FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION: CHALLENGES FOR AGRICULTURE AND THE HIDDEN POTENTIAL OF SOIL

A REPORT TO THE G20 AGRICULTURE DEPUTIESFEBRUARY 2018

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

with inputs from

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) The World Bank Group World Trade Organization (WTO)

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1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 1

2. TRENDS AND CHALLENGES.................................................................................................................................. 1

2.1. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION .......................................................................................................................... 1 2.2. DEMAND FOR FOOD ......................................................................................................................................... 4 2.3. CLIMATE CHANGE ............................................................................................................................................ 6 2.4. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH ............................................................................................. 10

Increasing agricultural production sustainably ................................................................................................... 11 Innovation and R&D in food and agriculture ...................................................................................................... 12 Investment and enhancing international exchange on R&D and innovation ........................................................ 14

2.5. TRADE AND TRANSPARENCY IN FOOD MARKETS ...................................................................................................... 15 Global trends in market demand have reduced pressures on prices .................................................................... 16

3. SOILS: A HIDDEN POTENTIAL IF WELL MANAGED .............................................................................................. 19

3.1. STATUS OF GLOBAL SOILS ................................................................................................................................. 19 Soil erosion ........................................................................................................................................................ 19 Soil organic carbon (SOC) loss ............................................................................................................................ 21 Nutrient imbalance ............................................................................................................................................ 21

3.2. IMPACTS OF SOIL DEGRADATION ........................................................................................................................ 23 3.3. SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ........................................................................................................ 24 3.4. ROLE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ................................................................................. 28 3.5. ONGOING COLLECTIVE RESPONSES AND INTERNATIONAL GOVERNANCE ........................................................................ 29

Global Soil Partnership ...................................................................................................................................... 29 The Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils ................................................................................................. 30 The revised World Soil Charter ........................................................................................................................... 30 The Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management ............................................................................... 30 The Global Symposium on Soil Organic Carbon................................................................................................... 31 4/1000 initiative: Soils for Food Security and Climate ......................................................................................... 31 Global Symposium on Soil Pollution ................................................................................................................... 32

3.6. WAY FORWARD ............................................................................................................................................. 33 3.7. RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 33

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Thisreport,preparedbyFAOandtheOECDwithinputsfromIFPRI,IFAD,theWorldBankandWTO,hasbeensubmittedtotheG20PresidencyoftheRepublicofArgentinainresponsetothePresidency’srequestforinformationonfuturetrendsandchallengesfacedbyglobalagriculture,withaspecialfocusontheroleofsoilsinpromotingfoodsecurityandthemeasuresthatcouldbeundertakentofacilitatesustainablesoilmanagement.

February2018

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Introduction Today,agriculturefacesatriplechallenge.Theproductionofsafeandnutritiousfoodwillneed

toincreasetomeetthegrowingdemandandensurefoodsecurityforall.Thesectorhastogeneratejobsandincomesandcontributetopovertyeradicationandruraleconomicgrowth.Furthermore,ithasamajorroletoplayinensuringthesustainabilityofnaturalresourcesandincombatingclimatechange.

Thisreport,preparedbyFAOandtheOECDwithinputsfromIFPRI,IFAD,theWorldBankandWTO,issubmittedtotheG20ArgentinianPresidencyinresponsetothePresidency’srequestforinformationonfuturetrendsandchallengesfacedbyglobalagriculture,withaspecialfocusontheroleofsoilsinpromotingfoodsecurityandthemeasuresthatcouldbeundertakentofacilitatesustainablesoilmanagement.

Section2ofthereportdiscussesanumberofglobaltrendsthatareaffectingagricultureand

foodsecurity,andthechallengestheypose.ThesectionalsomapstheG20initiativesandactionsthataddressthesetrendsandchallengesand,inconjunctionwiththeinformationprovidedbyStock-takingexerciseofG20initiatives,providesacomprehensiveaccountofcollectiveactiontodate.Section3focusesonsoilsandsustainablesoilmanagement.Itdiscussesthestatusofglobalsoilsandidentifiesthemostimportantthreats.Itpresentssustainablesoilpractices,anddiscussestheinternationalforathatfocusspecificallyonsoilresources.Finally,thesectionprovidesanumberofrecommendationsforconsiderationbytheG20AgricultureDeputies.

TrendsandChallenges2.1. Foodsecurityandnutrition Theglobalrateofundernourishmentsignificantlydecreasedfrom14.7percentin2000to10.8

percentin2013.Afterthisprolongeddecline,therateofreductioninworldhungerappearstohaveslowedinthepastfewyears,comingtoavirtualhaltbetween2013and2015.Mostworryingly,recentestimatesfor20161indicatethattheglobalprevalenceofundernourishmentmayhaverisenslightlyto11percent,affectingatotalof815millionpeople,upfrom777millionin2015,andsuggestingapossiblereversalofthedownwardtrendseeninrecentdecades.(Figure1).Sub-SaharanAfricaremainstheregionwiththehighestrateofundernourishment,affecting22.7percentofthepopulationin2016.ThesituationisespeciallyurgentinEasternAfrica,whereone-thirdofthepopulationisestimatedtobeundernourished.Bycontrast,undernourishmentremainslowinLatinAmerica,althoughtherearesignsthatthesituationmaybechanging,especiallyinSouthAmerica,wherethelevelsrosefrom5percentin2015to5.6percentin2016.

1FAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFPandWHO.2017.TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2017.Buildingresilienceforpeaceandfoodsecurity.Rome.

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Figure1.PrevalenceofUndernourishmentbyregion,2000-2016

*ProjectedvaluesSource:FAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFPandWHO.2017.TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2017.Buildingresilienceforpeaceandfoodsecurity.Rome.

Estimatesoftheseverityoffoodinsecurity,basedonanexperiencescale2,andthedifferencesintheseestimatesacrosscontinents,largelyreflectthoseforundernourishment.Africahasthehighestlevelsofseverefoodinsecurity,reaching27.4percentofthepopulationin2016,almostfourtimesthelevelofanyotherregion.Itisalsooneoftheregionswherefoodinsecurityisontherise,particularlyinsub-SaharanAfrica.HigherfoodinsecuritywasalsoobservedinLatinAmericabetween2014and2016,risingfrom4.7percentto6.4percent,whileinAsiaitdecreasedslightlyoverthesameperiod,from7.7percentto7.0percentoverall.

Theobservedincreasesinundernourishmentandseverefoodinsecurityaremostnotablein

situationsofconflictandpoliticalinstability,bothofwhichhindergrowthandrepresentmajordriversofpoverty.Forexample,conflict,compoundedbysevereweatherevents,hasresultedinanunprecedentedsituationofseverefoodinsecurityinSouthSudan,Somalia,North-EasternNigeriaandYemen.Thesecountriestogetheraccountfor108millionpeopleonthebrinkoffamine.

Theworrisomereversalofthedownwardtrendinundernourishmentis,however,notyetreflectedinnutritionaloutcomes.Evidencepointstocontinuousdecreasesintheprevalenceofstuntingamongchildrenundertheageoffiveyearsfrom29.5percentto22.9percentbetween2005and2016.Nevertheless,stuntingstillaffects155millionchildrenundertheageoffiveyears,increasingtheirriskofimpairedcognitiveability,weakenedperformanceatschool,anddyingfrominfections.Wastingaffectedoneintwelve(52million)ofallchildrenunderfiveyearsofagein2016,morethanhalfofwhom(27.6million)liveinSouthernAsia.Anaemia,aconditionarisingfrommicronutrientdeficiencywithsignificantadversehealthconsequencesforwomenandtheiroffspring,affects33percentofwomenofreproductiveageglobally(about613million).3

2MeasuredusingtheFoodInsecurityExperienceScale(FIES),anexperience-basedmetricoftheseverityoffoodinsecurity,relyingondirectyes/noresponsestoeightquestionsregardingaccesstoadequatefood.AfulldescriptioncanbefoundinFAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFPandWHO.2017.TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2017.Buildingresilienceforpeaceandfoodsecurity.Rome,FAO.3FAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFPandWHO.2017.TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2017.Buildingresilienceforpeaceandfoodsecurity.Rome;DevelopmentInitiatives.2017.GlobalNutritionReport2017:NourishingtheSDGs.Bristol.

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Atthesametime,overweightamongchildrenunderfiveisbecomingmoreofaprobleminmostregions,andadultobesitycontinuestoriseinallregions.Multipleformsofmalnutritionthereforecoexist,withcountriesexperiencingsimultaneouslyhighratesofchildundernutritionandadultobesity.Theglobalprevalenceofoverweighthasbeenincreasingandstandsatabout39percentforwomenand37percentformen,withabout1.9billionpeopleworldwideconsideredoverweight.4Obesitymorethandoubledbetween1980and2014.In2014,morethan600millionadultswereobese,representingabout13percentoftheworld’sadultpopulation.Itisalsoobservedthattheprevalenceofobesityis,onaverage,higheramongwomen(15percent)thanamongmen(11percent).

InmonitoringtheprogresstowardsthesecondSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG2),whichcallsoncountriesto“endhunger,achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutritionandpromotesustainableagriculture”by2030,theseestimatesareconcerning.Theyconfirmtheincreasedneedfortheinternationalcommunitytoworktogetherinpromotingintegratedpolicyapproachesandactions.Theambitionofaworldwithouthungerandmalnutritionby2030willbechallenging,andachievingitwillrequirerenewedefforts.TheG20addvaluetotheseeffortsbyprovidinginternationalleadershipandencouraginginternationalcooperationandpolicycoherenceassetoutintheG20FoodSecurityandNutrition(FSN)Framework.

Box1.AglobalresponsetoAntimicrobialResistance(AMR)

Sources:Marshall,B.M.andS.B.Levy.2011.FoodAnimalsandAntimicrobials:ImpactsonHumanHealth.ClinicalMicrobiologyReviews,24-4;WorldBank.2017.Drug-resistantInfections.AThreattoOurEconomicFuture.WorldBank.WashingtonD.C.;WHO.2015.GlobalActionPlanonAntimicrobialResistance.Geneva;G20AgricultureMinisters'Declaration2017:TowardsFoodandWaterSecurity:FosteringSustainability,AdvancingInnovation.January22,2017,Berlin

4OverweightisdefinedasBodyMassIndex(BMI)≥25.ForobesityBMI≥30.

