFT). On this command, intervalis taken as described in FM 22-5, except thatthe step turn to the left is executed rather

AGO 8641A 161


C-22. Right or Left FaceWhen mounted on skis, this movement is

executed in four counts. The command isRIGHT FACE. At the command FACE, theright ski is raised slightly and rotated 45° tothe right, using its heel as a pivot. (TWO) .The left ski is moved alongside the right ski.(THREE) The first movement is repeated.(FOUR) The second movement is repeated.Each ski pole is raised, moved, and placedwith the corresponding ski. Left Face is exe-cuted in the same manner except the 450 move-ment is made to the left with the left ski.C-23. About Face

This movement is executed in four counts.

C-24. Moving at Righta. Drill. To move men

Section II.

Shoulder Skisout at right shoulder

skis, the preparatory command FORWARD isgiven with sufficient pause before the comm-and of execution MARCH to allow the mento bring their poles up onto the left shoulderand placed with baskets to the rear under theskis (1, fig. C–8). To move from RightShoulder Skis to Order Skis after halting, thepreparatory command ORDER is given withsufficient pause before the command of execu-tion SKIS to allow the men to bring theirpoles down to the left side.

b. Marches. There are three methods ofcarrying skis which may be used in marching,their use depending on the length of marchand the type of terrain. If the march is rela-tively short, at the command ROUTE STEPthe poles may be removed from under the skisand brought down to the side at the discretionof the individual. This enables him to rest orwarm his arm and hand or to use the polesfor support when climbing a slope. Skis mayalso be alternately shifted from shoulder toshoulder to reduce fatigue. At the commandSQUAD, PLATOON, or COMPANY ATTEN-TION, the position of Right Shoulder Skis isresumed with poles under the skis. Allowsufficient time between the preparatory com-mand and the command of execution for in-dividuals to place the skis and poles in properposition. For longer marches where the ter-

162

The command is ABOUT FACE. At the com-mand FACE, the left pole is placed alongsidethe left ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18” to24”) in front of the toe. At the same time, theright pole is placed alongside the right skiapproximate y 45 to 60 cm (18” to 24”) in therear of the toe. (TWO) The right ski is raiseduntil it is perpendicular, with its heel alongsidethe tip of the left ski. (THREE) Using the heelas a pivot, the right ski is rotated and placedalongside the right pole and pointing in theopposite direction. (FOUR ) The left ski andski pole are then brought around simultane-ously and the left ski placed in the new direc-tion alongside the right ski, with the left skipole placed by the toe of the left foot.

UNIT DRILL

rain is flat or rolling, the poles may bestrapped to the skis with the baskets over thetips and the skis alternated between the rightand left shoulder to avoid fatigue (2, fig. C-8).This method is valuable in cold weather, as itenables the individual to alternate warmingof each hand by swinging it or placing itunder his outer clothing. For longer marches,especially over steep terrain, the skis may betied to the rucksack. One is tied on each sidewith the tips up and strapped together at thetop to form an A-shape (3, fig. C–8). Thismethod allows the individual to use the polesfor additional support either together, in onehand, or separately, one in each hand.

C-25. Flanking Movement From NormalInterval

This movement is used when it is desired tomove men to the flanks when mounted on skisat normal interval. The movement is done in4 counts. The commands are to the RIGHT(LEFT) FLANK AT INTERVAL, MARCH.At the command MARCH, the right flank manpivots on the heel of his right ski 45° to theright and slides slightly forward on it. (TWO)The left ski is brought up parallel to the rightski, allowing this ski also to slide slightly for-ward. (THREE ) The first movement is re-peated. (FOUR) The second movement is re-peated and a normal pace taken in the newdirection. As the right flank man takes his

AGO 8641A


I

A° 'W°c O 8y1sçaiij ;p u bo}6v OL 2nbboLç jc uq bOJ6 Lbb6q O6JJGL 0 J60A6 pUq LLGG

third step, the next man starts his first step.This procedure is followed by each man inline. When the last man has finished thismovement, the unit will be marching in thenew direction at ski intervals. Flanking to theleft is executed in the same manner, exceptthat the left flank man starts the movementwith his left foot.

C-26. Flanking Movement From Ski IntervalThis movement is made by first commanding

RIGHT or LEFT FACE. When this facing

AGO 8641A

has been completed the command FORWARDMARCH is given.

C-27. Column MovementWhen mounted on skis, the commands are

COLUMN RIGHT (LEFT), MARCH. At thecommand MARCH, the leading man takes afull step forward, then turns as in facing onskis, except that at each step a short slideforward is made. The fourth step is of fulllength in the new direction. Succeeding menfollow in his trace. For COLUMN HALF

163


c——cou;iJn6q'3 -LUJ6 IlJ6cpoq

RIGHT (HALF LEFT) the same procedure isfollowed except that the second step is of fulllength in the new direction.

C-28. To March to the RearFor this movement, when mounted on skis,

three separate commands are given, allowingeach movement to be completed before thenext command is given. These commands inorder are HALT, ABOUT FACE, FORWARDMARCH. The about face is executed as de-scribed in paragraph C-23.

AGO 8641A164


APPENDIX D

EFFECTS OF COLD WEATHER ON WEAPONS

D-1. Generala. In cold areas many climatic conditions

will greatly affect the operation and employ-ment of infantry weapons. All individualsmust be well aware of these conditions inorder that they may properly handle and carefor their weapons under adverse circum-stances.

b. As a safety measure, extreme care mustbe exercised in touching cold weapons withbare flesh because the flesh may freeze to themetal. Gloves or the trigger finger mittenshould always be worn when handling weaponsduring periods of extreme cold.

D-2. Factors Affecting Weaponsa. Sluggishness. A common problem is the

sluggishness of the operation of the weaponsin extreme cold. Normal lubricants thicken inlow temperature and stoppage or sluggish ac-tion of firearms results. During the winter,weapons must be stripped completely andcleaned with a drycleaning solvent to removeall lubricants and rust prevention compounds.The prescribed application of lubrication oil,weapons (LOW) should then be made. Theselubricants will provide proper lubrication dur-ing the winter and help minimize snow andice from freezing on the weapons.

b. Breakages and Malfunctions. Anotherproblem that faces the soldier in the areas ofsevere cold is a higher rate of breakage andmalfunctions. These can also be attributed pri-marily to the cold, although snow in a weaponmay cause stoppage and malfunctions. Thetempered metal of automatic weapons, for ex-ample, will cool to a point where it cannot betouched by human flesh. This extreme coldmakes the metal brittle. When the weapon is

AGO 8641A

fired at subzero temperatures, the temperatureof the barrel and gun will rapidly rise to be-tween 200° and 750°, depending upon thenumber of rounds fired. This again reducesthe temper and, because the parts are working,breakages will occur early in the firing whilethe weapon is warming up. Many malfunctionsalso occur during this period due to the pres-ence of ice or snow in the weapon or freezingof working parts. The weapons should first befired at a slow rate of fire. Once the partshave warmed up, the rate of fire may be in-creased to the cyclic rate. One of the mainproblems is to insure that snow and ice do notget into the working parts, sights, or barrel.The weapon must be carefully handled duringmovement through the snow-covered woods,and especially under combat conditions indeep snow.

c. Condensation. Condensation forms onweapons when they are taken from the ex-treme cold into any type of heated shelter.This condensation is often referred to as“sweating.” When the weapon is taken out in-to the cold air, the film of condensationfreezes, especially in the internal parts, andstoppages and malfunctions result. Whenweapons are taken into heated shelter forcleaning purposes, “sweating” may continuefor as long as 1 hour. Therefore, when timeis available, wait 1 hour, remove all condensa-tion, and then clean the weapon.

d. Visibility. A problem of visibility closeto the ground occurs when a weapon with ex-cessive muzzle blast is fired in temperaturesbelow – 37° F. As the round leaves the weapon,the water vapor in the air is crystallized,creating minute ice particles which produceice fog. This fog will hang over the weaponand follow the path of the projectile, obscur-

165


ing the gunner’s vision along his line of fire.If the air is still, the ice fog will remain formany minutes and hover in one place. There-fore, the weapon will have to be displaced tothe right or left to again secure use of its sightsif firing is to be continued.

e. Emplacement. Most crew-served infantryweapons need a natural “base” or gun plat-form so it may be fired accurately. In summerthe ground provides a solid base and yet hasenough resilience to act as a shock absorber.In winter the soft snow gives under the recoilof the gun. If the weapon is emplaced on thesolid frozen ground, there is no “give” and allthe shock of firing is absorbed by the weaponitself, resulting in breakage (para 6-7). Alsothe slippery surface of the frozen ground mayallow the weapon to slide. If the snow is nottoo deep, and if time is available, tripods andbaseplates should be dug into the ground orsolidly positioned by expedient means to keepthem from moving.

D-3. Cold Effects on Various Types ofWeapons

a. Small Arms.

(1) Pistols. Pistols cannot be fired whilewearing the arctic mitten set. Thefirer must remove his mittens or usethe lighter weight trigger fingermitten. The only other difficulty thatmay be encountered is the breakageof moving parts in extreme cold.

(2) Rifles. Firing rifles will also necessi-tate the use of trigger finger mittens.This means that the firer cannot op-erate the weapon over a sustained pe-riod of time in extreme cold. Allrifles will create ice fog. However,since the firer can readily move hisposition, this poses no serious prob-lem. The main problem is that moremalfunctions and breakages arecaused in firing because of the coldor because of fouling of the weaponwith ice or snow. Parts most subjectto breakage are sears, firing pins, andoperating rods-parts that are mov-ing or affected by recoil. Malfunc-tions in automatic rifles may be

166

caused by snow or ice plugged maga-zines. Wingnuts on bipeds tend tofreeze in position. To avoid thisproblem, apply LOW on parts con-cerned.

(3) Machineguns. These weapons nor-mally should be well lubricated withLOW because of their many movingparts. If LOW is not available, theseweapons, when fired cold and dry,will have fewer malfunctions if firedat a slow rate of fire. Once the partshave warmed up, temperate zonelubricants can be applied and therate of fire gradually increased. How-ever, if temperate zone lubricants areused the gun must be kept warm. Ifit is allowed to become cold it willfail to operate upon resumption offiring. The gun should therefore becleaned and fired dry and cold untilit again warms up. MG’s have a highrate of breakages and malfunctionsbecause of the cold weather. Partsespecially affected are the sear andbolt. Extra parts of this type must becarried by gun crews. One commonmalfunction, occurring early in firingis called short recoil (bolt does notrecoil fully to the rear). Prescribedimmediate action for the particularweapon should be applied. As themetal warms, the problem will dimin-ish. A second malfunction is causedby freezing and hardening of buffers.This in turn causes great shock andrapid recoil, thereby increasing thecyclic rate. When this happens andthe gun continues to fire, somethinghas to give, and generally parts willbreak. Condensation will cause thefreezing of parts as on most otherweapons. Ice fog greatly impairs ac-curate firing, therefore, 2 to 3 alter-nate gun positions must be prepared.

b. Recoilless Rifle.(1) Propellants will tend to burn slower

in the cold. Therefore, the firing datafor temperate climates cannot beused and the weapon must be zeroedfor the temperature in which it is

AGO 8641A


(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

AGO 8641A

being fired. Once zeroed the weaponsare again highly accurate. The rateof fire will be slower because of slowburning propellants. This is becauseafter the round leaves the muzzle,burning gases remain in the barreland the weapon cannot be reloadeduntil they burn out. The phenomenonis known as “afterburn.” Gunnersmust exercise care to avoid prema-ture explosion of the round in theweapon. A period of at least 60 sec-onds must elapse between firing andreloading.One of the major problems in thefiring of recoilless rifles is the formu-lation of ice fog. This will require fre-quent displacement of the weapon sothat the gunner can regain visibilityand also to avoid detection by theenemy.Applicable training manuals for therecoilless rifle prescribe back blastdanger areas for temperate zone fir-ing. The danger areas must be tripledfor safe operations in cold areas.The Spotter-Tracer Rifle on the 106-mm Rifle creates problems because itstrajectory and that of the recoillessround do not coincide. Metal parts ofthe spotter rifle are also subject tobreakage. As in other weapons it islubricated with LOW or fired dry.Another phenomenon that occurs inextreme cold is deformity of the bar-rel because of solar radiation. Thiswill happen if the weapon is fore-sighted, for example, prior to sunrise.If the sight reticle and the bore havebeen placed on the same target in theearly morning hours, after the sunrises the bore may be pointing at onetarget and the sight reticle at theoriginal one. The barrel has been ac-tually bent because of the increase intemperature and thus the zero hasbeen lost. After the weapon has beenfired for several rounds, it is againboresighted and retains its accuracy.This condition concerns itself withgaining first round hits; the crew

must be aware of this and must knowhow to correct it. The gunner shouldnot rely entirely on the firing tablesin low temperatures, but should cor-rect the data based upon experienceand the best available data currentlyat hand.

c. Rocket Launchers. The main problem withrocket launchers is in the ammunition. Therocket has a burning propellant which movesit toward the target. This propellant becauseof the effect of the blast and its slow burningqualities in cold weather can be extremelydangerous in low temperatures. The gunnerand loader can be burned and lacerated byparticles of the burning propellant as therocket leaves the muzzle of the launcher. Thefiring of these weapons (peacetime training)is normally restricted to temperatures above20° F, but extreme caution should be exercisedwhen firing at any temperature below freezing.Operating personnel must be equipped withface masks and gloves. Like the recoilless rifle,the back blast danger area must be tripled. Thelaunchers have no emplacement problem, butwill create ice fog and will have to be movedwhen the fog persists. The range is reducedbecause of slow burning propellants. The gun-ner will have to make his own firing tablesand will probably have to sight high, espe-cially at longer ranges.

d. Grenades.(1) Handgrenades. No particular prob-

lems exist in the use of handgrenadesin extreme low temperatures withthe exception that they lose much oftheir effectiveness when detonatedunder snow. The following are pre-cautions necessary for throwinghandgrenades by personnel wearingarctic handgear during extreme coldconditions.

(a)

(b)

Handgear must be completely dry.Handling of snow and ice may re-sult in grenades freezing to thewet handgear.Grenades must be held near theneck of the fuze to avoid slippingor turning of the grenades whensafety pins are removed.

167


(c)

(d)

(2)

Right hand throwers must placethe grenade so that the safety leverrests on the first knuckle of thethumb to insure a sensitive feelingof the safety lever.Left handed throwers must placethe grenade so that the safety leverrests between the first and secondknuckles of the fingers, to insure asensitive feeling of the safety leverand good access to the safety pinring.

Grenade launcher. No particularproblems exist in the operation of the40mm grenade launcher at extremelow temperatures; however, like thehandgrenade, the grenade itself willlose much of its effectiveness whendetonated under snow and a higherproportion of duds will result. Thelauncher should be fired dry or lubri-cated lightly with LAW.

e. Tank Main Armament. These weaponshave many of the problems of recoilless rifles.Breakage and malfunctions are few. The twoprimary problems are the formation of ice fogwhen the weapon is fired and distortion of thetube caused by solar radiation. The problemsof lubrication and breakage are greatly dimin-ished because of the fact that most of the work-ing parts of the weapon are inclosed in awarmed turret. The major problem is the ef -feet of temperature changes on the ammuni-tion. Ammunition stored inside the turret willbe warm and have the same general ballisticcharacteristics of ammunition fired in temper-ate climates. The weapon is generally zeroedwith this warm ammunition. Other ammuni-tion is stored outside the tank where thetemperature is extremely cold. When this am-munition is fired, the powder will burn slowlyand it will have completely different ballisticcharacteristics, thus rendering the initial zerouseless. If possible, the ammunition brought infrom the outside should be heated in the turretbefore firing. In a combat situation this is notpractical because the ammunition may have tobe used immediately. The gunner must havehis own data for cold ammunition or be readyto hastily rezero the weapon. In either case hewill have to make sight adjustments. There is

168

also the problem of snow particles beingblown up in front of the sights by the muzzleblast and obscuring the visibility of thegunner.

f. Mortars. The matter of breakage in mor-tars is a minor one since there are few parts.However, firing pins often get brittle andbreak. The baseplate must be solidly positionedto prevent sliding. It may be necessary to diginto the ground to accomplish this. When theweapon is emplaced on frozen ground, thecombination of the cold making the metalbrittle and the tremendous shock that the base-plate receives when a round is fired, occasion-ally may cause the baseplate to crack. Frozenground has no resiliency, and the baseplate andother bracing parts of the weapons absorb theentire shock of firing.

(1)

(2)

One field expedient that will reducethe possibility of a cracked baseplateis to place a brush matting under thebaseplate. The matting should bethick enough to act as a shock ab-sorber, but not so thick as to causethe baseplate to bounce out of its dugin position. Another method of posi-tioning the weapon is to place bagsof dry sand or snow beneath thebaseplate. The sandbags will providethe weapon with a solid, yet resilient,shock absorbing base. An additionalproblem with the mortars is that theycannot be handled without touchingbare metal as can other infantryweapons with wooden or plastic han-dles and stock. The crew must keeptheir gloves or mittens on and avoidtouching the metal surface with bareflesh. There are practically no lubri-cation or ice fog problems with themortars. Malfunctions are also quiteinfrequent.

The ammunition is affected by thecold in the same manner as the othertypes of ammunition. Firing tablesmay be utilized provided the properrange K’s are established throughexperience. Applicable field manualsshould be consulted for charge re-strictions at low temperatures. The

AGO 8641A


VT-fuze type ammunition is consid-ered the most effective mortar am-munition in the northern latitudes inthe winter. Contact-detonated ammu-nition will penetrate the snow beforeexploding and much of its effective-

ness is lost and dissipated in thesnow. A greater frequency of shortrounds, as much as 1,000 to 1,400meters short, (1,000 to 1,400 yds)may be experienced at low tempera-tures from the 4.2-inch mortar.

AGO 8641A 169


QLGIJq62 9)(fi3)cpiu6r1IJ eo soo

3LcInqG2 (wse) VOO

ywuinlflflofl borrcp ( co) T40P N80S11162b ,t\oumnuçiou .8PB0X0U61? a\acsppoLq - rog!u& fl4 M\2JiIJ - W08BJc NrC AULEc s!q bwcjc€; boncp -- roi

w1 inii•ojq ciJuJuflC' ta\cnb COAGC W8P

jgncjcatrcjC MXIoU DUGY5 00 WOO

H61W6C 2l6€1 it\pu€ WOO

c6' ffi0J6L g6b6JJ611 552N0ccL62ab bUGflWfl! WOO

B0b aj66but (onIGL)B' 2;66bu (ix.ruGL) -- 2IT

tsr

Ct1m0flU6 1UG6 bi 1AJ1146\J0&1Jl - oo3flUThLM bL6A6UcV6 CL6UW

-010

010a262' 3d!? M\CU2 ---- (130Lpo1J ----- 0.15CPBb2nGJC - 0t4jci &x (bGL pox) (1523110M2p06& PV1RU62U1W' i4puquRa --2II' VII J46LLBp? /A\pJuqpJ2 uuq bol6r 820tQ EfJ 5T3jjaaje LL016CflA - - S88B°q' VLIIJO - W8S

IflL6UGPWt LLOOf m\CBLLJ6J.

J401J6ç VWCJ62 (bbLox) - sooIc6I (ItbbLox) roo

JfJM6J LLr1LJcP -KUR6 b0C1C6 - OO2L6L E!L6 012BOX I1çGJJ JJT46LbLOO \wçGJJ6 -- OJ

aActw tscrl¼ sss sbstuo th

tuthtst 8.O 0\0ö 4iidrrsbnU 98.0 -

O8\08 wxswnQ 91.0 - 9[Oa noidauD 1ato8 a.o _

aiobnsqaua 88.1 -- - 9198 bOW n9auo1T OLS brriW nobc14 noftoD a19auo1T

.Snaiazas5l betIiuQ no[icM &192IJOIT 1iertid

0&1 DO 1noIicT4 boW iiida 02.8 - iuaieiae$i baiW nob'M no$ioD JaoD 8V.O bsi[iuQ aoltM 1iaoD 1s1Ti4 89.1 nol'cM noiJoD 1atac ae.o b9tbhrQ noJtT4 *18 1•Ierf1J

ac n -

c91{JB9W bloB .aaD

BULYB FMOAGLJILP!W 26;:BOO' pJ2nJfl6q' pj6 OL BWGY

- -- -210

EOMCJJOb MJOU LMTJ1-

S00N!U'60 2r VLG4I

-FOB

Wff" JIJ2GLfr jooj JS?LJOU O.ES

N!611' 2P61I2 jLJttGL E!M6L - - - - 043CF" w2GLca' jJiOOJ I4?JOU -- 013C10A6 2P6112' r6DJ16

- OSS

YUIWGL' JjOOJ 028/MJJ46L

- -- ooe

ncjaGlc- - O•2

yif6IJ 091Tflfl

APPENDIX E

WEIGHTS OF COLD WEATHER CLOTHING ANDEQUIPMENT AND TYPE LOAD

E-1. GeneralThe weights shown in this appendix are for

Standard A items of clothing and equipment.As new items are developed and standardized,their weights will be reflected by changes tothe manual.

E-2. Clothing and EquipmentThe list below includes all items of clothing

and selected items of equipment. Insofar aspossible abbreviated nomenclature has beenused. A type load is shown in paragraph E-3.

a. Clothing.

170

b. Individual Equipment.

c. 0rganizational Equipment. The command-er must also consider the additional weightimposed on individuals within the unit by thenecessary inclusion of many items of organi-zational equipment and crew-served weaponsneeded for a given mission. The following listis not intended to be complete, but to beused as a guide for planning purposes.

AGO 8641A


JLOI16L C°4°" j,2jOzjn2b6uq6L O.S2ocJca IIoJJ OJ6 ---- - 018DLM6La 20\2 -fl1J6L2JJJ4 o\ oH61W64 NL\JHJG - 300

If6U 2}J6JJ2 jLi6L E1IJ6 - O3WflW6Lb JOOJ - 038OOq fij1J6L - oeCBb ojq j16;p6L - oer"' CO 4?4OIJ 6'!J4q - oCOf? c°c° J,I)JOJJ jTj2P!13 MOO! [47jOU IO

p. ror1L°I JOp! -

BOO1 njs;q pJ - cooTAHrtn T[IRGLI' AAOflT TAMOH

C6a j6L jeb6JJ6n -}u6rnup - 200

J6biU (IUUGL) -2I6GbP1 (QnL) -O JJ6 LncJcaGJc:EOjJOiU 6W LG GLI46 !" OL cpeqnG1C}C T,i1OJJ DflCJ OG

l-l Li- il"1 YiJ U 00S14GL JiL6JO6J JII1LJC1JJ oeJ1OJJ6 LCJG OOt Jc40U -b01JCP0 J42JOiJ S00OCJC CIP!OU OJ6 (s bL) - 0281,IIIGLb TLOfl2GL2 T.IXTcMJ aflITtG —

wo11 o EJ4!' iiq EXa41JC6joçr EX21IJCG oq SO8

10121

210A6' BDLU6L' c1nsq V30vIIJIJJo WSR

mu 2200aowwb wed:

OCJC6 WOOFJJCP6 - IWOO

22 J5OGJCG$ punucpeL:S22O

BBLL6J - WOO8JWW OLBL &Luonu;:QL6nqG rscIIxcpW 1tL10 900cowbuaa FGJThflI 20

UIJOJ66L i4s0sww umwnuipou (eo rexS20 Lonuqa' reswut wscp!u6tnu ss.oo51fl°f yncowac!cb cr no1t67tb0U' yuqbGLaouuGJ (c!woLe) WOO

3tosj edrnbmeu

LLOG4!AG NIC 588oq1 LWOL W8J

WflMGa!flW ceoBSloUec1 m\acffppffLq 1•011

Imcr.eucpu aooj' a\cnz4e - raeN74' ta\zjLa; øq bffcyeç ç boricjr rot

9u6n 4JoJq cJwu;J 282LOflCP vwwob s'eswut wn ( es) neNPJ& s\resww vunuo (2 a) --

xse ( a) noK1U' N1 808

guqob VM\BBc s --gsqo VM\Mccgeef DB2 &\EADItIL tWOO

EPlP' oq - :roj1

LP°'1 EW6L6UG - 01SJ(U161 bOCJC6 -BOX1 NCJJ1 &6LbLOO - 0122flU CIø26 \ca - 020CP9bCJC - 0•10

a. Fighting Load.Clothing:

E-3. Type Load

c. Supplemental Existence Load. The follow-ing are items of clothing not immediatelyneeded by the individual during moderately

The loads shown below are type loads which cold weather. These items are normally carriedcould be worn during moderately cold weather in the duffle bag on unit transportation and(approximately 15° F to –15° F). The term should be available to the individual whenmoderately cold is used only as a descriptive needed:term. What is termed as moderately cold to Undershirt, 50/50one person, may be extremely cold to another. Drawers, 50/50The windchill factor must also be considered, Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr)a moderate cold could change momentarily to Trousers, Cotton Nylon, Wind Resistantextreme cold by the addition of high winds.Therefore, the commander should use the type Shirt, Wool Nylon, OGloads for planning only and should adjust them Parka, Cotton Nylonaccordingly to fit a given situation and tem- Liner, Parka, Nylon Quiltedperature condition, Mitten Set, Arctic

AGO 8641A 171

154-616 94 - 7


APPENDIX F

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Section I. THE ENVIRONMENT

F-1. TerrainThe terrain of

exposed bedrock,northern latitudes consists ofplains and plateaus covering

this rock, and rugged mountains. Much of thearea is within earthquake belts with activevolcanoes and glaciers present. Sedimentarydeposits on slopes greater than 3° are con-stantly moving.

a. The plains have numerous shallow glacialdepressions, sloughs, swamps, ponds, and lakes.These features range from 30 to 1,500 cm (1’to 50’) deep with banks from a few centi-meters (inches) to hundreds of meters (yards)high.

b. The plateaus have relatively smooth up-lands, many rolling hills, and broad sweepingvalleys. Scattered rock outcropping are pres-ent. The elevations vary from hundreds tothousands of meters over distances of severalhundred kilometers (miles).

c. Mountain elevations range from 1,500meters (5,000’) to more than 5,500 meters(18,000’) within a few kilometers (miles).Weathering processes as well as mountainforming processes are found.

d. Streams often have swift currents andextremely rocky bottoms. The many glacialrivers are silt-laden with numerous sandbars,shifting channels, and undercut banks.

e. Perennially frozen ground, or permafrost,is found in most of the subarctic and arctic. Itvaries in thickness from a few centimeters(inches) to several hundred meters (yards)in loosely defined continuous, discontinuous,and sporadic zones. The presence of perma-frost affects drainage due to its impervious

172

nature. When the permafrost thaws, the mate-rial changes to muck because of the largewater content. Therefore, the presence or ab-sence of permafrost can affect military ac-tivities.

f. Heavy forests with dense coniferous treestands are found where little or no permafrostis present. Certain broad leaf trees will mixwith narrow leaf types in zones of sporadicpermafrost. As the area of permafrost be-comes more continuous, vegetation growthbecomes more stunted and is replaced bysedges, grasses, and mosses.