Increasedhumanhealthrisksarecausedbythemisuseofantimicrobialdrugs,includingantibiotics,inlivestock,aquacultureandcropproduction.Evidenceisgrowingthatanimal-to-humanspreadofmicrobial-resistantbacteriareducesthehumanbody’sresponsivenesstoantibiotics(MarshallandLevy,2011).Antimicrobialresistance(AMR)–whereantimicrobialdrugs,includingantibiotics,nolongertreatinfectionsthewaytheyaresupposedto–hasthepotentialtocauselargeglobaleconomicdamage.Itcouldcauselow-incomecountriestolosemorethan5percentoftheirGDPandpushupto28millionpeople,mostlyindevelopingcountries,intopovertyby2050(WorldBank2017).TheGlobalActionPlanonAntimicrobialResistance,publishedbyWHOincollaborationwithOIEandFAO,spellsoutcountry-levelactionsneededtoimproveawarenessandunderstandingonantimicrobialresistance,strengthenknowledgeandtheevidencebase,reducetheincidenceofinfection,andoptimizetheuseofantimicrobialmedicinesinhumanandanimalhealthandthecorrespondinginvestment(WHO,2015).TheG20AgricultureMinistershavealreadyproposedtocontainingthedevelopmentandspreadofantimicrobialresistanceinlinewiththe“onehealthapproach”(G20AgriculturalMinistersDeclaration2017),welcomingtheworkbytheG20HealthWorkingGroupsupportedbyOECD,WHO,FAOandtheOIE.

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2.2. Demandforfood Demandforfoodandotheragriculturalproductsisprojectedtoincreasedrivenbypopulation

growth,increasingpercapitaincomesandchangesindiets.Developingcountrieswillcontributethemosttothesetrendsandchanges.

Theworld’seconomyalmostdoubledinsizebetween1990and2014,growingatarateof2.6

percentayear.Duringthatperiod,globaleconomicgrowthwasdrivenmainlybylow-andmiddle-incomecountries,whosegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)grew,onaverage,bysome5.1percentannually.Therewere,however,markeddivergencesingrowthpatternsbyregion.Forexample,percapitaincomeinEastAsiaandthePacificincreasedby7.4percentayear,whilesub-SaharanAfricasawanincreaseinpercapitaincomeofonly1.1percentayear.Intermsoffutureeconomicgrowth,projectionssuggestthat,underabusiness-as-usualscenario,by2050worldGDPpercapitawilltriple.Underadifferentscenariothatassumesincreasingwithin-andbetween-countryinequality,GDPpercapitawillgrowmuchslower(Figure2).5

Figure2.GDPpercapitaprojectionto2050(in2012US$)

Source:FAO.2017.TheFutureofFoodandAgriculture:TrendsandChallenges.Rome.

Theworld’spopulationisexpectedtogrowtoalmost10billionby2050,withthemajorityof

growthbeinginAsiaandAfrica(Figure3).Asia,themostpopulouscontinent,wouldreachitspopulationpeakbetween2050and2060.InAfrica,themaximumpopulationsizewillnotbereachedwithinthiscentury.Itspopulationissettocontinuetoexpandbeyondtheendofthecenturyandisexpectedtoreachmorethan2.2billionby2050andmorethan4billionby2100.

Manycountriesinsub-SaharanAfricaareexpectedtoexperiencefastpopulationgrowthbetween2015and2030.Forexample,inNigerannualpopulationgrowthisprojectedat3.75percent.Annualgrowthratesofmorethan2.5percentto2050arealsoprojectedforAngola,Burundi,Chad,theDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Gambia,Malawi,Mali,Senegal,Somalia,theUnitedRepublicofTanzania,UgandaandZambia.Asallofthesecountriesrelysignificantlyonagricultureforemploymentandincomegeneration,fastpopulationgrowthratescouldalsohamperprospectsforimprovingfoodsecurityandnutrition.

5Thesescenarios,calledSharedSocioeconomicPathways’(SSPs),aredevelopedfortheFifthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC).Eachscenariodepictsapossiblealternativefuture.Inthisreporttwo(outoffive)scenariosarepresented:thebusiness-as-usualormiddleoftheroad(SSP2)andtheinternationalfragmentation(SSP4).

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Inlinewiththesepopulationprojections,andunderabusiness-as-usualeconomicgrowth

scenario,tomeetdemand,agriculturein2050willneedtoproducealmost50percentmorefood,feedandbiofuelthanin2012.Insub-SaharanAfricaandSouthAsia,agriculturaloutputwouldneedtomorethandoubleby2050tomeetincreaseddemand.6Producingmorewithless,whilepreservingnaturalresourcesandenhancingthelivelihoodsofsmall-scalefamilyfarmers,isakeychallengeforthefuture.

Figure3.Populationgrowthbyregion,1950-2100(Billions)

Source:FAO.2017.TheFutureofFoodandAgriculture:TrendsandChallenges.Rome.

Anadditionaleffectwillcomethroughgrowingincomesinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries.

Thisisexpectedtohastenadietarytransitiontowardshigherconsumptionofmeat,fruitsandvegetables,relativetothatofcereals,requiringcorrespondingshiftsinoutputandaddingfurtherpressureonnaturalresources.Inthemedium-term,significantincreasesinpercapitacalorieavailabilityareexpectedindevelopingcountries.Nonetheless,foodinsecurityisexpectedtoremainacriticalglobalconcern,andwithconsumptionofsomeproducts,notablyquantitiesofvegetableoilsandsugarinfoodintake,exceedinglevelsconsistentwithhealthydiets,theco–existenceofmalnutritioninitsvariousformsmaycontinuetoposechallengesinmanycountries.

Policieswillneedtoaddresstheseincreasingandmultiplechallengeswhileensuringinclusive

growth.Economicgrowthisanecessarybutnotsufficientconditioninreducingpovertyanderadicatinghunger.Makinggrowthworkforthepoorisasignificanttask.Thehungryarethepoorestofthepoorwhoselivesarecircumscribedbyself-reinforcingtraps,whicharesubsequentlypassedontotheirchildreninanintergenerationalcycleofpoverty.Theirmainassetislabourand,inthisregard,sustainableproductivitygrowthinagriculture,inparticular,canplayakeyroleinpovertyreduction.However,hungerreducestheircapacitytobeproductiveandincreasestheriskofdisease.Ensuringpro-poorgrowthrequiresatwin-trackapproach.Policiesneedtocombineimmediatehungerreliefinterventionswithlong-termactionsforsustainableagriculturalgrowth.Socialprotectionstrategies,inparticular,cantargetthepoorestandmostvulnerableandaimtoeaseinequality.

6FAO.2017.TheFutureofFoodandAgriculture:TrendsandChallenges.Rome.

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2.3. Climatechange Climatechangedisproportionatelyaffectsfood-insecureregionsandexacerbatesthefood

securitychallengestheyalreadyexperience.Inthelongrun,risingtemperaturesmaysignificantlyaffectcropandlivestockproductionthroughyieldreductions,especiallyintropicalareas,andwillhaveanegativeimpactonfoodavailability,ruralincomesandsubsequentlyonaccesstofood.Risingtemperatureswillalsonegativelyimpactfisheriesandaquaculture,whichprovideatleast50percentofanimalproteintomillionsofpeopleinlow-incomecountriesandarealreadyundermultiplestresses.Inmanyregions,agriculturalproductionisalreadybeingadverselyaffectedbyrisingtemperatures,increasedtemperaturevariability,changesinlevelsandfrequencyofprecipitation,theincreasingintensityofextremeweatherevents,risingsealevelsandincreasesinvector-bornediseases.

Uptoacertainpoint,warmertemperaturesmaybenefitthegrowthofcertaincropsinsome

partsoftheworld.However,iftemperaturesexceedacrop’soptimallevel,orifsufficientwaterandnutrientsarenotavailable,yieldsarelikelytofall.Impactswillalsovarystronglyacrosscropsandregions.Numerousstudies,mostlyonthemajorcrops,haveexaminedthepotentialimpactofclimatechangeonyields.Ingeneral,higherlatitudeswilltendtoseesmalleryieldlosses,orevenyieldgains,whileyieldlossesinlowerlatituderegionsareexpectedtobegreater.However,impactswillbelocationspecificandvarystronglyacrosscropsandregions(Figure4).Inaddition,somestudiesindicatethatthenutritionalqualityofkeyfoodcropscouldsufferbecauseofclimatechange.

Figure4.Projectedchangesincropyieldsforalllocationsowingtoclimatechange

(percentofyieldsprojections,numberofstudies=1,090)7

Source:FAO.2016.TheStateofFoodandAgriculture:ClimateChange,AgricultureandFoodSecurity.Rome.

Meetingthegrowingdemandforfoodwithexistingfarmingpracticesislikelytoleadtomoreintensecompetitionfornaturalresources,increasedgreenhousegasemissions,andfurther

7Thechartshowsresultsof1,090studiesontheimpactofclimatechangeyieldsonvariousregionsoftheworld.Studiesshowbothpositiveandnegativeimpactsassomeregionsbenefit(blueshade)whileotherssufferfromyielddecreases(orangeshade).Thebarsshowthepercentageofstudiesthatprojectyieldchanges.Somestudiesprojectincreasesbetween50-100percent(deepblue).Othersshowdeclinesbetween50-100percent(deeporange).Thetimescaleofthesestudiesisshownonthehorizontalaxis.Thestudiespointtoaprevalenceofnegativeoutcomesinthelongerrun.Untilabout2030,thepositiveandnegativeeffectsofclimatechangeonyieldsareprojectedtooffseteachother.From2030onwardstheimpactsareincreasinglynegativeasclimatechangeaccelerates.

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deforestationandlanddegradation.Inthecurrentcontextofmassivedeforestation,waterscarcities,soildepletionandhighlevelsofgreenhousegasemissions,high-inputandresource-intensivefarmingsystemscannotdeliversustainablefoodandagriculturalproduction.Innovativesystemsthatprotectandenhancethenaturalresourcebase,whileincreasingproductivityareneeded.Farmingmethodswillneedtoembracetechnologicalimprovementsandproductionsystemsthatusefewerinputstoachieveagivenoutput,andmovetowards‘holistic’approachesthatcancontributetosustainableproductivitygrowth,suchasagroecology,agro-forestry,climate-smartagricultureandconservationagriculture,whichalsobuilduponindigenousandtraditionalknowledge.

Climatechangehasbecomeasourceofuncertaintyandoftenalsoofsignificantadditionalrisks

foragricultureandfoodsystems.Increasedclimatevariabilityandextremeweathereventswillaffectstabilityandpricevolatility.Climaticeventsthatleadtoproductionlossesandinfrastructuredamagecanresultinsignificantincreasesinthepriceoffood,whichwillaffectmillionsofpoorpeople.AgriculturalRiskManagement(ARM)canplayanimportantroleinbuildingresilienceofstakeholdersinthefaceofunpredictabilityandinthetransitiontoclimate-smartagriculturesystems.InitiativessuchasthePlatformforAgriculturalRiskManagement(PARM),8anoutcomeofG20discussionsonfoodsecurityandagriculturalgrowth,arevitalinthisregard.PARMstrengthensARMstrategiesinselecteddevelopingcountriesinaholisticmannerandonademand-drivenbasis,andsupportscountriesinincorporatingsuchstrategiesintopublicpolicies,privatesectorpractices,andagriculturalinvestmentprogrammes.