F-2. Atmospherea. Cloud cover is extensive and wide, low

clouds cause bleak and monotonous conditions.In very high latitudes, overcast often persistsfor weeks and clear days are rare.

b. Precipitation varies from about 10 to 600cm (4” to 200”) per year, depending uponthe area. Snow may fall during any month,but does not always account for the majorquantity of precipitation as the ratio involume of snow to water can vary from 2 to 1to 10 to 1. Although this area has very littleatmospheric moisture, it has relatively highhumidity due to the low temperatures.

c. Ground level air temperatures may varyfrom extremes of – 95° F. to + 100° F. Duringthe period of solar light, the extreme variationfor one day might be as high as 100° F.

d. In most areas, visibility is either verygood or very poor with average visibility con-sidered uncommon. Fog, blowing snow, andvariation in air density can cause impairedvisibility. In most areas, fog causes less prob-

AGO 8641A


lems in late winter. Periods, when blowingsnow has reduced visibility below 1,000 meters(1,000 yds) range from 79 hours for an entirewinter in one area to 265 consecutive hoursin another. Light, reflected at various angles inair of changing density, produces mirageswhich confuse detail of the landscape. Often,flat terrain features are upended; objects farbelow the true horizon appear near at hand insharp relief; and objects above the true horizoncompletely disappear. In unusual cases, terrainfeatures are reflected in the sky.

e. During winter, long periods of darknesswith heavy overcast are a problem. However,at many times, the quality of available lightmust also be considered. Most activities canbe carried on in bright moonlight while lightfrom the stars and the aurora is sufficient formany purposes. Sunlight, when reflected fromsnow and ice, becomes brighter. This light maybe so intense that shadows are eliminated. Thisabsence of contrast can make it impossible todistinguish outlines of terrain features or largeobjects, even at close range.

f. Wind velocity varies with the particulararea and season. Maximum wind speed occursduring periods of changing temperatures andprolonged velocities above 90 knots have beenrecorded. Snow and silt begin drifting withwinds above 8 knots. With moderate winds, itis often difficult to determine whether snow isfalling or being swirled up from the surface.

g. Sound transmission depends upon wind,temperature, and surface conditions. Nor-mally, with an increase in elevation, windspeeds increase and temperatures decrease, re-sulting in above normal sound intensity down-wind. However, as temperature inversion iscommon in northern areas, this effect is notalways as pronounced. In addition, soft snowwill absorb sound energy while hard-crustedsnow or ice will aid sound reflection. Normalconversation has been carried on at a distance

of 2.4 km ( 1 1/2 miles) and shouted words havebeen heard at 4 km (2 1/2 miles). However,under other climatic conditions, the sound ofan aircraft engine at full throttle has beeninaudible at 0.8 km (1/2 mile).

F-3. Climatea. The northern year is divided into winter

and summer. These periods are defined bythermometer readings rather than calendardates. Winter occurs when the average dailytemperature falls and remains below freezing,while summer occurs when this average tem-perature remains above freezing. Periods oftransition with wide temperature variationprecede each season.

b. Winter progresses from north to southpreceded by autumn freezeup and deep pene-tration of frost as the hours ofsunlight de-crease. The days begin to shorten with thesummer solstice; however, since the dailychange is about 6 minutes, the effect is notoften noticed until passage of the autumnalequinox. As a result, the gradual descent ofthe long winter night appears to be sudden.During early autumn, the weather is relativelydry. As winter approaches, there is an increasein precipitation and muddy conditions. Snowand thin ice appear as early as late Septemberand deep cold as early as October. In November,water courses freeze solidly and temperaturesfall as low as – 50° F in many areas. Snowfallvaries but snow depths of 60 to 150 cm ( 15“to 60”) are common, and deep drifts in valleysand hollows change the appearance of thelandscape.

c. With passage of the winter solstice, thehours of daily sunlight increase. After thespring equinox, fluctuations in temperaturecause daytime thaw and nighttime freeze.Continued melting conditions cause the springbreakup which, in addition to the spring rains,flood lakes and streams and turn the surround-ing plains into quagmires.

F-4. GeneralAccommodation

quired of all men.

AGO 8641A

Section II. EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT OF MAN

and physiological adjustments, and not all mento the environment is re- are equally suited to the requirement. MenThis requires psychological with medical histories of upper respiratory

173


tract disease, emotional disturbances, rheuma-toid disease, digestive and coronary disorders,high susceptibility to infectious disease, anddefective vision are more likely to becomecasualties to rigorous exposure. However, it isnot essential that man be warm to be effective,as the absence of complete comfort can induceincreased effort. Neither is it essential thatman have a certain number of hot meals eachday. The normal human body will remain effec-tive as long as the caloric and fluid intake anddissipation are reasonably matched, nitrogenbalance is maintained, and the body is notsubjected to destructive influence.

F-5. Colda. General. In intense cold a man may be-

come intellectually numb neglecting essentialtasks. In addition, the essential tasks requiremore time and effort to achieve. Under someconditions (particularly cold water immer-sion) a man in excellent physical conditionmay die in a matter of minutes. The destruc-tive influence of cold on the human body isdefined as hypothermia.

b. Hypothermia. Hypothermia is a termused to describe general lowering of body tem-perature due to loss of heat at a rate fasterthan it can be produced. Frostbite may occurwithout hypothermia when extremities do notreceive sufficient heat from central body storesdue to inadequate circulation and/or inade-quate insulation. However both conditions,hypothermia and frostbite, may occur in thesame case if exposure is to below freezingtemperatures as in the case of an avalancheaccident. Hypothermia may also occur fromexposure to temperatures above freezing,especially from immersion in cold wateror from the effect of wind. Physicalexhaustion and insufficient food may raisethe risk of hypothermia, as has occurred wheninexperienced and ill-equipped hikers havebeen caught in mountain storms. Exposure towet-cold conditions has also led to hypother-mia in cave explorers. Aviators downed incold water, and boating accidents in northernwaters are other examples of situations inwhich hypothermia is a risk. Intemperate useof alcohol leading to unconsciousness in a coldenvironment is still another condition whichcan result in hypothermia.

(1) Dangers of hypothermia. As centralbody temperature falls from the nor-mal level of 98.6° F, various bodyprocesses are slowed. Circulation ofblood is retarded, movements becomesluggish, coordination is reduced,judgment becomes impaired. Withfurther cooling unconsciousness re-sults. At a deep body temperature be-low 85° F. there is increased risk ofdisorganized heart action or heartstandstill which results in suddendeath.

(2) Prevention. Prevention of hypother-mia consists of all actions which willavoid rapid and uncontrolled loss ofbody heat. Divers, boaters and avia-tors operating in cold regions mustbe equipped with protective gearsuch as immersion suits and liferaftswith spray covers. Ice thickness mustbe tested before river or lake cross-ings. Anyone departing a fixed baseby aircraft, ground vehicle, or onfoot must carry sufficient protectiveclothing and food reserves to allowsurvival during unexpected weatherchanges or other unforeseen emer-gencies. Traveling alone is never safe.Expected itinerary and arrival timeshould be left with responsible partiesbefore any departure of base in se-vere weather. All persons living incold regions should become skilled inthe construction of expedient sheltersfrom available materials. The excel-lent heat insulating qualities of snowshould be emphasized.

(3) Treatment.(a) The objective of treatment is to re-

warm the body evenly and withoutdelay, but not so rapidly asto further disorganize body func-tions such as circulation. A personsuspected of hypothermia shouldbe immediately protected by allavailable dry clothing or a sleep-ing bag, and then be moved to awarm enclosure. A useful proce-dure in case of accidental break-through into ice water, or otherhypothermia accident, is to im-

174 AGO 8641A


(b)

(c)

mediately strip the victim of wetclothing and bundle him into asleeping bag with a warm com-panion whose body heat will aid inrewarming. Mouth-to-mouth resus-citation should be started at onceif the victim’s breathing hasstopped or is not regular and ofnormal depth. Warm liquids maybe given gradually to a consciouspatient, but must not be forced onan unconscious or stuporous personfor fear of strangulation.If movement is necessary thehypothermia patient should behandled on a litter since the exer-tion of walking may aggravatecirculation problems.A medical officer is needed withoutdelay to attend any serioushypothermia patient, since thiscondition is life-threatening untilnormal body temperature has beenrestored. Immersion of a hypother-mia patient in a warm water bathis a rapid means of restoring bodytemperature, but since this rapidrewarming may aggravate heartand circulation problems tempo-rarily, this procedure should onlybe done with a medical officer inattendance.

c. Windchill. Frostbite can occur even inrelatively warm temperatures if the wind pene-trates the layer of insulating warm air to ex-pose body tissue. As an example, with the windcalm and a temperature of — 20° F. there islittle danger from windchill. However, if thetemperature is –20° F. and there is a wind of20 kts, the equivalent chill temperature is– 75° F. Under these conditions there is greatdanger and exposed flesh may freeze within30 seconds (fig. F–1).

F-6. Physicala. It can generally be expected that exposure

to climatic extremes will increase the effectsof any physical disorder. Men with heart dis-eases often become quick casualties due to nec-essary increased physical exertion. Mensusceptible to upper respiratory tract infec-tions become casualties due to the humidity,

AGO 8641A

abrasive silts, and the wide temperature varia-tions. The individual with arthritis suffersfrom damp and cold plus abnormal physicalexertion.

b. In winter, the threat of exposure ismatched by the dangers of dehydration and ex-haustion as the body must accelerate the pro-duction of heat. This results in greater fluidloss. Rigid self-discipline is required to main-tain proper habits of elimination. In summer,there are the usual dangers of bacterial con-tamination of food and water and insect-carried communicable diseases.

F-7. MentalThe isolation of the area, the long periods

of darkness and light, and the immobilizingeffect of the weather can all effect the mentalstamina of man. The cabin fever stories of thetrapper and the prospector and the tales ofmoon sickness of the Indian and Eskimo arenot all just myths. The effect will vary withthe individual and varies from nervous tensionin some to loss of mental equilibrium in others.

F-8. AdjustmentsIt appears that some racial groups, particu-

larly the Nordics, have been more successfulin the physiological and psychological adjust-ment to the environment than have othergroups. This is due, in part, to accepting thenatural conditions and adjusting and adaptingactions to fit these conditions.

a. The human body must be protected. Toremain functional, it must be kept clean, dry,and reasonably warm with normal body proc-esses maintained. Rest and nourishment arevital. A little food and water consumed atregular intervals and at body temperaturesare preferable to large quantities of hot foodand liquids consumed infrequently.

b. All heat and energy, regardless of thesource, must be conserved and profitably used.

c. An operating base to supply basic needsis necessary for efficient operations.

175


H

oil-

ON

-

oi-

IUT

0

- -as

(

o 00I

Oil'

Os'

esi

O. O 3e

e 0

13T

EI -c

-e

-o

-o

C -0

1

-dl

I EI

)I

—

'II—

II—

DI1

ru

nt

JIH

3

o-

oI-

oil-

all-

dli-

G

TA

iw

$19

a-

8-

8-

8—

)I—

)I—

I I— 3R

'3J

o.

oa

08

ee-

00I

001

)

AV

IUO

rn

rice

II os

UT

,

oa-

ea-

08-

08-

'.9)

81

1°) f -o

-o

-o . -o

-e -

032 3I

UT

A

0I•

M3T

- ei

b-

. —

8f- 3—

oe

- 3—

oe- s•

- a-

v—

a- c-

ar-

nil

A3E

Iti

w

RX

3

IM3T

io

JHO

Ho

e-Io

e.

0111

It

11W

UA

I—

2A

etui

0I VIU

O3

e C

OI-

(

os—

c

OE

-a

oe-

e a:

)I ) )I—

S

)

Os

0I

81• Os-

Os-

Os-

Os

0I

0 0 0I-•

0I- II II I I

03

C

C

C

C

C

3J.

Os

0I

0I

0I liii I I I 111111 I I

]33

MM

JA

0I

at I 081

3

IAI1

aaw

aT

Op

)MJA

a - 0I-'

—I ei

-

s-e

aaw

V

AH

0

IITT

I IT

Ioa

T33

RR

IIIC)I rilr,c#1 itI 4l<P1 i I

176 AGO 8641A


Section III. EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON FACILITIES

F-9. IndustryTo provide industrial needs, man must solve

certain engineering problems in an acceptabletime frame and in an economical manner. Amajor problem which must be solved is theeffect of permafrost. During construction, anydisturbance of the established temperaturebalance of the ground, without provision ofcompensating factors, will change the founda-tion characteristics. Subsurface strengths anddrainage patterns change and affect entirestructures. The solution to the permafrostproblem is costly and time consuming and caninvolve the use of insulation, drainage, flotat-ion, excavation, refrigeration, or complicatedcombinations of these.

F-10. AgriculturePermafrost, combined with low evaporation

rates, low temperatures, sporadic precipitation,and irregular seasons, prevents extensive agri-cultural development. However, as permafrostprevents precipitation loss by normal drainageprocesses, many areas having a semiarid cli-mate support luxuriant natural vegetation.This vegetation, by insulating the underlyingpermafrost, prevents deep thawing, depressessoil temperatures, and prevents deep root sys-tems. This prevents agriculture in continuouspermafrost zones. In discontinuous and spo-radic zones, only hardy plants which maturein one short growing season can be planted.

F-11. MaterialsLow temperatures change the strength, elas-

ticity, and hardness of metals and generallyreduce their impact resistance. Leather fabricsand rubber lose their pliability and tensilestrength. Plastics, ceramics, and other syn-thetics are less ductile. Items composed ofmoving parts and of differing types of mate-rials operate with reduced efficiency.

a. Rubber, in warm weather, is flexible;during extreme cold it becomes stiff, andbending will cause it to break e.g., when avehicle is parked for several hours duringsubzero weather, flattened-out areas develop intires; these flattened-out areas have little re-siliency until after the tires have warmed up,

AGO 8641A

incident to operation. Rubber heater hoses,some hydraulic lines and the fuel hose on theYukon stove may break if they are suddenlybent during periods of extreme cold. Rubber,rubber compound seals and O-rings tend towarp and break.

b. Water freezes and expands; while it isexpanding in a restricted space (as in anengine) it has tremendous power, enough tocrack the toughest of iron.

c. Canvas becomes stiff much the same asdoes rubber and it becomes difficult to fold orunfold without damaging it.

d. Glass, being a poor conductor of heat,will crack if it is exposed to any sudden in-crease in temperature. As an example, thewindshield on a vehicle may break if intensedefroster heat is suddenly applied.

e. Gasoline will not freeze but becomes moredifficult to vaporize. Since only vapor willburn, combustion of gasoline inside an engineis more difficult and unburned gasoline dilutesthe oil in the crankcase contributing to theformation of sludge.

f. Oils have a tendency to become thick, andconsequently retard the flow through the oilpump to places where it is needed for lubrica-tion. Thickened oils also increase the drag onthe entire engine, thus making it more diffi-cult to turn over.

g. Grease, which is a semisolid to beginwith, becomes hard and loses a great amountof its lubrication properties.

h. Leather cracks unless properly treatedwith neat’s foot oil.

i. Paint tends to crack very easily when ex-posed to extreme cold for any great length oftime.

j. Dry cold weather produces great amountsof static electricity in the layers of clothingworn by personnel and in liquids being trans-ported. Extreme caution must be exercisedwhen refueling vehicles, stoves, lanterns, etc.,because the spontaneous discharge of staticelectricity may ignite these inflammable fuels.

177


Static electricity should be “drained off” by should ground themselves by touching a ve-grounding vehicles or fuel containers prior to hicle or container (away from vapor openings)starting refueling operations. Personnel with the hand.

Section IV. EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON VEHICLES

F-12. GeneralA great amount of effort and research has

gone into giving the individual soldier the bestclothes to keep him combat effective in coldweather. A vehicle is affected by cold in muchthe same manner as a man. Consider the ef-fects on a platoon if the platoon leader did nottake the necessary steps to compensate for thecold to which his men are exposed. The driverof a vehicle must realize the same effects ofcold are suffered by motor vehicles and certainprecautions are necessary. The purpose of thefollowing paragraphs is to explain briefly whatmust be done to reduce the adverse effects ofcold weather on vehicles and the extra pre-cautions that must be taken during winterdriving. Detailed instructions for the operationand maintenance of ordnance materiel in ex-treme cold are covered in TM 9-207.

F-13. Maintenancea. Unless vehicles are kept in the best pos-

sible mechanical condition during coldweather they will not operate properly. Suc-cessful cold weather operation depends on ahigh standard of maintenance discipline,proper starting procedures and command su-pervision. A large portion of deadlines can beattritbuted to too many cold starts and im-proper driving habits.

b. All maintenance outlined in appropriateTM’s for a particular vehicle must be accom-plished and extreme care taken to insure alladjustments are exact as possible. Only ade-quately powered vehicles can overcome theadverse effects of cold weather. Proper lubri-cant must be used, these can be readily deter-mined by consulting the appropriate lubrica-tion order. One loose battery terminal, pointsslightly out of adjustment, a sparkplug wireloose, a ground cable loose or a frozen gaslineare only some of the deficiencies that canmake starting a vehicle difficult, or preventstarting altogether.

c. Drivers, during cold weather operations,must be disciplined to conduct prestarting,starting, warmup, operation and shutdownand/or, cooldown and stopping procedureexactly as directed in TM 9-207.

d. Additional time must be allowed for“thaw time” before equipment entering a shopcan be worked on under “inside conditions.”These “thaw times” must be added to other-wise normal average repair times. The lengthof this additional time is affected by thelength and depth of exposure to subzero “coldsoak” prior to entering shops.

e. As a safety precaution, all garages, shopsand enclosures used for vehicle maintenanceor other areas which are subject to carbonmonoxide concentrations should be inspectedat’ least once every 3 months. If inspection re-veals a potentially dangerous level of carbonmonoxide (50 parts per million or more) im-mediate corrective actions, such as improvingventilation or removal of personnel from thehazardous area, must be taken by responsiblepersonnel. Test results should be recorded andmonitored by the unit for 3 months. Roughterrain operations can result in engine exhaustsystem component failures. Therefore, allmotor driven vehicles should be tested forcarbon monoxide concentrations in the cabsand passenger carrying compartments at leastonce every 3 months. Any vehicle failing thistest must be immediately deadlined until causeis isolated and corrective action completed.Tests should be recorded on DA Form 2408-1(Equipment Daily or Monthly Log). Tests in-dicated above should be made using the De-tector Kit, Carbon Monoxide, Colorimetric.

f. Mechanic efficiency is reduced by the bulkand clumsiness of the clothing that must beworn in extreme-cold areas. As it is impossibleto handle extremely cold metal with a barehand, some form of mitten or glove must beworn at all times. The resulting loss of thesense of touch further reduces the efficiency ofpersonnel. Even the most routine operations,

178 AGO 8641A


oo; (&q;p J6u84p)ø6LO8 aponJgGL—H6q (cLGnw6L6iice)

jac (Gp.GrWJ6L6IJ66)(iqp)

(2I X j)a X 8e cw (j)28 6W (s9)18 6W (1)10 6W (4.)H'1

(2 X j)12 X 22 6W81 613,3 (3)82 Cw (99)22 6113 (si)j 6W (g)

such as handling latches or opening engine The space required to insure access to controls,enclosures, become exasperating and time con- adjustable devices, and to assemblies whichsuming when they must be performed with are commonly replaced or which require peri-mittened hands. Experiments have proven, for odic adjustment, inspection, and cleaning isexample, that the time required by men to also increased when the bulky cold weatherscrew a nut on the largest bolt available, was clothing is worn. The comparison measure-twice as long when mittens were worn over a ments of personnel with warm weather cloth-similar operation conducted with bare hands. ing and cold weather clothing are shown below.

F-14. Drivinga. General The basic rules for driving dur-

ing cold weather include all of the rules that (2)apply under normal conditions. However, thenecessity to adhere to these rules with theincreased hazards of ice and snow is magni- (3)fied. All drivers must be trained in properwinter driving techniques before they engagein cold weather operations.

b. Visibility. Good all-around visibility isthe first

(1)

(2)

(3)(4)

requirement for safe driving.Remove all ice, snow, fog, etc., fromall windows and keep the windowsclear at all times to give all-aroundvision. (4)Use defrosters to keep windshieldfree from ice.Clean and adjust rear view mirror. (5)

Use lights during snowstorms, whiledriving in light dry snow or justprior to dusk and dawn, and at allother times when visibility is re-duced, providing the tactical situa-tion permits.

They will increase traction for bothmovement and stops.Place brush or burlap under wheelsto aid in movement through deepsnow and on ice.The correct method for applyingbrakes is especially important. Neverjam on brakes as this will lock thewheels and cause the vehicle to skidand require more distance for stop-ping. The correct method for brakinga vehicle on snow and ice is to releaseaccelerator slowly and apply brakeswith a feathering action.Keep pioneer tools on all vehiclesready for use in removing excesssnow and for cutting brush.Full tracked vehicle drivers must beprohibited from using neutral steerwhen the tactical situation permits.Use of the neutral steer capabilityplaces avoidable stress and abuse onthe suspension system and relatedpower and drive components.

(5)

(6)

Allow for additional distance between d. Additional Hints for Safe Cold Weathervehicles when exhaust is causing ice Driving.fog. (1)Use a guide when backing up orwhere a guide can assist in picking atrail in deep snow.

c. Traction for Driving and Stopping. (2)(1) Use chains in deep snow and on ice.

AGO 8641A

Never sleep in the cab or passengercarrying compartment of a vehiclewith engine or heater running. Ex-haust gases may cause death byasphyxiation.Always adjust speed to road condi-tions.

179


(3) Keep proper interval and compensatefor road conditions (three to eleventimes greater stopping distance maybe needed on snow and ice).

(4) Slow down before going around acurve.

(5) Make slow, steady turns and stops.(6) Keep windows open slightly when

heaters are being used.(7) Never stop in the center of a road.(8) Never pull off to the side of a road

unless the shoulder has been checked.Large ditches covered with snow givethe appearance of a firm shoulder.

(9) When hauling troops in the rear of a

truck, be certain to instruct them towait for the driver to assist in theiroff loading.

(10) Never overcrowd the cab of a vehiclewith extra personnel or extra equip-ment. This cramps the driver, cutsdown on his vision, and prevents himfrom maneuvering freely.

(11) During halts, always check the ve-hicle for any troubles which may haveoccurred during operation.

(12) Remove frost from headlights andstoplights.

(13) Above all, use good judgment, bealert for other drivers errors, andobey all traffic rules and regulations.

180 AGO 8641A


APPENDIX G

COLD WEATHER HINTS

G-1. GeneralSuccess in Northern Operations depends

upon forceful leadership and application ofproven techniques and maintenance pro-cedures. Ample documents exist to providethese techniques and procedures; however, ex-perience has shown that the same mistakesare continually repeated. To assist personnelin overcoming these recurring errors this listof hints is provided.

G-2. Engineer Operationsa. Winter Road and Trail Constrution.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(6)

(6)(7)

(8)

Make a map, aerial, and groundreconnaissance.Roads in forward areas should be pro-vided with vehicle turnouts.Remain on high ground followingroutes of solid foundations and mini-mum grades where feasible.Determine approximate period of useand maximum classification of route.Check ice thickness of ice crossings.Make test holes 8 meters (25’) apartand at a distance of 8 meters (25’)from, and parallel to, the centerlineof crossing. The holes should be stag-gered so that they are at 45° anglesto each other.Mark route clearly.Use trailblazing tractors in pairs, onewith winch and angle blade.Plan route requiring only equipmentorganic to constructing unit.

b. Mines and Minefields.(1) Provide sufficient support to detonate

mines.

AGO 8641A

(2)

(3)

(4)(5)

(6)(7)

(8)

Cover mines with material to keepout snow.Weatherproof fuses with a light coatof automotive water pump grease.Allow extra time for placing mines.Use both electric and nonelectricfiring systems on demolitions in iceto insure detonation.Cover AP mines with loose snow.Avoid lifting mines by hand afterarming in snow.Install tripwires above snow surface.

c. Water Supply.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Install immersion heaters in watertrailers. Extra precautions must betaken when temperature is below-30° F.Carry ice auger or axe head weldedto steel bar to locate water and checkice depth.Locate water point near swift movingwater if possible.Drain water supply equipment im-mediately after use when heatedShelter is not utilized.

d. Field Fortifications.(1)

(2)

(3)(4)

(5)

Mix sand and gravel with packedsnow and frequently sprinkle withwater to reinforce positions whentime will not permit making of ice-crete.Camouflage with fresh loose snow.