8TheIFAD-hostedPlatformforAgriculturalRiskManagement’sofficialwebsiteis:http://p4arm.org/

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Box2.UnderstandingthemagnitudeandcausesofFoodLossandWaste(FLW)

Eachyear,anestimatedone-thirdofallfoodproducedforhumanconsumptionislostorwastedworld-wide.Foodlossandwaste(FLW)1occurthroughoutthesupplychains:fromprimaryproductiontofinalhouseholdconsumption.Ithasdirectandsignificantimplicationsforfoodavailabilityandnutrition,naturalresources,andclimatechange.

Inmiddle-andhigh-incomecountries,foodiswastedandlostmainlyatlaterstagesinthesupplychain,withmorethan40percentofthiswasteoccurringatretailandconsumerlevels.Foodwasteisrecognisedasadistinctpartoffoodlossbecausethedriversthatgenerateit,andthereforetheapproachestotacklingit,arequitedifferent.Solutionsshouldfocusonraisingawarenessamongindustries,retailersandconsumersaswellasfindingbeneficialuseforfoodthatispresentlynotconsumed.

Inlow-incomecountries,FLWoccursmainlyattheearlyandmiddlestagesofthefoodsupplychainwithlowerlevelsofwasteatconsumerlevel.FLWcanbetracedbacktofinancial,managerialandtechnicalconstraintsinharvestingtechniquesaswellasstorageandcoolingfacilities,withanestimated40percentoflossesoccurringatpost-harvestandprocessinglevels.Thesetranslateintolostincomeforsmallfarmersandhigherpricesforpoorconsumers.Strengtheningthesupplychainthroughinvestmentsininfrastructure,transportationandfarmers’capacities,aswellasinanexpansionofthefoodandpackagingindustrycouldhelptoreducelosses.Inaddition,pestsanddiseases,lackofrainfall,andlackofappropriateharvestingtechniquesarealsoimportantcausesofpost-harvestlossesatthefarmlevel(Delgadoetal.,2018).Promotingimprovedandclimate-smartfarmingpracticestechniquesthereforewillalsobeimportanttoreducingfoodloss.

Asabasisforpublicaction,aclearerunderstandingofthemagnitudeandcausesoffoodlossandwasteacrossallstagesoffoodsupplychainsisnecessary.ReducingFLWwillrequireimprovementsinhandling,processing,transportation,andconsumerhabits.Inresponsetothischallengein2015,theG20members,whoprovideimpetusonglobalactionstoreducefoodlossandwaste,requestedtheestablishmentofaplatformtoimproveFLWmeasurementandtofacilitateknowledgesharingonthistopic,withaspecialfocusonpost-harvestlossreductionsinlow-incomecountries.TheTechnicalPlatformontheMeasurementandReductionofFoodLossandWaste(TPFLW)2wasestablishedtoimprovecoherenceandconsistencyinthemeasurementofFWL,raiseawareness,andpromoteapproachesforFLWreductionbysharingsuccessfulexperiencesandbestpractices,inthecontextofsustainablefoodsystems.ThePlatformissupportedbytheMeetingofAgriculturalChiefScientistsoftheG20(MACS-G20)FoodLossandWasteInitiative3,whichaimstoshareinformationandexperiencesrelatingtoagriculturalscienceandtechnology,inmeasuringandreducingfoodlossandwaste.

1Foodlossisdefinedas“thedecreaseinquantityorqualityoffood”andreferstoallfoodproducedforhumanconsumptionbutnoteatenbyhumans.Foodwasteispartoffoodlossandreferstodiscardingoralternative(non-food)useoffoodthatissafeandnutritiousforhumanconsumptionalongtheentirefoodsupplychain,fromprimaryproductiontoendhouseholdconsumerlevel.2http://www.fao.org/platform-food-loss-waste/en/3https://www.global-flw-research.org//

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Box3.Smallholderagricultureremainscentraltopovertyreduction

Manyofthechallengesfacedbyagriculture,especiallyindevelopingcountries,canbemetbysuccessfulstructuraltransformation,includingruraltransformation.Labourproductivityincreasesinagriculturepromotefoodsecurity,leadtohigherwages,especiallyfortheunskilledintheruralareas,andcontributetowardstheeradicationofextremepoverty.Asstructuralandruraltransformationproceed,agriculturecontributestoeconomicgrowthinothersectorsandthewidereconomy,andentrepreneurialandjobopportunitiesarecreatedallalongagriculturalsupplychains.Farmersbecomemorecompetitive.Morenutritiousfoodresultsinhighernon-farmproductivity,andasruralhouseholdsinvestinhumancapital,theyfurtherraisetheirownproductivityanddiversifytheirincomesourceswithsomefamilymembersleavingthefarmforothereconomicopportunities.Increasingagriculturalproductivityofsmall-scalefoodproducersisaspecificgoal(SDG2.3)ofthe2030Agenda.

Theevolutionofthesmallholderfarmisintrinsicallylinkedtostructuraltransformationandtoeconomicgrowth.Therearemorethan570millionfarmsintheworld.Morethan90percentoffarmsarerunbyanindividualorafamilyandrelyprimarilyonfamilylabour.Familyfarmsarebyfarthemostprevalentformofagricultureintheworld.Estimatessuggestthattheyoccupyaround70–80percentoffarmlandandproducemorethan80percentoftheworld’sfoodinvalueterms.

Worldwide,farmsoflessthan1hectareaccountfor72percentofallfarmsbutcontrolonly8percentofallagriculturalland.Slightlylargerfarmsbetween1and2hectaresaccountfor12percentofallfarmsandcontrol4percentoftheland,whilefarmsintherangeof2to5hectaresaccountfor10percentofallfarmsandcontrol7percentoftheland.Incontrast,only1percentofallfarmsintheworldarelargerthan50hectares.InsomedevelopingcountriesinAsiaandAfrica,furtherfragmentationofsmallfarmholdingsistakingplace,raisingquestionsabouttheirviability.

Smallfarmsarekeyinpromotingfoodsecurityandpovertyreduction,buttheyhaveanimportantroletoplaywithinthebroadercontextofdevelopment:smallfamilyfarmershavemorefavourableexpenditurepatternstopromoteruraldevelopmentthantheirlargercounterparts.Transformationwillalsoaffectboththeevolutionofthesmallholderfamilyandthefarmsize.Withwell-functioningfactormarkets,productivitygrowthallowswagestorise,andruralhouseholdmembersdiversifytheirincomesourcesbyobtainingbetter-paidoff-farmwork.Aspeopleleaveagricultureforothereconomicopportunities,theshareofagricultureinGDPandemploymentdeclines,togetherwithpoverty.

Today,smallholdergainsfromglobalizationappeartobelimited.Providinganenablingenvironmentisrequiredtoincreasetheirsustainableproductionandintegratetomarketsthroughimprovementsininfrastructure,technologyadoptionandefficientinputuse.Abetterinvestmentclimatewillcontributetowardssustainableproductivitygrowthandfacilitatetransformationandruraldevelopment.

Thedevelopmentofsmall-scaleagriculturehasbeenafocusoftheG20since2011,whenAgricultureMinisterscommittedtoimplementingabroadscopeofactionstoboostagriculturalgrowth,givingspecialattentiontosmallholders,womenandyoungfarmers,inparticularindevelopingcountries.G20membersencouragethepromotionofnationalenablingenvironmentsforinvestment,includinginfrastructureandpoliciesconducivetowell-functioningmarkets,theintegrationofsmallholdersandwomenintothosemarkets,inclusivefinancinginstitutions,securetenureofland,socialprotection,themanagementofriskandmeasurestolimittheadverseimpactsofexcessivepricevolatility.

Sources:InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment.2016.RuralDevelopmentReport2016:fosteringinclusiveruraltransformation.Rome.WorldBankandIFAD.2017.RuralYouthEmployment:ASynthesisStudy.ReporttotheG20DevelopmentWorkingGroup.FAO.2014.TheStateofFoodandAgriculture:InnovationinFamilyFarming.Rome.

Source:FAO(2016).TheStateofFoodandAgriculture(Cambria8)

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2.4. Sustainableagriculturalproductivitygrowth Addressingglobalfoodsecurityobjectivesisamultidimensionalglobalchallenge.Thecore

contributionofagriculturecanbeencapsulatedinthegoalofachievingsustainableproductivitygrowth,protectingthenaturalresourcebaseandenablingfuturegrowth.FindingtheappropriatepolicytoolstoenhancethecapacityofthefoodandagriculturesectortogrowsustainablyisachallengeforallgovernmentsandatargetfortheinternationalcommunityasestablishedinSDG2.4ofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment.Respondingtothischallengehasthepotentialofdeliveringtherequiredincreasesinproduction,withimprovementsinfarmingreturnsandruralincomes,whileassuringthesustainabilityofthenaturalresources.

Averageannualgrowthinglobalagriculturalproductionhassloweddownfrom2.9percentinthe1960sto2.1percentinthe1980sand2.5percentinthe2000s.Inthe1960sand1970smostofthisgrowthcamefromintensificationofinputuseperhectare,suchaslabour,capitalandotherinputs(Figure5).Despitetheslowdownintherateofgrowthintheuseoftheseinputfactorsinthelasttwodecades,outputhascontinuedtogrowthankstogainsinTotalFactorProductivity(TFP).9Sincethe1990s,mostoftheglobalagriculturalproductiongrowthisduetoincreasesinTFP.Thismeansusingbetterfarmingpracticestocombinethedifferentfactorsofproduction(improvingtechnicalefficiency),andinnovatingwithnewtechnologiesthatexpandtheproductionfrontier.AsignificantpartoftheTFPgrowthisduetotheadoptionoflaboursavingpractices.

Intheperiod2001-14,agriculturalproductionhadgrownfasterinlow-andmiddle-incomecountriesthaninhighincomecountries.Inlow-incomecountries,however,agriculturalgrowthhasbeenprimarilydrivenbyincreasedinputandlanduseratherthanbyproductivitygains.Despitethesesignificantdifferencesamongcountries,eveninthelow-incomegroup,TFPgrowthoutstrippedtheuseofvariableinputsperhectareasasourceofagriculturalgrowth.Inthefuture,mostoftheincreasesinglobalagriculturalproductionareexpectedtoresultfromapplyingfurtherexistingornewtechnologiesandpractices.

Figure5.SourcesofGrowthonGlobalAgriculturaloutput

Source:USDA,EconomicResearchService,InternationalAgriculturalProductivitydataproduct,asofOctober2017

9TotalFactorProductivity(TFP)istheportionofoutputnotexplainedbytheamountofinputsusedinproduction.Assuch,itslevelisdeterminedbyhowefficientlyandintenselytheinputsareutilizedinproduction.