Provide sumps for melting snow.Insulate interior of fortification.Keep wire above snow.


(6) Locate fortifications on high groundduring periods of possible breakup.

e. Engineer Equipment Maintenance.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

Provide adequate stock of spareparts, with special emphasis on highmortality parts such as front powercontrol units (PCU) parts for cater-pillars.Provide maintenance shelters, wherepracticable. Improvise shields fordriver operator comfort and protec-tion.Warm front PCU with external heatbefore using when snow or moistureis present. Improvise canvas coversto prevent snow from entering. PCUshould be left in lockout positionwhen not in use to prevent brakeband from freezing on drum.Use cutaway snow pads to preventtrack breakage. Snow pads are avail-able in stocks or may be cut bymaintenance organizations.Make every effort to warm gearboxesand engines before starting.Maintain extra safety vigilance at alltimes during subzero operations be-cause of the tendency of steel to be-come brittle and break at extremelow temperatures. Tools should beused cautiously. Stand clear of tautcables.

Use air duct heaters, oil burningflares, and electrical heating elementsfor preheating equipment when re-quired.

Attend fires constantly if open flameheat is used, especially in windyweather. Fire extinguishers, CO2

type, should be on hand. WinterizeCO2 bottles by the use of 15 percentnitrogen.Keep engines and radiators covered;test thermostats.Raise low idle speed to a point wherefull oil pressure is maintained.

Use truck mounted cranes only when

footing is solid. They cannot be operated in snow or soft terrain.

(12) Place one-half pound of sodium bi-carbonate near each space heater,

f. Tractor Extraction.(1)

(2)

Remember tractors must often belifted as well as pulled in order toclear an ice shelf or to climb from asoft mud bottom to a frozen earthbank. This lift must be provided withmaterials at hand. If the stuck tractoris operative a ramp can be built, logscan be fed under the revolving tracks,or logs can be chained to the tracksand revolved under. If gravel or sand-bags are available they can also befed under the revolving tracks. Usu-ally above measures plus at least onewinch tractor will be required. Ifabove measures fail, demolitions inthe hands of a qualified demolitionsspecialist may be used to provide afinal boost. Demolition should be con-sidered only after exhausting allother resources.After extraction, thaw all gearboxes,drain and relubricate the crankcase,drain and refill fuel tanks, and checkall adjustments before attempting tooperate.

G-3. Health and First Aida. Preventative Measures.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Accomplish regularination.Wash out insulatedpossible.

body waste elim-

boots weekly, if

Use "buddy system” to maintain con-stant check for indications of frost-bite or exhaustion.Check more often for frostbite as thewindchill becomes higher.Drink sufficient water and take nec-essary salt even in extreme cold. De-hydration is more frequent than coldinjury during fieldwork.Refrain from drinking alcoholic bev-erages and excessive smoking whenin extreme cold.

AGO 8641A


(7)

(8)(9)

Do not become overheated from over-dressing.Practice personal hygiene.Prior to sun and wind exposure, ap-ply sunburn preventive cream to ex-posed skin areas; apply chapstick tolips; and put on sunglasses to protecteyes from the sun.

b. First Aid Treatment.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Thaw minor frostbite by placingfrozen part against unfrozen area ofbody.Keep medical installations well for-ward and displace them frequently.Evacuate cases of frostbite, other in-juries, and illnesses to medical fa-cility immediately. Remember thatfrostbite of the feet requires a litterevacuation.Frostbitten areas should not berubbed with snow or ice.Place frostbite casualty in a warmarea but not too near heat sources.Place casualties in protected areasprior to administering first aid, in-jury permitting.Casualties must not be left unat-tended.

c. Miscellaneous.(1)

(2)

If unable to walk or exercise vigor-ously, keep hands and feet warm bymoving fingers and toes. Fingers maybe warmed quickly by swinging armsin a wide arch from an extended sideposition to a front position and hit-ting hands together until warmth isrestored.Move lips from side to side and upand down to increase blood circula-tion throughout the face to help pre-vent cold injury to facial tissue.

G-4. Vehiclesa. Preparatory Measures and Procedures.

(1) Make certain that operators andmaintenance personnel are welltrained and thoroughly familiar with

AGO 8641A

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

the methods of vehicle operation andmaintenance in extreme cold (TM9-207).Wear gloves when handling metal be-cause exposed skin will freeze uponcontact.Exercise care in moving vehicles af-ter they have been cold soaked.Reduce loads appropriately under ad-verse conditions.Exercise constant vigilance in oper-ation of vehicles on cross-countrytrails. Consider radiators when cross-ing wooded terrain and undercarri-ages when traveling through downedtimber or snags. Movement overfrozen water courses and ice must bein accordance with FM 31–71.To prevent freezing in, recover ve-hicles as quickly as possible afterthey have bogged down in muskeg orbroken through ice.Have recovery equipment well for-ward to assist in proper recovery ofbogged vehicles.Use heavy tracked vehicles to breaktrails in heavily wooded areas.

b. Lubricants and Related Items.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Lubricate and change oil more oftenthan normal to compensate for ab-normal operation, severe conditionsor contaminated lubricants.Keep oil and gasoline containerssealed tightly to prevent snow andice moisture from entering.Always make a complete change ofengine or gear oil instead of mixingvarious grades.Standard and arctic type antifreezeshould not be mixed.Allow for expansion when fillingradiators.

c. Winterization Equipment.(1)

(2)

Use powerplant and personnel heat-ers when required by ambient tem-peratures.Service fuel filter more frequently

183


d.

e.

f.

(3)

(4)

than for normal operations in tem-perate climates. The frequency mayneed to be increased to as often asevery 4 hours. When the, liquidfreezes in the filter, it will be neces-sary to disassemble the unit and re-move the ice and other residue,Cold Aid Starting Kit on wheeled ve-hicles should not be used as a substi-tute for powerplant heaters.Maximum use should be made of theCold Aid Starting Kit when vehiclesnot equipped with powerplant heat-ers are to be started after being shutdown for periods long enough to losetheir residual heat.

Tires.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Check prior to operation during ex-treme cold.Increase tire pressure approximately10 percent in extremely cold weather.Tighten valve cores securely in ex-treme cold.Tires should not be bled during orimmediately after operation.

Engine Starting and Warmup.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pre-warm vehicle engine with auxil-iary type heaters when temperaturesare below —25° F’.Utilize winter fronts and shutters toobtain and maintain normal engineoperating temperatures.Insure that an alert licensed operatoris present in vehicle when engine isoperating. Operator must observe oilpressure gauges, warning lights, andtemperature indicator to preventdamage to engine.Warm engines to operating tempera-tures before accelerating.

Power Train and Suspension Units.(1)

(2)

Operate vehicles at reduced speedslong enough to thoroughly warm upchassis components after prolongedshutdown.Clean snow, slush, and other materialout of tracks and suspension immedi-

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

ately after stopping vehicle to preventfreezing in place.Park on brush, logs, dry ground, orother surfaces not liable to thawfrom heat of tires and tracks and re-freeze.Avoid using sharp instruments tofree frozen tires. Use pioneer equip-ment to break tracks free beforeattempting to move tracked vehicles.Gasoline or other inflammablesshould not be used to build fires forfreeing tracks.Do not attempt to free vehicles frozento a parking area by jerking or rock-ing under its own power. Use anothervehicle to tow the frozen vehicle ifone is available.Overloading vehicles causes excessiveparts breakage.

G-5. Ammunitiona. Protect variable time fuses from temper-

atures below –20° F. Fuses are designed foruse between limits of 0° and 120° F.and for storage between limits of —20° and130° F. If fuses are fired outside temperatureranges, performance may be severely reduced;firing safety will not be affected.

b. Place ammunition on dunnage duringstorage.

c. Clean snow and ice from ammunitionprior to repacking.

d. Leave containers or components closedduring temperature conditioning to preventcondensation.

e. Fire rockets only above safe firing tem-peratures indicated on containers.

f. Unpack only that ammunition requiredfor the mission.

G-6. Weaponsa. Use lubricating oil weapons (LOW) for

all small arms at temperatures below 0°F.

b. Keep all sighting equipment at outsidetemperatures to prevent fogging.

184 AGO 8641A


c. Wrap optics in heavy blankets prior toentering warm shelters to allow gradual warm-up. Keep wrapped at least 4 hours to preventmoisture damage.

G-7. Individual and Small Unit Equipmenta. Pneumatic Matress.

(1) Avoid placing mattress on sharp ob-jects.

(2) Inflate mattress, allow it to cool, andinflate again.

(3) Wipe dry andto packing.

b. Sleeping Bag.(1)

(2)

(1)

(2)(3)

(4)or other rough or

f. Tents.(1)

Wear only enough clothing to keepwarm in sleeping bag.Do not use the sleeping bag in direct

Place upright in snow or hang ontrees or racks.Repair all breaks as soon as possible.Snowshoes should be dried by indi-rect heat in a moderately warm room

deflate completely prior(2)

contact with the ground or snow; in-sulate by using on top of air mattress,shelter half, poncho, or coniferousboughs.

e. Rucksack.(1)

(2)

(3)

Load heavy objects near frame inbottom of rucksack.Place sharp and hard objects insidewhere they will not rub against sideor wearer’s back.Use outside pockets for articles whichare frequently used.

d. Skis.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Defer waxing skis until snow condi-tions and type of wax are determined.Clean and inspect skis and bindingsdaily after use.Make sure bindings are properly ad-justed to boots.Skis should not be left on ground orsnow.Store skis and ski poles away fromexcessive heat.Carry extra skis, ski poles, bindings,ski wax, pine tar, and facilities forrepairing skis and snowshoes in eachunit supply section.

e. Snowshoes

AGO 8641A

or tent.Avoid small trees,

(3)

stumps, branches,sharp objects.

Brush snow and ice from tent beforepacking.Keep can or cup of water on tentstove when fire is burning in order toincrease humidity and reduce firehazard.Keep one-half pound box of sodiumbicarbonate with each tent group tocombat fuel fires.

g. Protective Mink.(1)

(2)(3)

(4)

(5)

Warm mask to room temperaturesevery 24 hours.Carry mask under outer clothing.Place mask inside sleeping bag at endof day.Inspect outlet and intake valves foricing and cracks after use.Adjust head harness to obtain gastight seal with minimum tension onharness straps to avoid restriction ofblood circulation in the face.

h. Chemical Agent Detector Kit.(1) Carry kit under outer clothing.(2) Mix reagents only as use is antici-

pated or required.i. Five-Gallon Water Cans. Fill cans only

three-fourths full and use insulated covers.j. Small Equipment Item.

(1) Use chapstick to prevent wind andcold from chapping lips and as pro-tection against serious windburn andsunburn caused by reflection of sunon snow and ice. Use sunburn pre-ventive cream on exposed skin areas.

(2) Carry sunglasses on the person at alltimes. If broken or lost, substitute

185


(3)

(4)

(5)

may be improvised by cutting thin2.50 cm ( l") long slits in pieces ofwood or cardboard.Carry waterproof matches in awaterproof box at all times.Use mountain cookset to melt snowfor drinking and cooking water, aswell as for the preparation of food.Stir snow constantly until at least2.50 cm ( l") of water is formed onthe bottom of the pan to avoid burn-ing the pan. Select only uncontam-inated snow. Iodine water purifica-tion tablets should be used to disin-fect drinking water prepared bymelting snow.Allow space in canteens for expan-sion of ice.

k. Rations.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Issue a hot ration to troops prior tostart of day’s operations if possible.Improvise methods for providing hotliquids and soups to troops engagedin winter operations.Eat cold rations only as a matter ofnecessity.Eat all of the ration components asthe complete balanced ration is de-signed to meet body requirements.

l. Cold Weather Clothing.(1)(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Keep it clean.Avoid overheating. Loosen closuresbefore starting to perspire. Removelayer of clothing if closure looseningis not sufficient.

Wear it in loose layers. Weight doesnot mean warmth, but layers do.Keep it dry, outside and inside.Brush, rather than rub snow fromclothing.Dry socks by hanging them on thelines inside the tents.Dry socks by placing inside clothingduring daytime and in sleeping bagat night when other methods are notavailable.

m. Petroleum.(1)

(2)

(3)

Clean around opening before remov-ing plug or cap from petroleum con-tainer.Use spark proof tools when workingin storage areas.Carry proper POL dispensing equip-ment to avoid spilling. Avoid spillinggasoline on clothing; frostbite mayresult.

G-8. Communicationsa. Maintenance and Care of Equipment.

(1)

(2)

Keep equipment in best possible op-erating condition by organizing athorough and comprehensive preven-tive maintenance program.Take precautions to prevent damageto equipment due to moisture conden-sation. Cold equipment should bewrapped in a blanket or parka beforebeing brought into a heated shelterand allowed to warm gradually.

b. Dry Cell Battery.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Use low-temperature winter type bat-teries. These batteries are distin-guished by 2000-series type numbers,such as Battery BA-2279 for RadioSet AN/PRC-10 or BA-2386 forRadio Set, AN/PRC-25 (para 11-6).Store 2000-series batteries at 0° F.In low ambient temperatures, batter-ies should be carried inside clothingto keep them warm.Reactivate cold soaked batteries(other than 2000-series) by warmingthoroughly at temperatures not toexceed 100° F. Batteries (other than2000-series) give the best perform-ance when operated at 70° F.Carry spare set of batteries for fieldphones on person and change withbatteries in phone at frequent inter-vals.

c. Rubber and Rubber Type(1) Flex cordage slowly

order to minimize

Compounds.and carefully inbreakage after

AGO 8641A186


cordage has been exposed to coldweather.

(2) Warm cables before they are laid inthe open.

d. Radio Receivers and Transmitters.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

AGO 8641A

Stress the vital importance of comm-unications during northern opera-tions.Place sets in sheltered locationswhenever possible. Erect lean-tos,snowcaves, windbreaks, or any otherappropriate type of shelter which willprotect the equipment from direct ex-posure to extreme climatic conditions.Require installation of complete an-tenna system, such as long wire an-tenna, elevated ground plane antenna,single wire inverted L-antenna, dou-blet antenna, which are more efficientthan fractional wavelength whip an-tennas.Cut doublet antennas to operatingfrequency. The length of this an-tenna is determined by the followingformula: L =468/ F; where L is lengthin feet and F is operating frequencyin megacycles (468 is a constant fac-tor derived from the basic formula).This formula does not apply to an-tennas longer than half-wave.Keep in mind that the radiation pat-tern of a doublet antenna is maxi-mum at right angles to the plane ofthe antenna.Elevate radio frequency cables abovethe surface to insure that they willnot freeze to the ground.Construct a counterpoise system inlocations where frozen ground pre-vents installation of a ground rod orwhere a good earth ground is notavailable.Use radio retransmission stations toextend communications beyond dis-tance normally covered by one radioset.Use arctic lubricants on Radar andBeam antennas.

(10)

(11)

Warm up radio sets for at least one-half hour before applying plate volt-age to transmitter tubes. The setsmay be turned on but do not trans-mit for at least one-half hour.Frequently check antenna system onmobile units and remove snow, ice, orslush formations.

e. Microphones.(1)

(2)

Place frost shield covers over microp-hone and earphone elements ofhandsets. If not available, such cov-ers may be fabricated out of theplastic bag material in which drybatteries are packed.Carry a spare microphone, if avail-able, under outer garments.

f. Gasoline Driven Generators and ReelUnits.

(1)(2)

(3)

Keep battery fully charged.Set carburetor for richer mixturethan required for higher ambienttemperatures.Maintain engine temperature withinthe range 140° F. to 190° F.units when required to obtainwarmup.

g. Wire Communication Equipment.

Coverquick

(1)

(2)

(3)(4)(5)

(6)

(7)

Install teletypewriters and switch-boards in heated shelters.Remove all snow, ice, water, and dirtfrom cable stubs before connecting.Avoid tight loops.Prevent excessive lubrication.Insulate teletype and crypto equip-ment during tactical movement to re-duce warmup period required whenreestablishing communications. (Sal-vaged sleeping bags or blankets areexcellent for this purpose. )Keep snow or moisture from the in-side of telephones and switchboards.Place wire lines welltraveled cross-country

k. Miscellaneous Equipment.

off frequentlytrails.

187


(1)

(2)

Carry flashlight in inner pocket,posing to cold only during use.Remove batteries from lanternsin use. Store in warm place.

G-9. Transportationa. Sled Operation.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)(5)

(6)

(7)(8)(9)

(10)

(11)(12)

ex-

not

Operate sleds consistent with supplyrequirements, the capability of driv-ers, and tactical situation.Establish supply and maintenancepoints along route.Insure sled cargo is thoroughlylashed.Load trailbreaking sleds lightly.Load sleds so that center of gravityis slightly to the rear of the sled cen-ter.Inspect cargo sleds thoroughly ateach halt.Mark dangerous portions of trails.Execute turns in wide circles.Load sleds with packages which canbe easily handled by two or threemen.Avoid hills and boulder strewn ter-rain when selecting routes.Sleds should not be backed.Leave 10 to 15 cm (4” to 6“)on sled trails.

b. Truck and Convoy Operation.(1)

(2)

(3)

Carry no more than sixteen

of snow

person-nel and equipment in personnel car-rier, 2 1/2-ton.Provide propositioned bivouac areafor mess, latrine, maintenance, andsleeping facilities.Provide each vehicle with the follow-ing equipment:

(a)

(b)(c)

(d)

188

Driver’s personal gear and fieldequipment.Vehicle maintenance tools.One case of operational rations foremergency use.Extra engine oil.

(e)(f)(g)(h)(i)

(j)(k)

Extra antifreeze.Extra gasoline.Tow and tire chains.Pioneer tools.Strip map showing locations oftelephones, bivouac areas, fuelingpoints, etc.Highway warning device.Fire starter.

G-10. Intelligencea. Enemy.

(1)

(2)

The enemy’s ability to inflict maxi-mum casualties on U.S. Forces willdepend on the enemy’s ability tomove. Immediate relay of informationpertaining to the enemy’s capabilitiesand modes of cross-country travel,and airmobility is essential.The ability of enemy soldiers to liveand fight during extended periods ofextreme cold will affect the command-er’s decisions, and ultimately the out-come of the battle. Intelligence collec-tion agencies should in compiling in-formation regarding the enemy andhis environment include the follow-ing:

(a)

(b)(c)(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

Level of cold weather training orexperience of units in contact.Types of weapons and ammunition.Types of vehicles and aircraft.Types of cold weather clothing andequipment.Communications equipment. Typesand methods of employment.Types of navigational aids suitablefor northern operation.Types of rations and method ofdistribution.Types of wildlife, fuel, and vegeta-tion in the area that could be usedin emergency.Types of arctic shelters for person-nel and equipment.

b. Weather.(1) Because weather is a paramount con-

sideration in northern latitudes, im-

AGO 8641A


(2)

mediate dissemination of weatherforecasts to lowest echelon is essen-tial.Arctic weather is characterized bydrastic temperature changes in shortperiods of time.

c. Winter Terrain Studies.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Prepare detailed studies. Revise asnecessary to insure accuracy and re-flect changing trafficability condi-tions.Locate and indicate condition ofexisting road net.Locate and plot other local roads thatare used as winter roads but notshown on maps.Show forest density, tree size, waterroutes, ice condition and thickness,snow condition, including averagedepth, and general terrain featuresapplicable to cross-country movement,routes of march, and avenues of ap-proach. Frozen rivers and lakes in-crease possibilities of movement andoperations. Conduct exacting ice re-connaissance before considering themas axis of advance for vehicles.

d. Reconnaisance.(1)

(2)

(3)

Include time required to complete pa-trol under conditions encountered inthe northern latitudes. This may befrom l 1/2 to 2 times longer.Route reconnaissance parties must in-clude personnel technically qualifiedto report trafficability conditions ofice and snow.Make extensive use of Army aircraftfor reconnaissance, radio relay (re-transmission), aerial observationposts, terrain study, and spot photo-graphy.

e. Counterintelligence.(1)

(2)

AGO 8641A

Insure that personnel receive camou-flage and deception instruction pecu-liar to northern operations.Because of long periods of winterdarkness and the ability of sound un-

der certain arctic conditions to travellong distances, light, sound and firediscipline must be strictly enforced.

G-11. Operationsa. Land Navigation.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Know compass deviation and mag-netic declination.Become familiar with landmarks,ridge lines, direction of riverflow, anddirection of prevailing wind beforegoing unto unknown areas.Estimate distance traveled by usingmethods stated in paragraph 6-9.Keep parka fur hood with wire loopaway from compass when takingreading.

b. Bivouac.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)(5)

(6)

(7)(8)

Select bivouac areas on high groundwhen tactically possible. Cold lies inlow areas. Erect tent in snow for ad-ditional protection.Insulate tent floor with evergreenboughs for extra protection andwarmth.Use “dead man” to anchor tent ropesin area where strong winds prevail.Burn wood whenever possible.Build a lean-to for storage and pro-tection of gear if time permits. Thiswill provide more space in tent.Have fire guard on duty when stoveis burning.Bivouac in wooded area if available.Fill stoves and lanterns and store gas-oline outside of tents.

c. Cross-Country Movement and Field Oper-ations.

(1)

(2)

Load transportation units with thequantity and type of equipment andsupplies that will enable crew andpassengers to live independent of out-side help for 2 or 3 days.Reduce man-towing of equipment in200 pound sleds to an absolute mini-mum.

189


(3) Do not travel alone in the northernlatitudes.

d. Tactics, Methods, and Techniques Peculiarto Winter Operations.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

Place increased importance on valueof reconnaissance, particularly routereconnaissance, because of widelyseparated units, heavily woodedareas, sparsely populated areas, andfew maps.Use ground reconnaissance to makefinal selection of routes.Take advantage of ski and snowshoemobility when snow conditions arefavorable.Use good skiers for long-range pa-trols.Consider endurance and physical con-dition of troops at all times duringwinter operations.Attack front, flanks, and rear of en-emy defensive position simultaneous-ly, when possible, in order to isolateand inclose him. Minimize executionof assault in deep snow against com-manding terrain.Use skijoring when feasible.Insure tactical requirements are ful-filled in conditions of extreme cold.Leave skis and snowshoes at assem-bly area or attack position only ifenemy may be reached more quicklyand easily without them.Consider frozen lakes, rivers, andstreams as avenues of approach forenemy and as route of advance forfriendly forces.Assault on foot instead of skis whenit can be done effectively and rapidly.Skis are recovered and brought for-ward by detail from each squad.Do not use same tracks or route forvehicles when moving over terrainwith low load bearing capability.Do not use wheeled trailers behindtracked vehicles in cross-countrymovements if other means are avail-able.

e. Airborne Operations (FM 31-71).(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Inspect personnel to insure correctfit of parachutes over arctic clothingand proper attachment of equipment.Parachutists should jump with skisor snowshoes if snow is present onthe DZ (TM 57-220).Keep cargo compartment of aircraftfrom becoming overheated duringflight to prevent cold weather injuriesto personnel due to chilling after thejump.Employ standard methods of aerialdelivery as methods and techniquesdo not vary with cold weather con-ditions.Start recovery immediately after air-drop completion.Provide goggles for jumpmaster topreclude watering. eyes when observ-ing from open door, for IP’s and DZ’s.

G-12. Logisticsa. General.

(1)

(2)

Provide troops with hot meals anddrinks at least twice daily, or providethem with the time and means to doso themselves.Use rotary and fixed wing aircraftcapable of making airdrops or land-ing in higher elevations, wheneverpossible.

b. Supply Areas.(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Locate supply areas near terrainsuitable for airstrip or drop zone.Provide continuous all around secu-rity of supply areas.Employ fixed and rotary wing air-craft to deliver critical supplies fromsupply areas to combat troops.Provide heated storage for certainperishable foods and freezable med-ical supplies.Provide heated shelter for medicalevacuees, POW’s and IPW team.Establish rigid control of POL toavoid waste.