0

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1961-70 1971-80 1981-90 1991-00 2001-14

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AsTFPdrivestheincreaseinproduction,itsgrowthalsotranslatesintoincreasingtheefficiencyandcompetitivenessoftheagriculturalsector.Consequently,increasingreturnstothefactorsofproduction,includinglandandlabour,bringaboutincreasesinfarmandruralhouseholds’incomes.Inordertorealisethesepotentialgains,innovationinthewidesenseisrequired,combiningadaptedtechnologieswithimprovedfarmmanagementpractices.Thereisevidenceofhighratesofreturntoresearchanddevelopmentaccompaniedwithextension,albeitwithlongtimelags.10Moreover,therealizationofincreasedopportunitieswithinagricultureandinothersectorsgoeshand-in-handwiththeagriculturaltransformation.

Sustainableproductivitygrowthisalsokeytoruralgrowthanddevelopment,asittendstotranslateinincomeincreasesforfarmers.Assuchitcanopenopportunitiesfortheruralareaswheremostofthepoorarelocated,drivingagricultural(structural)transformation.Itisimportantthattheseimprovementsinproductivityreachpoorfarmersinlowincomecountries.

Alongthepathofagriculturaltransformation,farmersbecomemorecompetitive,households

diversifytheirincomesources(forexamplebyafamilymemberobtainingoff-farmwork)andpeople–oftensonsanddaughters–leavethefarmforothereconomicopportunities.Intheaggregate,sustainableTFPgrowthfacilitatesthereleaseoflabourfromtheagriculturalsector,butalsochangesthenatureoftheworkandupgradestheskillsrequiredforthoseemployedinthesector,makingthesectormoreattractiveforyoungerpeople.Thechallengeistogeneratebalanceddevelopmentsothatlabouris“pulled”outofagricultureviarisingopportunities,ratherthansimply“pushed”outbyimprovementsinlabourproductivity.

Increasingagriculturalproductionsustainably

TFPgrowthissustainableifitiscompatiblewiththepreservationofnaturalcapital,conservingandenhancingnaturalresourcesrequiredforagriculture,suchaswaterandsoil.Likephysicalcapital,naturalcapitalneedsinvestmentandmaintenancetoretainitsproductivityinthelongrun.Tobesustainable,productivitygrowthwillalsoneedtoaccountfortheprojectedimpactsofclimatechange,theassociatedadaptationresponses,andthepotentialroleofagricultureintheglobalgreenhousegasmitigationeffort.Thereisevidencethatitispossibletodissociate(or“decouple”)thegrowthinTFPfromtheuseofadditionalnaturalresources.Forinstance,wateruseandpesticideshavebeendecoupledfromincreasedoutputinAustralia,theUnitedStatesandKorea(Table1).

10Bioversity, CGIAR Consortium, FAO, IFAD, IFPRI, IICA, OECD, UNCTAD, Coordination team of UN High Level Task Force on the Food Security Crisis, WFP, World Bank, and WTO. 2012. Sustainable agricultural productivity growth: Bridging the gap for small-family farms. Interagency. Report to the G20 Agriculture Deputies.

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Table1.Decouplingagricultureproductivityfromresourceandenvironmentalpressure:observedtrendsamongselectedcountries,betweenthe1990sandthe

periodsince2000 Resource use Environmental impacts

Absolute decoupling Water use: Australia, Netherlands, Estonia, Korea Land use: Netherlands, Korea

N and P balance: Estonia, Korea, Sweden, USA, Turkey Ammonia: Netherlands, Sweden, USA GHG emissions: Netherlands, Turkey Pesticide use: Netherlands, USA, Korea

Relative decoupling Water use: China, Turkey, USA Energy use: USA, Estonia

GHG emissions: USA, Estonia

Deterioration Energy use: Turkey Pesticide use: Turkey; GHG emissions: Korea

Note:AbsolutedecouplingreferstoasituationinwhichresourceuseandenvironmentalimpactsdeclineinabsolutetermswhileTFPincreases.Relativedecouplingreferstoadeclineintheecologicalintensityperunitofeconomicoutput.DeteriorationreferstoasituationofincreasesinresourceuseorenvironmentalimpactbeyondtheincreaseinTFP.Timeperiodscorrespondthemostrecentdecadeforwhichthereisinformationavailable,whichisnotidenticalforeachcountry;morerecentdatesonagri-environmentalindicatorsmightalterthisassessment.Thistableissubjecttheexistinglimitationsintheinformationandmethodstoevaluatethejointproductivityandsustainabilityperformance.

Source:AdaptedfromOECDcountryreviews.http://www.oecd.org/tad/agricultural-policies/innovation-food-agriculture.htmbasedonTFPdataandOECDAgri-environmentalindicators

InnovationandR&Dinfoodandagriculture

Productivityandsustainabilityoutcomesdependalsoinotherimportantdrivers:innovationandstructuralchange.Productivitycanbeimprovedthrougheconomiesofscaleandtheadoptionofmoreefficientexistenttechnologiesandpractices.Butthelongtermsustainableproductivitygrowthdependsonacontinuousprocessoftechnicalprogressandsocialandbusinessinnovations.Innovationshouldincreasinglymovefromalinear(lab-to-field)approachtoademanddrivennetworkconnectingfarmers,industry,consumersandresearch,whichrequiresgoodgovernance,interactionsandcollaborationamongnationalactorsandacrosscountries,andmechanismstofacilitateadoption.

Evidencegatheredincountryreviewsconfirmsthatinnovationisamajordriverofbothproductivitygrowthandsustainabilityinmanycases.Examplesaretheadoptionofinput-savingtechnologyandproductionpractices,suchaslow-tillage,modernbuildingsallowingenergysavings,machineryforprecisionagriculture,geneticimprovement,bettermanagementofrisks,andchangesinmarketingpractices.InformationandCommunicationTechnologies(ICT)contributetoreducinginputuse(labour,energy,fertiliserandpesticidesthroughprecisionagriculture)andthusimprovingproductivityandsustainabilityperformances.ICTsalsofacilitatesharingofinformation,participationandtraceabilityalongtheglobalvaluechainsandincreasinglyconnectsmallfarmerstomarkets,reducingtransactioncosts,andpotentiallyraisingfoodsystemefficiencies,sustainabilityandinclusion.11 Moregenerally,newtechnologyisalreadyshapinghowagriculturalvaluechainsare

organized,offeringpotentialtoaccelerateinnovationandnewopportunitiesforincomegains,entrepreneurship,andhigherskilledjobsinthefoodsystem.EmergingtechnologiesdrivenbytheFourthIndustrialRevolution,includingBigDataandArtificialIntelligence,newphysicalsystemssuchasautomation,robotics,andadditivemanufacturing,andadvancesinscience,suchasnew

11FAO with inputs from IFPRI and OECD. 2017. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Agriculture. Report to the G20 Agriculture Deputies.

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energytechnologiesandnextgenerationbiotechnologiesandgenomics,offersignificantopportunitiesforthefoodsystem.12Solarpowerisprovidingnewjobopportunitiesforagro-processinginoff-gridareas.RemotesensingtechnologiesarebeingusedtooffermechanizedandextensionservicesinsomeAfricancountries.Digitalfinanceisincreasingfinancialinclusioninmanyregions,thusfacilitatingmicro-entrepreneurship.E-commerceplatformsarelinkingsmallentrepreneursinruralareaswithnationalandglobalmarkets.

ThebudgetexpenditureonagriculturalR&Disanindicatoroftheinnovationeffortbythe

governments.Intheperiod2000-15R&Dexpenditurehasbeenreducedinsomemajorexportingcountriesasapercentageoftheagriculturalvalueadded(Figure6).Althoughresearchintensityhasincreasedinseveraldevelopedcountriesandemergingeconomies,agriculturalresearchinvestmentlevelsinmostlow-andmiddle-incomecountriesfallwellbelow1percentofagriculturalgrossdomesticproduct.Agriculturalresearchinvestmentreturnscantakedecadesfromtheinceptionofresearchtotheadoptionofanewtechnologyoranewvariety,requiringsustainedandstableresearchfunding.13

Figure6.ShareofbudgetexpendituresonagricultureR&Dasapercentageofagriculturalvalue-added,2000and2015

Note:NoinformationavailableforTurkeyandMexicoin2000.

Source:OECDstatistics[ResearchandDevelopment,OECDNationalAccounts],http://stats.oecd.org/;and,ASTI.2017.

12WorldEconomicForum.2018.InnovationwithaPurpose:TheRoleofTechnologyInnovationinAcceleratingFoodSystemTransformation.PreparedincollaborationwithMcKinsey&Company.NewYork.13ASTI.2017.FoodPolicyIndicators:TrackingChange:AgriculturalScienceAndTechnologyIndicators;Alston,J.2010.TheBenefitsfromAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment,Innovation,andProductivityGrowth.OECDFood,AgricultureandFisheriesPapers,No.31,OECDPublishing,Paris.

0

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Turkey India Mexico China Colombia Netherlands Argentina United States Australia Brazil Canada

%

2015 2000

14

Despitethediversityofsituationsbetweenthem,countriesfacecommonopportunitiesandchallengesforimprovingagriculturalproductivitysustainably.GovernmentsremainmajorfundersofagricultureR&Dbutfacebudgetconstraintsandneedtobeselectiveintheirinvestments,redirectingtheresourcesforagriculturalinterventionstowardsmeasuresthatarewelltargetedtostrengthentheproductivityandsustainabilityofthesector.Thepublicsectorplaysamajorroleintheprovisionofknowledgeinfrastructureandthefinancingofbasicresearchorresearchonlong-termandpublicgoodaspectsnottakenbytheprivatesectorsuchasnaturalresourcemanagement.14Governmentsshouldalsoencourageinnovationactivitiesintheprivatesector,fosteringknowledgemarketsthroughIntellectualPropertyRightsprotection,andexploitingsynergiesandcomplementaritieswithformalpublic-privatepartnerships(PPPs)whenappropriate.15AgriculturalInnovationSystems(AIS)needstrategicfocusandbeinsertedinregionalorinternationalinitiatives.

InvestmentandenhancinginternationalexchangeonR&Dandinnovation

InvestmentinagricultureisessentialtomaterializethepotentialproductivityandsustainabilitygainsderivedfromR&Dandinnovation.InternationalinitiativeslikethePrinciplesforResponsibleInvestmentinAgricultureandFoodSystems(CFS-RAI),thePolicyFrameworkforInvestmentinAgriculturePFIA16andtheGuidanceforResponsibleAgriculturalSupplyChains17definehowresponsibleinvestmentinagricultureandfoodsystemscancontributetofoodsecurityandnutrition,andhowtocreateanattractiveinvestmentenvironmentforallinvestors,privateorpublic,domesticorforeign,smallorlarge.