AGO 8641A190


C€3Ji646L 2O3 JUGG*C6UlW64L •O22i

W66L roo2e-

b- 3048L66 80(8pJGJJ6 - WGILIUCFG - C6D4WG1GLR!CJ0WGc6L W116

?flH 1Q082JwLq-KU0 - NIHWIH -

APPENDIX H

MEASUREMENT CONVERSION FACTORS

AGO 8641A191


eronv

6bOLJOIJ OL MpJq COIJ aiuqa LO41!IJ iporiç GJIJJ CG1J6L O JOlicjç—46; J0 O aIJOJi OL C6 p? WGJU (20 ço JJJ!IGa) j cjncLcç6LJ6q P2

J)3J4b1. O.JJ U. dIJUBI UI. t.b (JIJLIJO. cjjq }JflLLCJJ6 U JJG Gç JJJq6a IPGO tCC(JWIIJçIOW gØ O JIJ qa JjJ66 çOLW2 LGqnM b6cqJc b6LJoq O JW6 JjJ6 ObbOaII6 woabp6Lic bLGanL6 O[6U ab66qa

"t ''-'"1 1-1i +1" "9 YdU %) HJJA iI36JJJLOO p'd HJço.—(rnJrn1J2 çpviq JGL) FII76L J4OLJJ6LU H68bP6L6

J&flOIJ H6111!2bP6L6 IJq COflJJ6L-CJOCNU6 IJ 4JJ6ab6ciUc b6LJoq O lUJ6 JJJ6 obboafl6 O iiuqa Loctc6 CJOCJMa6 !u çp Ofl46L1J

62OIJJJ2 LO6IJ .LornJq) JWbLCJCJ ço bL6bcL6 b j-LG662 t1J !IJ UJG liIJ16L (6dr1!AtJ6IJ4 4O jpjcp bGLaouhJGJ q66cf46—na6q 6C1flG çnT rTTI' t'TI AA TTT I'TT OflTTTITTT f1fl -.' -

t%J1J.JJLj U aJJJ.JJJA fjJOAI jJJJ.JJU. 4XJJJJ mimi ç6wb6L1çnL6a L6 uoç JJJJJ 6UOf1}J 4O6dflJbIJJ6IJ OAGL UONt ot O—OU6 ou !c6cb 6L6 mx-

0BOI-J!Y6 J6q rlaGq OL '11W adIflIq rLT1u2 In iirrthX flL T1flV411 Rtnniirv

- — - .- - ?I"rniq !CG LOW a1LGJ.ua s—jo bJCG OL jojq 5 & qJ6L6IJ;

G11G 1IJ6JpIJ

ILIJG pL6yflb aaou Cfff6 qcnJ; IJJOA6-013 L64OtJ IJq jocj cjrirnc!c couqi4ouALG narnjj i.ow j o MG62 q6b6uqpJ.ITIJQ llCG flu1L10IJ O LUG pLGflb bGLJOcI

JJ6 o LrA!c bIIJj OL O 3çLJJJ q6ac613çi aJobG 1J L6JfflOU O W6 aJq6L JjJ6

1—J1p6 !W4UL? JJUG Lf1JJIJIJ qL6cJtirRi rtT!rIT I'IIcrI' flT I'TTc lThhflT l11T 1TflAk

—nnJp 011 W6 }rn1Jq—cItfl6q pA t)L0- ifCJJ6q ço 4JJ6 }J0LG' p6cp6q L?IJGCJ OLQc%—y coq !1J1ffL MP!CP cnaa j6aou t%5 V.—'JJ b62 0 !C6 L0J(61J OL f11JLOJ(61J

IIJ6JJt bL0D1GW 0M1J M1JICU 11 IMI1I 01 IJ0M MOfITU L011

cojq cb—}GLJoq qnLpJ MP!CJJ çpc .LonuqJ0ll6q 01. L6b6cç6q 6xbo2nLG cc wjqpnwq tcp6q 10 WG p00I1J 1J pOcJ NGL

.LornJq J 40 3 UJOIJJJ q6b6IJqIJ 011 L6O1JJ 1Jq4GuJb6LrçnL6 iiq W61 21J0M LO1JJ JJ6 2fL611J2 JJq JI1J62 Jp b6Loq AL!6a i.oms

C00—ML1JJ aL7 Mrua JJM.JJCU LJG2 2flLIC6 tL6662 ua ICC COAGL 10L1112 Oil

øuq cpijpjiur oç—y cojq !JJ1flL? crrI2eq p?. L66ULG LOp!46 4L6UC1JOO1 IWIJJ6L9TOU p6 b6Loq bLo8.i6aa6a1nL!6 L62fIJ4!1J LOW cojq 1P6 JJJOI COUJIJJOJJ pjiç? qnLu pa b6Loq 6COWG 66L 2

Oç sti\—yu !11C1112!A6 4GLW bbJ6g 1O iocj cJp1ic couqo1 ycuçinuru xo-

'—.jj-- r —--i- j;—I1flJJ oLuJcq 013 11J0flhJJ1J 14q6b o—yccrn13nJ!Ou 0 6XC62 MçGL IJqç—yu OA6L}Jtf1J1IJ oLuJc!ou 0 21J01& o çjJG poq2 4anGa

OLUJJOIJ W L6J .çpLonJ? CU12J1J dnJ1J!L6J2flL6 OL CL6AC6 J LOCJ( OL C6 çJJJJIJ jç r1arfftJJ7 M6JC6IJa çp 2flLICG uq1T AT S TTA ciun\ At t 2rcch inh mrrn 111 f1flil1LTC flLTcn fIfTLTLIR whtiiiR

'A

IC!6L o—y Jocjq nbji ouq 211L-C.a'2Y qGGb CLCJC OL UflL6 pi 4JJG G6 O o2—(66 LI.oac çfpJ6y

uq flfl9J qvw66L Ot 80 4O TOOO J(IJJ GJ4 JJf1WW0CJ btij b!uo 01. bJuojr0ç6U I0J61J4 M}J pnuqiç bL6c!b!;o1J M;GL bL6nL6 fJ0 cJJ6q 6LJJ morzuq

ccto 0.—V C0LUJ Xt6UJ 01 JIJQ2 ICG CflGO oX IL0 UGAIJJ 01. oX ionua

I


Lofluq WA OL IJJA UO GoUcq6 JqJJ fJJGW6 liJJJ6L LLoa4 111 4}JG 6OIJJ LO6llpiç L6bLG2GIJç2 JJG q6b}J o b6u6pçou o

—J/OL6 OL J6a JLL611JL aflLI&C6

jJUjA JYflJJ fIJb dJt JJUJd JJJd fJJb dJU fUbnpu WOA6UJ6I14 Oi. LW2 uq

JG6 qLIA6IJ CJO61? O6flJ6L—yij? JL6 ccriuinjçioll o oçp

JOM6LiJJ u poq çui-açrJ4pJ Nooq 1JL62b6u86q U fpJ64 LOLIJJ LOL JJ64JIJ LçJOJJ2 OL

2—oLJc6ufLGq cp6uJ!crJ Lfl61 qa-b6LuJqLOa 41flJG

2UJ6 fJUJ6J6 bOJJIJ i 4JJ6 OL poçp bo162 4JJ6

J;6LJJ6J O opçiu }JJ2 bLobnj2!ow D0fl!IJ 2 L66LL6 40 tAJJ6IJ 6CJJ bol6 2 n26qHJCL6126UJO1JJ6JJ;r1UJJII;p6JJq6HJJ6 boy-

+ AJJI1T9 1-'-' -"' o MrnqaIJJC1JL6 o ruq UfA6J nJq 011 JJG 0I)GIJ J)JJJJa uq oLw6q p?. .çp6 C011

}J1J JJ6 poq CTJJ bLoqflCG ! L!6a 0 J01J bLfJJ6J 8JJ0/ LJqaGa occrlLLrn&b6Lrn.6qn6 ço joa o }J6ç 4 Lç6IThç6L —cçLn (na!u)—Ou6 0 f

J J£ Liii fJJ fpJU I ii fJ.J9JiJfJJJJ 'Jj Lii U

\o—y o anb6uq6q JC6 CL241J 112(1-JJ6 poMqu IJJç6LJGXC6b4 W ! (pJ6q O G6JJJG1J4) oLuJ622 12 UJ11GJJ .fJJG 2UJ6 8 uijau COIJCL6Gi'rr TciT TTT t?TIIT TI fit''TT I IIt

—y piu nanjjA COWDO26 o CLO 2J62cq

COA6L çJJ6 2flLIC6 Ob6IJJJJ O CL6A226

iuo —J4}J6 2JJOM1JJ28 çJJ8 aow6c1iJaOSi ffS—66 açLn.Ir

j JGG rni OLW poq o LOOD _r 4JJGLmJ !IJ1IILA L6aflJ4i1J LI.owbIa6JJ ç GuJb6LnL6a pGJoi — L66 LOIIJJ IL! JJ6 yLcpC

ç6mb6LnLe8 fOI6 — j niq ijwoaç L6JOIJ2 O 4JJ6 1J014}J6LIJ JiWJ(—2 J OL JOMGL) IGG i L!1L6 —J6 JIbbGL 1!'4 O L6G .LOM4}J PJ

MIbOL !ll0 CJGL G1JW 1!L 01 JOIA ç6wb6Lf- uq çonq p2. LUC Ju i16JCJ6rrYTTTf'ff AATt'TTTT YTTI'T f(t 11f' T(TT (T AA

UJJ1CJC O LOCK 2flLIC6 OAGL fl6LWLO2ç uuq\oo—yu Lt1fl. L626JJJpJiIJ çL6JJC}J- —y J8I OL 6U;J2 LOJJ!JJ L68 Jjp

couio7a nzq irn boçoim qnLu u OL IG; 6IUULOJJW6IJJJ6L O 9IJ!WJ p!AOffftG 1LGT UJO4OL bSLJ1 6XbOflL6 O coq aJJOLI O L66!IJ p qtuib

1 GXT NJJGIJ JJ OA6LC4 jc?. bLcA6uç jrnq-OU p? 4L8'bb!1J qrq !u .fl36 bcG(a) o—y couqo o Aap!JJc2. MpJcp1' tqqçouj OL IJOLçJJ O JJG 4L66JIJ60

q O4JJ6L bjuW ILP!a L6f onJJq OA6GXçL6IJJJ4JGa I.J JAGL (6JJ6LrJJ?. LOW cou8!a!u o JO.M UJ O JJLf1('rfcfl r hT AtAT1fT 1T1TTtTt 1AT1 AT g'TT

9JJ JJ%.A6L?k qJcnJç OIJJ? A6L LJ( Op16C CU4JJ6 L6COJJJ4!O1J O JLL6f111LJJ62 JIJ 6LLHIJ

JJ6 OLOll ;o 6 qponç JJG W6 !Uc6IJ!c JJ6 CVIa-

Oli2 nJq IJoM-cOAGLGq 46LLII!1J L6U6C J!P4

1J'j36 UbU'JLJAl.IfUJ6 UThf6LJr1 !IJ a!u16 pr26L

41J6 2WJ6 JCJUJG O GJO}JJIJ O JJ6i6IJ!U J1Lb1C6 bLoAq6 LGf6L njçouOL IJJOLG çpicyu6Ga O GJOcJJ!IJ J4JJ pJçGL-

AL FtT ? tf(''T A ( TCrA AT !2 fit 1'Tfl I'1TTT2 T Al. fi

r"'z- -"t" t'ri'- —'-'t ---—:---r i-i--j-aoqqciJ moaca uq ;naaocjc wq flU6LJU6LG N1!4J.J f 4}J!CJ{ L6rJ!6IJc GfLb64 o 'c-1P!CP I cpLc4GLiçJc O JJG anpLCçC' COA-

T ?f' I'f'Y I ffTTT

cowuJou;jouwornJ-iqq MOJ6J uq cojq qoiiiJ-

couqoIrOTT '1. (t ALTTI 1T er Tt1tTT

1J6 cuq oçGLi bGLwnLoaç i-Jq62 V 1J1!IN wiX jç 6A6LJ qr2wTTTIT A#tI'T rcnTc hcttr AT At1T!IflT flTTCV- I'TT1IAf1 cnrcr IL4T2 Iii ru 1IflLHLU icrri-

v-co erv Jo;5


IIIDEX

yGçJuu iipbu juç; cIuwT..ILERLWbU LKLJfl7

ouqncço uqAqnvJ yqnaçJiJGu 0

JUIJJU O UJOAGW61J - 2—10 I1' CW0J1I - i0i&iwi (Goa6 - vbb P xa 01 J2fl6 - —T P

0

i&cpp' jcuou JoGBflcL .211 cowbouGuc -

bL!UCJnJ62 o q€au138 W11G1J1C

- 1T138 oq ybb E.'.,' -. -

yiLCL;:JGGOIJU12IJGbpooaLvbp 1O

x6q-Mu - —T8 151 bL0b6L J1e6 - --ytLzj€jq uq LLb 2—18 151 JnLbo6 5-i

tflI'QLk-kItIR O—TQ TT 9—sf TA

lOd CVJj IJJJiJ - ---yurwnuou: J16ip ybb E

21OLW6:- -

ojq 6çp6L

b°2fl°" EUGG - ybb1'Ao1WG COJJq!ç!01J2 - —3 p

vir' u, u 4 0yçwoabJaGL ybb E H!Dc bb e

BP H!6U6 uq jLa; viq)7ATTI!? O—ffl O—OA TO

D6"6 1GPUiaU6 DD D T'V JCPLCLc!G e—

cowpc: —

EaPJP131617l - •------------ 3—21 23 401

P'!' PR oq (' juqpqiwj joq)

JJJ.4 COUC6IW61Jc:2O AIIGIJ2IAG fGCUHNJrIG2 D—Q—O—T

-- LJb1.VJ btUJdflbLWi.IUJJBAOC- 20

rivccw on1 fl6IflqLf jIJq1AIqnJ2 iuq .Lonb2- -

U 4U —e—so Toeiag21" ILT1 uq —�—2n' ri

CI6uJJu6a - 3-22 jfboL cjoriq (1c6 o) •------ 138

-- -- U C01131b!011 - - -- 310H6- S2 e mit -- -

2—2Q24 't2704 }6J JLJJJ6BLGVJCnb GV2OU ('a opj;) Bor,p pq ----------•---------- —2'

bLOI6G4TOIJII I -

- -- JsTwbLoAJ6cI 2U6TI6L Q—TQ-—-Q—fl

B!AOnVCa --'-- •-------- -- --- 3—T9— 2OI'O J9 MJGhJUG1 ;c-euionu6: 2cOL --- -

COP1J - - sio e—s I 138 6Lboiu - 2e

CGU6LJ couq6Lou -- e—ie C061. - -- - - -- -- - - - -Q— e—io isr ise

JA6bOu uq apes uq (Ltc) 9'DD

LLWC1Ca •- —'3—O J2S•2U10JC6 --- -I18 D6C4!OU - -- ---- e-e 141

H1GU6 iiq UL24 D!!u:CVLPOU wOUOxJq6 bo!aouu 3_4J bb E 48 I fl2G o pdniq2 --- - - - ---