Improvingcrosscountrysupplyofinnovationsandcrossbordertechnologytransferiscrucialtoincreaseproductivitygrowthandaddresstransboundaryissuessuchascontagiousdiseases,climatechangemitigationandadaptation,andthesustainabilityofwaterresources.TheinternationalR&Darchitectureandgoodcoordinationbetweennational,internationalandregionalresearchnetworksisimportant,inparticularforlow-incomecountries.Increasesintheeffectivenessandspill-oversofR&Dandtechnologyadoptioncanbeenhancedbyinternationalorganizations,suchastheCGIARanditson-the-groundresearchcentres.OtherglobalinitiativesonR&DcooperationincludetheGlobalForumforAgriculturalResearch,theGlobalSoilPartnershipandtheGlobalResearchAllianceonAgriculturalGreenhouseGases.

TheG20havelaunchedseveralinitiativesalignedwithitscomparativeadvantageonthelong

termstrategicapproachestoprovidepublicgoodsandpolicydialogue.In2012theG20PresidencyofMexicoestablishedtheMeetingsofAgriculturalChiefScientistsofG20(MACS).18MACSpurposeistoaddresscentralscienceandresearchquestionsinthefieldsofagricultureandnutritionthataretoogreattobesolvedwithonlynationalefforts,tobettercoordinateagriculturalresearchsystems,andtoseekandapplycommonsolutionstrategies.MACShasbeenactiveinsharingresearchprioritiesandprioritizationmodelsinspecificresearchareassuchasfoodlossesandwaste.

14OECD.2015.Analysingpoliciestoimproveagriculturalproductivitygrowth,sustainably:DraftFramework,May.15Moreddu,C.2016.Public-PrivatePartnershipsforAgriculturalInnovation:LessonsFromRecentExperiences.OECDFood,AgricultureandFisheriesPapers,No.92,OECDPublishing,Paris.16OECD. 2014. Policy Framework for Investment in Agriculture, OECD Publishing, Paris.17OECDandFAO.2016.OECD-FAOGuidanceforResponsibleAgriculturalSupplyChains.18MACS-G20website:www.macs-g20.org.

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In2012,theG20alsoproposedtodeveloptheFrameworkforImprovingSustainableProductivityGrowth,ananalyticaltoolforimprovingagriculturalproductivityandsustainabilitytoanalyzepolicyexperiencesinachievingsustainableproductivitygrowth.TheframeworkhasbeendevelopedandappliedtoaselectionofG20andOECDcountries(Australia,Brazil,Canada,Netherlands,Turkey,UnitedStates,China,Estonia,KoreaandSweden).19

SeveralG20initiativesaredirectlyfocusedonimprovinginnovationandcontributingtoglobalfoodsecurity:theGrouponEarthObservationsGlobalAgriculturalMonitoringInitiative(GEOGLAM);20theInternationalResearchInitiativeforWheatImprovement(IRIWI);21and,theTropicalAgriculturalPlatform(TAP)22thataimsatbuildingAIScapacityindevelopingcountries.MorerecentG20proposalsfocusedoninnovationandsustainability,includingtheassessmentandexchangeofexperienceofICTtechnologiesforagricultureproposedunderthePresidencyofChinain2016,andtheAgriculturalMinistersActionPlanonwaterundertheGermanpresidencyin2017.

Despiteon-goingeffortstoimprovethemeasurementofsustainableproductivityanditsdrivers,suchasstructuralchangeandinnovation,onacomparablebasisacrosscountries(e.g.agri-environmentalindicators,agriculturaltotalfactorproductivity,farm-levelproductivityandactivitiesofdifferentpolicyinitiatives23),informationonthejointperformanceofproductivityandsustainabilityisoftenlimitedanddifficulttocompare.MACShasreflectedthisconcernbothintheirCommuniquésof2015and2016,andinawhitepaperonthe“MetricsofSustainableAgriculturalProductivity”.Monitoringdevelopmentsonsustainableproductivitygrowthacrosscountriesrequiresfurtherinvestmentonmethodsandanalyticalframeworksthatwouldallowinternationalbenchmarkingofproductivityandsustainabilityperformanceofagriculture.

2.5. Tradeandtransparencyinfoodmarkets Tradehasanimportantroletoplayinraisingagriculturalproductionandfarmers’incomes.It

enablesproductiontobelocatedinareasthatcanuseresourcesmoreefficientlyandallowsfoodtomovefromsurplustodeficitareas,thuscontributingtofoodsecurityandnutrition.Growthinglobaltradehasunderpinnedtheimprovedavailabilityoffood.Agriculturalandtotalmerchandisetradehavebothexperiencedseveraldecadesofhighgrowthrates,inparticularduringthefirstyearsofthe21stcentury,during2000-06.Theglobaltradeslowdownof2008-09impliedasignificantreductioninglobaltradeaffectingallproducts(Figure7).Neverthelessagriculturewaslessnegativelyaffectedthanothersectorsandin2016worldagriculturalexportswere70percenthigherthanin2006.Themostrecentindicatorsfor2017suggestastrongannualrateof2.4percentofglobaltradegrowthcomparedto1.3percentin2016.24

19OECD.2013.AgriculturalInnovationSystems:AFrameworkforAnalysingtheRoleoftheGovernment.OECDPublishing,OECD.2015.Analysingpoliciestoimproveagriculturalproductivitygrowth,sustainably:DraftFramework,May.20https://cropmonitor.org21http://www.wheatinitiative.org22http://www.fao.org/in-action/tropical-agriculture-platform/en/23TheOECDNetworksonAgricultureTotalFactorProductivityandtheEnvironmenthttp://www.oecd.org/tad/events/oecdnetworkonagriculturaltotalfactorproductivityandtheenvironment.htm;and,theFarmLevelAnalysisNetwork(https://www.oecd.org/agriculture/farm-level-analysis-network/).AnimportantpartoftheformerfocussesondevelopingmethodologicalguidelinesthatcountriescanusetoconstructproductivityaccountsforthemeasurementofTFPandenvironmentallyadjustedTFPtrends.24WTO.2017.WorldTradeStatisticsReview2017.Geneva.

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Figure7.Worldmerchandisetradebymajorproductgrouping,2006-2016

(Index2006=100)

Note:WorldtradeiscalculatedasanaverageofexportsandimportsofmerchandisetradeSource:WTO(2017).Worldtradeasanaverageofexportsandimportsofmerchandisetrade.

Therelativeshareofagriculturaltradeindomesticconsumptionremainssmall,intherangeof

0-20percentformanycountries.Theexportsharesofproductionhavenotdramaticallychangedinthelastdecadesformostagriculturalcommodities.Onlysomecountries,suchasArgentina,AustraliaandtheUnitedStateshavenetexportsthatreach50percentoftheirdomesticsupply.25Ontheimportside,onlyafewcountriesfromtheNearEastandNorthAfricahavenetimportsthatreach50percentoftheirdomesticfoodsupply.However,responsiveworldmarketsandaccesstotraderemaindecisivetoensurethatfoodisavailableinatimelymanner.

Inthecontextofclimatechangeandtheresultingnegativeeffectonagriculturalproductivityinlowlatituderegions,internationaltradecouldbeapotentiallypowerfuladaptationinstrumenttoevenoutsupplyfluctuationsacrosstheglobeandtoreducemarketinstability.Tofulfilthisbeneficialpoolingfunctiontothemaximumdegree,tradehastobeabletoflowsmoothlybetweennations.Furthermore,fromariskmanagementperspective,thereisevidencethattraderestrictivepolicieshavesignificantnegativeimpactsonfoodsecurityinscenariosofdomesticshocks,suchasacropfailureoranaturaldisaster.26Openandpredictabletradepolicieshavethepotentialtoreducethenegativeimpactsonfoodsecurityacrossdiversescenariosandrepresentagoodriskmanagementstrategytoensurethestabilityofmarkets.

Globaltrendsinmarketdemandhavereducedpressuresonprices

Agriculturalworldpriceformationdependsontherelativeforcesofdemandandsupplyinworldmarkets,thatisontheimportsandexportsfromallcountries.In2016,recordproductionandabundantstocksofmostcommodities,keptpricesofthemainagriculturalcommoditieswellbelowthepeaksexperiencedinthelastdecade,inparticularin2008-12.Averagepricesofcereals,meatsanddairyproductscontinuedtodecline,whilepricesofoilseeds,vegetableoils,andsugarsawaslightreboundin2016.

25FAO.2017.TheFutureofFoodandAgriculture:TrendsandChallenges.Rome.26OECD.2015.ManagingFoodInsecurityRisk:AnalyticalFrameworkandApplicationtoIndonesia.

75

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2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Agricultural products Manufactures Fuels and mining products

17

Inthemediumterm,between2017and2026,demandgrowthisprojectedtoslowconsiderably,andglobalagriculturalmarketprices(inrealterms)areprojectedtofollowaslightlydecliningtrend.27RisingmeatdemandfromChina,additionalfeedstockinputsforbiofuelsandthereplenishmentofcerealstocks,thathavebeentheprimarysourcesofdemandgrowthinthelastdecade,arenotanticipatedtosupportmarketsinthesamewayoverthemediumterm.Therefore,growthinfooddemandforvirtuallyallcommoditiesisanticipatedtobeslowerthaninthepreviousdecadeand,globally,percapitafooddemandforcerealsislikelytobelargelyflat,withgrowthonlyexpectedinleastdevelopedcountries.

Currently,bothhistoricalandimpliedvolatilityintheworldmarketsofthemaincommoditieshavedeclinedfromtheirpeaksof2008,andwereattheendof2016atthelowerendoftheirhistoricalranges.28Nevertheless,climatechangeandthepotentialincreaseinthefrequencyandintensityofweathereventsmaydisruptmarketsandresultinsignificantpricevolatilityandconsiderablevariationaroundtheprices’projectedlevels.

Figure8.Worldmarketpricesofmaize,1908-2016(realterms)

Source:OECD-FAO.2017.AgriculturalOutlook2017-26.

Pricevolatilitymattersbecauseitcanbeharmfulforpoorconsumersandforfarmers.Suddenhigherpricescanbedisastrousforthepoor,especiallyindevelopingcountrieswhereahighshareoftheirtotalincomeisspentonfood.Lowandvolatilepricesposesignificantproblemstofarmersandotheragentsinthevaluechains,addingriskanduncertaintytotheirreturns,andcreatingdisincentivesforinvestment.Increasingmarkettransparencyandapplyingsensible,moreopenandpredictabletradepoliciesarekeyelementsofanypolicystrategytoreducepricevolatility.29

TheAgriculturalMarketInformationSystem(AMIS)wascreatedin2011toenhancefoodmarkettransparencyandencourageinternationalpolicycoordinationintimesofcrisis.CountriesparticipatinginAMISencompassthemainproducingandconsumingcountriesofmajorfoodcropscoveredbytheinitiative:wheat,maize,riceandsoybeans.TheAMISSecretariat(composedof11internationalorganizations),theGlobalFoodMarketInformationGroupandtheRapidResponse

27OECD-FAO.2017.AgriculturalOutlook2017-26.28AgriculturalMarketsInformationSystem(AMIS)MarketMonitorNo57.November2017.29FAO,IFAD,IMF,UNCTAD,WFP,theWorldBank,theWTO,IFPRIandtheUNHLTF.2011.PricevolatilityinFoodandAgriculturalMarkets:PolicyResponses.InteragencyPolicyReportfortheG20AgricultureDeputies.

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Forumhavebeenmeetingregularly,producingandpubliclydisseminatingmarketandpolicyinformationtoallagents.

Globalfoodtradecanbevulnerabletophysicalpointsalongtraderoutesthathandlehighvolumesofimportantcommodities.Thesearemaritimechokepoints(straitsandcanals),coastalchokepoints(ports)andinlandchokepoints(roads,railwaysandwaterways).30Asclimatechangetakeshold,theriskofdisruptiontofoodtradechokepointsmayincrease.Currentassessmentsfocusonconditionsandpoliciesthatinfluenceexposuretosupplyorpriceshocks,butdataonpatternsoftransportationoffoodandanalysisofthesystemicimportanceoftradechokepointstofoodmarketsarelacking.Againstthisbackground,theSecretariatoftheAgriculturalMarketInformationSystem(AMIS)iscurrentlyconsideringtoexpanditsactivitiestoincludetheassessmentofchokepointdisruptionrisk,andtomonitorchokepointperformancebycollatingdataonthroughput,congestionandclimateresilience.31

30Bailey,R.,andL.Wellesley.2017.ChokepointsandVulnerabilitiesinGlobalFoodTrade.ChathamHouseReport,RoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs.31ChathamHouse.2018.AnanalysisandproposalofhowthemonitoringoffoodtradechokepointscanbeincorporatedintotheworkprogrammeoftheAgriculturalMarketInformationSystem(AMIS),preparedforthe7thsessionoftheAMISRapidResponseForum,Rosario:Argentina,15March2018.

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Soils:ahiddenpotentialifwellmanaged

Increasingpopulationandeconomicgrowthareestimatedtoresultina50percentincreaseinthedemandforfoodby2050.Thereislittlescopetoexpandtheagriculturalarea,exceptinsomepartsofAfricaandSouthAmerica.Muchoftheadditionalavailablelandisnotsuitableforagriculture,andtheecological,socialandeconomiccostsofbringingitintoproductionwillbeveryhigh.32Inaddition,approximately33percentoftheworld’ssoilresourcesaremoderatelytohighlydegraded.33

Soilsarethefoundationoffoodproductionandmanyessentialecosystemservices.Indeed,the

2030AgendaandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsidentifytheneedtorestoredegradedsoilsandimprovesoilhealth.Unlockingthefullpotentialofsoilswillnotonlysupportfoodsecurityandnutrition,butwillalsocontributetowardsstoringandsupplyingmorecleanwater,maintainingbiodiversity,sequesteringcarbon,andincreasingresilienceinachangingclimate.

Thecurrentsituationisexpectedtoworsenunlessintensiveactionsaretakentomitigatesoil

threats.Withtheurgentneedtoeliminatehungerandensurefoodsecurityandnutrition,itiscrucialnotonlytounderstand,butalsoactivelyworktowardsmanagementpracticesthatrespecttheimportanceoftheroleofsoilsinfoodproductionandaretailoredtotheirdiversechemical,physicalandbiologicalproperties.Sustainablesoilmanagement(SSM)34embodiessuchanapproachandhasthepotentialtoaidclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.

3.1. Statusofglobalsoils Anumberofglobalsoilthreatshavebeenidentifiedwithsoilerosion,soilorganiccarbon

(SOC)change,andnutrientimbalancehavingthelargestimpactatthegloballevel.35Otherthreats,thattendtobemorecountryorregionspecific,includesoilsalinisationandsodification,soilsealingandlandtake,lossofbiodiversity,soilcontamination,acidification,compaction,andwaterlogging.Unsustainablepractices,includingforlanduse/coverchange(LUCC),areamongthemaindriversbehindthesethreats.

Soilerosion

Soilerosionortheacceleratedlossoftopsoilfromthelandsurfacethroughdifferentmechanisms,suchasairandwater,hasdirectandnegativeimpactsonglobalagriculture.Inthelong-term,thelossoftopsoilcanresultinthereductionofthesoil’scapacitytoproviderootingspaceandtostoreandcyclewater.Erosion,specificallywatererosion,leadstolossesofnutrients,whichthenneedtobereplacedthroughfertilization,oftenatasignificantcost.Insomecases,when

32AvailablelandisassessedthroughtheGlobalAgro-EcologicalZones(GAEZv3.0)analysis.TheGAEZ,combiningsoil,terrainandclimatecharacteristicswithcropproductionrequirements,estimatesthesuitabilityforcropproduction.SeealsoAlexandratos,N.andJ.Bruinsma.2012.Worldagriculturetowards2030/2050:the2012revision.ESAWorkingpaperNo.12-03.Rome,FAO.33FAO-ITPS.2015.StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources.Rome.34AccordingtothedefinitionofSustainableSoilManagement(SSM)bytheIntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils(ITPS),soilmanagementissustainableifthesupporting,provisioning,regulating,andculturalservicesprovidedbysoilsaremaintainedorenhancedwithoutsignificantlyimpairingeitherthesoilfunctionsthatenablethoseservicesorbiodiversity.Thebalancebetweenthesupportingandprovisioningservicesforplantproductionandtheregulatingservicesthesoilprovidesforwaterqualityandavailabilityandforatmosphericgreenhousegascompositionisaparticularconcern.Supportingservicesincludeprimaryproduction,nutrientcyclingandsoilformation;Provisioningservicescomprisethesupplyoffood,fibre,fuel,timberandwater;rawearthmaterial;surfacestability;habitatandgeneticresources;Regulatingservicesimplytheregulationofaspectssuchaswatersupplyandquality,carbonsequestration,climateregulation,controloffloodsanderosion;andCulturalservicesdenotetheaestheticandculturalbenefitsderivedfromsoiluse.35FAO-ITPS.2015.StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources.Rome.

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thenutrientsarenotreplaced,cropyieldscanbegreatlyaffected.Soilerosionalsohasnegativeimpactsonwaterqualityasthesedimentsandnutrientsfromerosionaredeposedinwaterbodies.

Soilerosionbywaterisproblematicinmuchofthehillyareasthatareusedascroplandsonall

continents.Thehighestratesofsoilerosionbywatermainlyoccuroncroplandintropicalareas.Rangelandsandpasturelandsinhillytropicalandsub-tropicalareasmayalsosuffersimilarerosionrates.Intemperateareas,soilerosioncanalsobesignificant,evenwheretherehavebeenconservationefforts,asintheMid-WestofUnitedStates.CroplandinEuropeischaracterizedbysomewhatlower,yetstillsignificantsoilerosionrates(Figure9).

Figure9.Spatialvariationofsoilerosionbywater.

Source:VanOost,K.,Quine,T.A.,Govers,G.,DeGryze,S.,Six,J.,Harden,J.W.,Ritchie,J.C.,McCarty,G.W.,Heckrath,G.,Kosmas,C.,Giraldez,J.V.,MarquesdaSilva,J.R.&Merckx,R.2007.Theimpactofagriculturalsoilerosionontheglobalcarboncycle.Science,318(5850):626-629;FAO-ITPS.2015.StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources.Rome.

Theeffectofsoilerosiononindividualsoilpropertiesrelatedtocropproductioniswelldocumented,buttheaggregateeffectofsoillossoncropyieldsthemselvesislessfirmlyestablished.Accordingtotheintegrativestudies36thathavebeenundertaken,therangeofestimatesofannualcroplossduetoerosionrangesfrom0.1percentto0.4percent,withtwostudiesestimatinga0.3percentyieldreduction.

Ifthemedianvalueof0.3percentannualcroplossisvalidfortheperiodfrom2015to2050,atotalreductionof10.25percentcouldbeprojectedto2050(assumingnootherchangessuchasthe

36Crosson,P.2003.Globalconsequencesoflanddegradation:Aneconomicperspective.InK.Wiebe,ed.LandQuality,AgriculturalProductivity,andFoodSecurity.pp.36-46.UK,Cheltenham,EdwardElgar;Scherr,S.J.2003.Productivity-relatedeconomicimpactsofsoildegradationindevelopingcountries:anevaluationofregionalexperience.InK.Wiebe,ed.LandQuality,AgriculturalProductivity,andFoodSecurity.pp.223-261.UK,Cheltenham,EdwardElgar;DenBiggelaar,C.,Lal,R.,Eswaran,H.,Breneman,V.E.&Reich,P.F.2003.Croplossestosoilerosionatregionalandglobalscales:evidencefromplot-levelandGISdata.InK.Wiebe,ed.LandQuality,AgriculturalProductivity,andFoodSecurity.pp.223-261.UK,Cheltenham,EdwardElgar,Bakker,M.M.,Govers,G.&Rounsevell,M.D.A.2004.Thecropproductivity-erosionrelationship:ananalysisbasedonexperimentalwork.Catena,57(1):55-76;FAO-ITPS.2015StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources.Rome.

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adoptionofadditionalconservationmeasuresbyfarmers).Suchalossof10.25percentofyieldduetoerosionwouldbeequivalenttotheremovalof150millionhectaresfromcropproductionfromatotalof1.53billionhectaresglobally(equivalentto4.5millionhectaresperyear.)37

Soilorganiccarbon(SOC)loss

Soilorganiccarbon(SOC)losstakesplacewhensoilcarbonisconvertedtogreenhousegases:carbondioxide(CO2)ormethane(CH4).Soilsconstitutethelargestterrestrialcarbonpoolandplaycrucialrolesintheglobalcarbonbalancebyregulatingdynamicbiogeochemicalprocessesandtheexchangeofgreenhousegases(GHGs)withtheatmosphere.Declinesoforganiccarbonstocknegativelyaffectthesoil’sfertilityandclimatechangeregulationcapacity.SOCstocksareespeciallysensitiveandresponsivetochangesinlanduse(LUCC),forexample,fromanaturalstatetoanagriculturalecosystemorfromforesttocropland.