AUJCTG2-——TJfl i-rrrctcI'T1TT - --

CPLT2IIJJ2 1L6G ( DLI) 124

Jow vco $QITV


vLaLvbp bVR€

IJO ;jie aIJO1 9—- J,14uc1n16a O M6boa!c;ou ?' QIS ISf 1O Eoo;6:

IJ.-j-.N6bOU 6mbJcew64J 9—8 J)b6OL cojq M6)J6L 10

6pqLV1OU 2—3k t2 LG6IJ. 3—3LALIP TAd

H Jf(Vp5jJf)CLP6 qboa -•--- - 2-28 28 EL666flb evoir ('

iIiIziiIiIii _i_.._—

iJvaBuq a iiiba"3-21 23 fl6J

6LOIIVT UJ6U6 2—2P !P LO1PIC6

—' —ou ioo 0 0 02I ECOUOW 2—IO3—RS

&ØI6L bnLJGV4OIJ 3—30 OL6 !M pMOnv -Tflfl

e9—2a 22 6W6LK61JG} c0q6 ybb BflLiUJ

- ---V '(6 O CpL!a4IJsv LL66b HI69L viiq 6V6VL - 8b TO

B01U11G 011AILOHIJ36UtVT 6U6Gt:

ivl'oa s-i 0

-6bOIJ 2 GBAG 2-S0 222U6118 vuq L6IJS6R —II 120 UTfGL —DT

H S1ybb D 102 J6IJ

V!JPll!7 2i 102TdflThITITT" —

WJ1, BPU BCiJJ4J6 - 32344 42'20E1L66 Ou O66U vbbiiciou O 48

'UB°q 20

Ru!4w4oIr)32t118 LtO wa€ qaboj' ('Q j6jq

uqwqnøj C6IJUi couaq6L;ou -hjTOI'ITTTTR ——

poq - Vbb E

—nt— oriiaAAGLVUGM eoe2b ouq;ou - ioe

2et12 N1U6

EAvcr1ou: N16BboITh -- OIl TS JORn_rn U6TT2 viia gL6IJwqe - O—TT T2A

LO94!6 GBnJ;G - 3—3e

BBJ6 cansJçJGa -- -•--- --- -. - 3—4220 ybb D

xz6uc6josq Vbb E ii6Jq iJzçwoii - oq piu cbøc -- ioeT'YhTflTA D—T TQfl ybb r reippu joq - ybb E IJO —i—s io

JGIUOLCGW6IJ 2—13 112

U 0J 0 U 00 0 juqqnvj Jovq:EUALODWGUI 66G -- 11 120 2cLGIJ.W tOL COA6L - Q—J0

231 RI j- --— — o_& 0-VT 001 0

-. -. -- - 2-15 24 IU1IlJA ---- - g—sflP6LAV!OIJ vuq GOUCLOI 1S4 -- -- -- -

u1 01 1' CL6 uq wucciJiJc6awvij

- - - - 2S1 2-

IIà1 fttTtlTT?T11Q ---- EUAILO1JWGIJJ 66G e3b e—e

cJocpIIJ -- ---.- -. - -.- s—p

eMOO PS a--ge �i e 1LfRflIctI!fl1;!

U IJOVAG - -33

jJvuc6q W6WJ - 313 32 Lornzq "-. - - 21 2Q

Ic;IoU 2bG - e uq uBiq.ou fl3TO€flY( - - - - -- —- --

yco ggqjy I A


00IULIJ6q6 -.

Jq-!Aç 6B4JJGL flIJOLUJ S—1oJq.qL tA6JJ6L (1JJOLDJ

COWbOU6u

- e—io

8 1G6 ---- - e—io

WIb6L bJg6 3SOA6W6lP1 -

bVLLb}J

102 K66bP1 JALW66qJIJ 315

51ybbjicpoii o p2i s—c

J,LnJcibJGa:jiuip6ijoii (Lioria ç2bGa) 0—10

Iuq!qnBJ - ybb EDcLIPnc!OLJ - 21

oBqa:f'JAI1J 01J GOnIJ4LXr6-co (' 21J6JGL)6Uq6LJJb

bLIIJGIbJG -- - - ___-

ehi

320hi

WJJ LW2 U' e—8B0q s-iVAB!UGP6 e—30

bLO6GcJOJJ:jJ6fLJU OO6

TIA p6q6L2JJb -

62 6IIL 3SSW62flLG1176U COUA6L!O ECOL2 - ybb H

Jqe iiq 2UO/AJJO6 4—11cjowi uq Gdn!bw6u - s-Il

iU6IJvUC6:LAT!T19 --—--

e

10T8

JY1fP JJ J2—J e-i iie r'cJc

JGLLIU 2—Sb 2T3 JOflBL6Jflb uq Lc66nb c-i ioi I'8111U1161JG6: O J1U 2S

f-i 2—T co IG2Gfl ybb B

p(1u6 e—s—e-a ça uq WC6 J6JqKou ooq)

V' 218JOA6w6u:WO1rIL6 --------•---- -

J6GpUJdflG -168 0L IJJOAGWGIJ -

GdrJlbWGJJ

1-

22 ioeI0I6W6L -

25 I0e J6LLJIJ - 25 10

6OJJJ cpIJ6 - I01eo 101eo

7— P—Ta T1)& TT

EUAILOUWG1JIJ 6j6Cç-

21 21 es i0 V1cP6-- - - 3O

W6U - Vbp?X1!OZJ - 9—50 33E1L6C12 o pjqqnj 6dfiib-

36ç 62flL6R:—2e2—3 1I 102

CL022-conucL -- 2I25 roioea6lGCciOu 22

BLLIGL 21 21 IOr 129- i 2Th 102 113

JcfloJnJ - -- 4—44

ju (' L1flJpLGULJ)6dflJL6UJ6U OL cLIJpL6J-

O UJ0A6W6134 4—5

J,6CJrnLJ6q !q 213218

JJ HIP pLq - 3_3Q1 3_jJnqq?11 2?26w ----•• - - 0—s

32500 EJL -- 33J1 342

112102 C}HI!' 24

421 415524

341 201

43102

2IiWb2--

e—12

e-oIwbLoAzJ WL46L 2LYO1AflCLO2U çGGpJJJdn

e—s—e—3TOPfG16

E!L6flp26LAiou:

G6 -r!'IJ 32T

He COU2LflGc!0u o wbr.oir6q -- 1—3—18ae 3p6fl6L2:

14S J!ILCP6 22B!AOnC2 - - ---- - --22

T5 2'I2GLCP-

vbb P

ss23so

ioeToe

T9!

Jç62Cn6 Vbb B 12'T BJUq1IJCowbo2!ou O flUi - 3S SSCPL!G 3—I

nb6Lwou: uocie UIflG ctui iitr

vco 8e41v


GJ.b iiq çuJ.vb *w iwiJJJw-.LwLvbp

t-8 03 E1L6G ou auo comboaou -Edfl1bW6U 01 4 anuIp;:D'111 - ybb c in q)

—1—41 22 ror roe -

scjc (9wuqa) - 20 - 2—12L6bøLcou 4-81—1O 01 ee

4-10 09D6CLb1!0U 243—2 SSS3

ybb c L6116.8cKJIJg 2—2 2Q 12 ELc JJOM cowboou - 01

BLGbLØJO1J O 6W1JDUJ6134 4——7O _I__- 311o mopJ oo

yqAucw6a øuq t-Q

iou1L°°1 2T8 Sb

120q 2LWIIJ 2— 2—R

LGCI UJOPJH1X

J6cpuJdn6 t151tiO

101

BBLL6U ;nJJqL 218uq bICGW6IJI !' J6LLB!u:A6Uc!1B!OU -

J6cp1ndn6 4—Il 101 r ITT nrrin -

j2b6 1C21 118 ISOnJJu cpudtT6 - t43LU6t 2jsqt 21JJgJG LØGG 118

— 0—flt 00

SLq10L6l2 2—eEL6C 011 UJOJMJIA t2t 2S

2021

CSt IO'1

— - - - Gr:Jt jijVLL136WGIJ IU 22 22 220120

a€ o L!bJ6-;LBc1c - 2—2 ioe viaporwq - 2—!.Q—Tn PTrP

1Jqu6 ('au H!IJ6 vuq bJCIIJ u2q6 o ø6J46L --- -

ponap pq err!T,unTr1I TflT TTTYflTWtTTR —

CWmJUdiPUM - -

cIawcciou - - - 4—JO awvIJ 2—IS -CpsLvcLac1c--.--

4—4 LT LO6U &ionuq o—Is 730

UL3 J6dniL6wGJJ; oL:

E1L6G;2: 1u'D4

J6LLSJU 9SIOfb

ouqc'ou -- LJL6U —2—e roerr

M6tb0IJ --•---• - --- 2—4' ISS' 102 CøWOflU6 uq COUGGVJIJJGLJc •- 2—42' 2—20' 21' 22P6JJ wuq &L6uvqGa 2—11 180

M6BCP6L 2-2 100

JLØJIJ1U:wGI;'ua-. - 3—2133S 31O' J)b6

--- - TOek6UCG2 - O—1 130

e—2e--so 1O 138ybbD —

- eo t 1

- -- - 2—Ie—3O 6dnL6w6u; OL cojq M66LJç6iUOLCGW61J2 - 2—J3 I3O1*PO6!LJa - t2B

OP16CI1AG8 OL UJJ!L? pciiu

Mq LOL WOJMI!2 t-s —e eo JD62 OL oøq (2' uqqnvj2uoM2po6W: UL21 vq)

LGU LOL COAGL -- - - - - - -- J4L611CJ1 ooc (' HJ6U€ wuq— --

—

EL6Gc OJJ apsjj uq L6U6 0—11 130Ju

2011 c°"q!s!°" fl0LW.

jscpwdnG t28

AGPJCJ6B

2OLB CøN G MGVjJ6L - -- S8 10onuq - e—i8 128 ----- - ----- _fl

Afl1C0U NIl3tO111

juç p—ia 20 SO Ob6LO3JJ bLoGqn --. ybb Evuc6Iwuc6 - ybb E

,-bcLQrIu bLocGanLG2 - -- Q— nGAGrobwGur or Affbor. cionaa

Yco sellv IoI


JTh6 2—12—2T2 fl2J6JJcJ62—Ou;un6q ;uJJq (i.øcjc) - - —2O—i'

1uJ.JHfAJLq

cIocJJi - e J6p6J.:AGur1TrIon: 2flbboLt rla6Q liJ UOM IS

918 128 JLJpLbufluuq AV4OU 2-8 113 IUT.UL iA6bOIJ - Vbb D 192

EU6CP EUGC1• • D—.t TI

ybb DOU L OD6LV1WIJ —T8 1ST

1C6 }O - JG6 bJ.rGuouJGuou

JLJJpL6JCUJ

conwb;iou 22pi cojq L6iOua -- 330 cpii6a 2—i 102

262O1JI GJflflJ6 2—S 1O

0 OU U 04 10 10bnL7UC1OII _ 2-10 uqAqr1J joq ybb EL°"C 2—3O— Vbb EG}1qLVp011 - 2-1S 2-1't 321 f2 uqpqnJ cjopu iiq

EtL6Gj? 2i2S JOIIO CPu - Vbb E

220ttTI ')—Q& 4)—OT

Uv1JG 0-4CLG CIGJJU uq WjIJç6-1s IC - 0-8

COWP - - 0-0-12 J4B7AOnC 2—i3—4 2V2

fl'1J" ' 11jjuqcpJJ yDD j

vbb D—i e—3o ae re

EUAILOUW61YJ 66G4 e— JS I3' ijo cowboiciou

b01c,0U 1J 1J4G 151 ELLGC 017 wopjr;7 2—5 104JiufGL:

TTUTIflTTIT ITT tflTTTflS (l—YJ TO)

vco 8Q41V


B2 Oq O 4JJ6 26GL64tcL2 O p6 VLW

HVIOrD K ¶IOHMO4

REViI'IEJ1H C IICKHVNf%t$4 o, ct1

fl2 eoii�iiwii.i OEEICE : iaa, o —

wJJ11J.jO 6 !' CCOLqJJCG "1W DV EOLUJ TT LGdf!1L6W61U2 OL B!C ojq JGJJGL

flia4iiptlpoIJ:


PIN: 021643-001


Documents

FM 31-70 manuals/1968 US Army Vietnam War Ba… · FM 31-70 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY APRIL 1968 This copy