Insub-SaharanAfrica,SOClossgenerallyoccursasaresultofthereplacementofnatural

vegetation,completecropbiomassremovalfromfarmlands,andbythehighrateoforganicmatterdecompositionbymicrobialcommunities,ariskthatisincreasedbyhighertemperatures.InAsia,itisduetotheusageofcropresiduesasfuelorfodderasopposedtobeingreturnedtothesoil,andtothedegradationofgrasslands.InEurope,drainageofpeatlandhasledtoorganiccarbonloss.InLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,itoccursasaresultofdeforestation,theploughingofgrasslandsandmonoculture.IntheNearEastandNorthAfricaregion,itismostlythehightemperaturewhichcausesahighturnoverofSOC,andthechangestosoilmanagementpracticeswhichresultinSOClosses.InNorthAmerica,themainconcernisthelossofSOCfromnorthernandarcticsoilsduetoclimatechange.Lastly,intheSouthwestPacific,itismostlytheconversionoflandforagriculturalusesthathascausedthelargestlosses.(Figure10)

Nutrientimbalance

Finally,thelastmajorglobalthreatrelatedtosoils,nutrientimbalance,iswhennutrientinputsoradditionsinthesoilareeitherinsufficientorinexcess.Onaglobalscale,soilnutrientbalancesfornitrogen(N)andphosphorus(P)arepositiveforallcontinentsexceptforAntarctica.38Positivenutrientbalancesarerepresentativeofinefficientnaturalresourceuseandcanleadtocropfailure,aswellaswaterandatmosphericpollution.

37FAO-ITPS.2015.StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources.Rome38Bouwman,A.F.,Beusen,A.H.W.,&Billen,G.2009.Humanalterationoftheglobalnitrogenandphosphorussoilbalancesfortheperiod1970-2050.GlobalBiogeochemicalCycles,23(4),1-16;Bouwman,L.KeesKleinGoldewijk,KlaasW.VanDerHoek,ArthurH.W.Beusen,DetlefP.VanVuuren,JaapWillems,MarianaC.Rufino,andElkeStehfest.2013.Exploringglobalchangesinnitrogenandphosphoruscyclesinagricultureinducedbylivestockproductionoverthe1900–2050period.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,110(52)20882-20887.

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Figure10:Spatialvariationofsoilorganiccarboninthefirst30cm.

Source:FAO-ITPS.2018.GlobalSoilorganicCarbonMap.Rome,Italy.Themapwaspreparedbymembercountriesunderstandardtechnicalspecifications.

Phosphorusbalanceshavebeendecliningindevelopedcountries.Historically,mostofthesecountrieshavemaintainedhighphosphorussurpluslevels,soreductionsarenotaffectingyields(Figure11).Nitrogenismoremobile,thereforereducingitsapplicationrateischallenging.Thisisreflectedinthemixedresultsacrosscountriesandlowerdecliningrates.NitrogensurplusreductionsinEuropeancountrieshavemainlybeenachievedbyreducingNfertilizeruse,whileinCanadaandtheUnitedStatesofAmericareductionscomemainlyfromcropmixandlivestockcompositionchanges.

Anegativenutrientbalance,ontheotherhand,canadverselyimpactplantgrowthandcrop

nutritionalvalue,aswellasreducetheprovisioningofecosystemservicesthatrelyonnutrientsfortheircompletion.ThemainregionsaffectedbynutrientdepletionarelocatedinAfrica,AsiaandSouthAmerica.InAfrica,allbutthreecountriesextractmorenutrientsfromthesoileachyearthanarereturnedthroughuseoffertilizer,cropresidues,manure,andotherorganicmatter.Nutrientimbalancecontributestofoodinsecurity,asinsufficientnutrientshindercropdevelopmentandyieldgrowth,andtowaterandatmosphericpollution,throughlossesofthesenutrientstotheenvironment.

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Figure11.Nitrogenandphosphorusbalanceperhectareofagriculturalland,selectedG20countries:2002-2014

Note:n.c.:notcalculated.Balance(surplusordeficit)expressedaskgnitrogenorphosphorusperhectareoftotalagriculturalland.Countriesarerankedindescendingorderaccordingtoaverageannualpercentagechange2002-04to2012-14.TheEU15totalexcludesLuxembourg.Source:OECDAgri-Environmentalindicators:Nutrientshttp://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=79764&lang=en

3.2. Impactsofsoildegradation Soildegradationandtheresultingeffectonagriculturalproductivityandecosystemservices,

haveamajorimpactonfoodsecurityandnutrition.Insub-SaharanAfrica,inparticular,itisconsideredakeydriverofstagnatinganddecliningagriculturalproductivity.Acontinuingdeclineinsoilproductivitypresentsasignificantsocio-economicriskthatcouldimpacttheeconomiesoflow-incomecountriesandthelivesofmillionsofruralhouseholdsthataredependentonagriculturefortheirlivelihoodneeds.

Aspopulationandsubsequently,fooddemandrises,agriculturalproductivitygrowthrequires

thesustainablemanagementofnaturalresourcesand,inparticular,soilsandfertileland.Availabilityofnewlandinmanycountriesislimitedtothatofmarginalquality,withresultinglowproductivity.Localmineraldeficienciesinsoilsproducedeficienciesinfoodsystems,whichclinicallyimpactpopulations.Over2billionpeoplesufferfrommicronutrientdeficienciesandsoilsareanimportantfactor:mostessentialnutrientsandminerals(e.g.zinc,iron,iodine)cannotbederivedfrombiosynthesisandmustbeobtainedbyplantsfromsoils.Inturn,theseareacquiredbyhumansthroughthefoodtheyconsume.Soildegradationleadstolargelossesofproductivityandfertileland,furthercompoundingthechallengeofsoilquality,landavailabilityandfoodsecurity.Often,therearealsonegativeimpactsonwaterquality,asthesedimentsandnutrientsfromerosionaredeposedinwaterbodies,withthisincreasedpollutioncausingdeclinesinfishandotherspecies.

Av erage annual

% change

Av erage annual

% change

2002-04 2012-142002-04 to 2012-

142002-04 2012-14

2002-04 to 2012-

14

Turkey 24 25 0.6 Turkey 6 7 1.1

Australia 18 19 0.5 Mex ico 2 2 0.2

Korea 240 249 0.4 Korea 49 47 -0.4

Mex ico 23 23 0.2 Japan 66 60 -1.0

Japan 173 176 0.2 Australia 1 1 -1.6

Italy 72 72 0.0 United States 4 3 -2.4

Canada 30 28 -0.5 United Kingdom 6 4 -4.3

United Kingdom 71 65 -0.9 Germany 3 2 -5.5

Germany 100 91 -1.0 EU15 (1) 7 3 -9.4

United States 35 31 -1.2 Canada 3 1 -13.7

EU15 85 70 -1.9 France 6 1 -14.4

France 61 48 -2.3 Italy 4 -2 n.c.

Av erage (kg nitrogen/ha)

Av erage (kg phosphorus/ha)

-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5

Nitrogen balance

2002-04 to 2012-14

% -15 -10 -5 0 5

Phosphorus balance

2002-04 to 2012-14

%

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Inadditiontotheimpactsthatsoilscanhaveonfoodsecurity,theyalsoholdanimportantroleinclimateprocessesastheyregulategreenhousegasemissions(carbondioxide[CO2],nitrousoxide[N2O],andmethane[CH4]).Beingamajorterrestrialreservoirofcarbon,theycanhaveahugeinfluenceontheconcentrationofgreenhousegasesintheatmosphereand,ifmanagedproperly,certainsoilscanactascarbonsinks.However,ifmismanaged,soilscanalsoreleasecarbondioxideintotheatmosphereasaresultof,forexample,landusechangeandpoorsoilmanagementpractices.Risingglobaltemperaturesarealsoincreasingtheamountsreleased,aswarmersoilsreleasemorecarbon.

Theeffectsofclimatechangeitself,suchashighertemperaturesandextremeweatherevents

(droughts,floods,storms),impactonsoilquantityandfertility,beingfurtherdriversofsoilchange.Theinteractionsandsensitivitiesbetweentheclimatesystemandsoilprocessesareevident.Consideringthegrowingdemandsonlandareaandtheexpectedincreaseddegradationofsoilsasaresultofclimatechange,sustainablesoilmanagementpracticeswillbekeyinfosteringcarbonsequestrationandimprovingsoilhealth(suchpracticesincludecovercrops,improvedfallowplantspeciesandreducedorno-tillagepracticestoensurethesoilhasasufficientorganiccover).

Theannualcostoflanddegradationduetolanduseandcoverchange(LUCC),includingthatoflanddegradingmanagementpracticesonstaticcropandgrazingland,isestimatedtobeaboutUS$300billion.39Thisdoesnothowever,includetheimpactonecosystemserviceswhichwouldincreasecostssignificantly.TheinvestmentsneededtocompletelyrehabilitatelanddegradationduetoLUCCinallworldregionsareestimatedatUS$4.6trillionover6years.Duringthesameperiod,ifactionisnottakentorehabilitatedegradedlands,theworldwillincuralossofUS$14trillion,allofwhichsuggeststhattheinvestmenthasaverypositivereturn.Amainquestionthenishowtomobilizetheresourcesneededtofinancethoseinvestments.

3.3. Sustainablesoilmanagementpractices Foodproductionreliesonsoilsasakeynaturalresource:nutritiousandqualityfoodand

animalfoddercanonlybeproducedifoursoilsarehealthy.Ahealthylivingsoilisthereforeacrucialallytofoodsecurityandnutrition.Numerousanddiversefarmingapproachespromotesomeoftheprinciplesofsustainablesoilmanagementwiththegoalofimprovingproductivityandprotectingsoilsandtheenvironment,forinstance:agroecology,conservationagriculture,organicfarming,minimum/zerotillagefarmingandagroforestry.

Agroecologyusesecologicaltheorytostudyandmanageagriculturalsystemsinorderto

makethembothmoreproductiveandbetteratconservingnaturalresources.Thiswholesystemsapproachtoagricultureandfoodsystemsdevelopmentisbasedonawidevarietyoftechnologies,practicesandinnovations,includinglocalandtraditionalknowledgeaswellasmodernscience.Byunderstandingandworkingwiththeinteractionsbetweenplants,animals,humansandtheenvironmentwithinagriculturalsystems,agroecologyencompassesmultipledimensionsofthefoodsystem,includingecological,economicandsocial.

39Nkonya,E.,A.MirzabaevandJ.vonBraun(eds).2016.EconomicsofLandDegradationandImprovement–AGlobalAssessmentforSustainableDevelopment.InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI)andCenterforDevelopmentResearch(ZEF).UniversityofBonn.SpringerOpen.

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Organicfarmingisagriculturalproductionwithouttheuseofsyntheticchemicalsorgeneticallymodifiedorganisms,growthregulators,andlivestockfeedadditives.Italsoemphasisesaholisticfarmmanagementapproach,whererotationsandanimalsplayanintegralroletothesystem.Soilfertilityisthecornerstoneoforganicmanagement.Becauseorganicfarmersdonotusesyntheticnutrientstorestoredegradedsoil,theymustconcentrateonbuildingandmaintainingsoilfertilityprimarilythroughtheirbasicfarmingpractices.Evidencefromresearch,fieldtrialsandfarmexperienceshowsthatorganicfarmingis,overall,moreenvironmentallyfriendlythanconventionalagriculturebutitseconomicperformanceismoreuncertain.

Conservationagriculturepracticeshavesignificantlyimprovedsoilconditions,reducedland

degradationandboostedyieldsinmanypartsoftheworldbyfollowingthreeprinciples:minimalsoildisturbance,permanentsoilcoverandcroprotations.Tobesustainableinthelongterm,thelossoforganicmatterinanyagriculturalsystemmustneverexceedtherateofsoilformation.Inmostagro-ecosystems,thisisnotpossibleifthesoilismechanicallydisturbed.Therefore,oneofthetenetsofconservationagricultureislimitingtheuseofmechanicalsoildisturbance,ortilling,inthefarmingprocess.Theeconomicattractivenessofsoilconservationishighlysite-specificbutbringspositiveenvironmentalimpacts.40

Zerotillageisoneofasetoftechniquesusedinconservationagriculture.Essentially,it

maintainsapermanentorsemi-permanentorganicsoilcover(e.g.agrowingcropordeadmulch)thatprotectsthesoilfromsun,rainandwindandallowssoilmicroorganismsandfaunatotakeonthetaskof“tilling”andsoilnutrientbalancing-naturalprocessesthataredisturbedbymechanicaltillage.Theapplicationofmodernbiotechnologyinagriculturehasresultedinfacilitationofzero-tillagesystemsforsomecrops.However,environmentalbenefitsarecontext-specificandheavilydependentonmanagementpracticesastheuseofherbicidesonherbicide-tolerantvarietiesmaycompromisesoilbiodiversity.

Agroforestrysystemsincludebothtraditionalandmodernland-usesystemswheretreesare

managedtogetherwithcropsand/oranimalproductionsystemsinagriculturalsettings.Thecombinationoftrees,cropsandlivestockmitigatesenvironmentalrisk,createsapermanentsoilcoveragainsterosion,minimisesdamagefromfloodingandactsaswaterstorage,benefittingcropsandpastures.

Integratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)isacombinationofajudiciousamountof

inorganicfertilizerwithorganicinputs.41ISFMhasbeenshowntobemoreprofitableandsustainablethanbothorganicfarmingandtheapplicationofinorganicfertilizeraloneatrecommendedorhigherrates.42

40OECD.2016.FarmManagementPracticestoFosterGreenGrowth.OECDGreenGrowthStudies.OECDPublishing,Paris.41Vanlauwe,B.,A.B.Bationo,J.N.Chianu,K.E.Giller,R.Merckx,U.Mokwunye,O.Ohiokpehai,etal.2010.IntegratedSoilFertilityManagementOperationalDefinitionandConsequencesforImplementationandDissemination.OutlookonAgriculture,39(1):17–24.42NkonyaE.andJ.Koo.2017.TheUnholyCross:ProfitabilityandAdoptionofClimate-SmartAgriculturePracticesinAfricaSouthoftheSahara.InDePinto,A.,andJ.M.Ulimwengu(Eds).AThrivingAgriculturalSectorinaChangingClimate:MeetingMalaboDeclarationGoalsthroughClimate-SmartAgriculture.ReSAKSSAnnualTrendsandOutlookReport2016.Washington,DC:InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute:103-113.

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Box4:SoilManagementProgrammes

Therearecurrentlyanumberofsuccessfuldevelopmentprogrammes,invariousregionsandcountries,withaspecificfocusonsustainablesoilmanagement.

InAfrica,theAGRASoilHealthProgrammeaimstoincreaseincomesandfoodsecuritybypromotingthewideadoptionofintegratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)practicesamongsmallholderfamilyfarmers.Theobjectiveistoimprovesupplyandaccesstoappropriatefertilizers,aswellasaccesstoknowledgeonISFM.Currently1.8millionsmallholdersarereportedtobeusingISFM,includingfertilizermicro-dosing,manure,andlegumesincroprotations,withyieldsintheSahelupthreetofourfoldingoodseasons.

TheAgWaterSolutionsProject,anotherinitiativeinAfrica,promotessmall-scaledistributedirrigationsystemsthatrelyprimarilyongroundwater.TheprojecthasalotofpotentialincountriessuchasBurkinaFasoandishelpingtoshifttheattentionofpolicymakersandplannersawayfromlargescaleirrigationdevelopments.

IntheNearEastandNorthAfrica(NENA)region,consideredtobethemostaridregionintheworld,MENARID(IntegratedNaturalResourcesManagementintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica)isapartnershipworkingforimprovementofthegovernanceofnaturalresources,includingwater.Theprogrammeaimstoimprovethelivelihoodsoftargetcommunitiesthroughtherestorationofdegradednaturalresources,includinglandandsoils.

Theregionswiththelargestchallengesinrelationtosoildegradationareoftenthosefacingmanyotherdifficulties,includingrapidpopulationgrowth,conflictandpoliticalunrest,andhighvulnerabilitytoclimatevariability.Implementingsuchprogrammescanbeespeciallydifficult,butalsoextremelyimportantasthesearetheregionsthatalsofacethebiggestchallengeswithrelationtofoodsecurityandnutrition.

IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,anumberofagri-environmentalprogrammesareinplace,amongthem:i)working-landprogrammessuchastheEnvironmentalQualityIncentivesProgram(EQIP)andtheConservationStewardshipProgram(CSP)providefinancialassistancetofarmerswhoadopt,install,ormaintainconservationpracticessuchasconservationtillage,nutrientmanagement,integratedpestmanagementonlandinproduction;and,ii)landretirementprogrammesliketheConservationReserveProgram(CRP)removelandfromagriculturalproductionforatleast10yearsandsupporthigh-priority,partial-fieldpractices,suchasfield-edgefilterstripsandgrasswaterways.Crosscomplianceapproachesarealsousedtocontrolsoilerosion.

IntheEuropeanUnion(EU),MemberStateshavethefreedomtoimplementpoliciestoprotectsoilsaccordingtotheneedsandspecificgeo-climaticandfarmingconditionsintheirterritories.AgriculturalsoilprotectionisattheinterfaceofseveralEUmainpolicypackages.IntheEUCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)aspectsofsoilprotectionhavebeenanintegralpartofGoodAgriculturalandEnvironmentalConditions(GAEC)sincetheintroductionofcrosscompliancein2003,andseveralofagri-environmentalmeasurescoveractionstoconservesoils.Inaddition,theSoilThematicStrategywasintroducedin2014,andsoilmanagementisalsoaffectedbyanumberofenvironmentalpoliciessuchastheNitratesandWaterDirectives.

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Theprovisionofecosystemservices,includingthroughenvironmentalpaymentsandregulations,canfacilitatetheadoptionofsustainablesoilpractices(seeBox4).Governmentsshouldpromotethecreationanddisseminationofcredible,science-basedinformationonfarmer-andscience-ledfarmmanagementpractices.ThekeyingredientsforpersuadingandenablingfarmerstoadoptSSMpracticesarecredible,relevantandup-to-datebusiness-acumenadvice,trainingandextension.43

Paymentsunderenvironmentalprogrammesarevoluntaryforfarmers.ForcompliancewiththeWTOtheymustmeetspecificcriteria.Oftentheadoptionofsuchsustainablepracticesmayleadtoaninitiallossofproductivityandincome.ToqualifyasenvironmentalprogrammeconsistentwiththerequirementsspecifiedintheWTOAgreementonAgriculture(AoA),oneimportantcriterionisthattheamountofthepaymentmustbelimitedtothe“extracostsorlossofincomeinvolvedwithcomplyingwiththegovernmentprogramme”(paragraph12(b)ofAnnex2oftheAoA).

IntheUnitedStatesofAmericaandothercountriessuchcost-shareprogramsforestablishing

conservationpracticesonagriculturallandhavesupportedimplementationoffarmingpracticesandstructuresthatreducelossoffertilitythroughsoilerosion;facilitateimproveddrainage,waterstorage,andmoreefficientirrigation;and,providemanurestorageandassistancewithmeetingnutrientmanagementregulations.44Theeffectivenessandefficiencyofvoluntarypaymentprogrammesaredifficulttoassess.Environmentalbenefitswillberealisedonlyifpaymentsmadetofarmersleveragetheadoptionofconservationpracticesthatwouldnothavebeenadoptedotherwise.45

Thecosteffectivenessofagri-environmentalpaymentstopromotesoilmanagementcouldbe

improvedbydirectlylinkingincentivestoenvironmentaloutcomes.46Thiscanbedonethroughusingproxies,likeanenvironmentalbenefitindex,whereverdataavailabilityallowsthis.Inthecasethatmultiplepolicyinstrumentsarecombined,theyshouldcomplementandnotconflictwitheachother.

Insomecountries,theprovisionofpaymentstofarmersisconditionalonproducersfollowing

specifiedfarmmanagementpractices.Thisenvironmentalcross-complianceisrequired,withthepolicyactingascompensationtomeetregulatoryrequirements.IntheEU,forexample,thescopeofenvironmentalcrosscomplianceincludeswaterpollution,soilqualityandsoilerosion,protectionoflandscapefeaturesandavoidingabandonmentofland.IntheUnitedStatesofAmericaitincludessoilerosionandwetlandpreservation,andinSwitzerlanditincludesenvironmentallysustainableuseoflandforfarming,biodiversityandanimalwelfare.47Otherthingsbeingequal,withrespecttofurtheringenvironmentalobjectives,targetedmeasuresarelikelytobemoreefficientandcosteffectiveinachievingspecificenvironmentalaimsthancross-complianceapproaches.48

43OECD.2015.FosteringGreenGrowthinAgriculture:TheRoleofTraining,AdvisoryServicesandExtensionInitiatives,OECDGreenGrowthStudies.OECDPublishing,Paris44Claassen,R.Duquette,E.,HorowitzJ.2013.Additionalityinagriculturalconservationpaymentprograms.JournalofSoilandWaterConservation,68(3),74A-78A.45Claassen,R.2012.AdditionalityinUSagri-environmentalprogrammesforworkingland:Apreliminarylookatnewdata.InOECD.2012.EvaluationofAgri-EnvironmentalPolicies:SelectedMethodologicalIssuesandCaseStudies.OECDPublishing.46OECD.2010.EnvironmentalCrossComplianceinAgriculture.Paris;OECD.2012.EvaluationofAgri-EnvironmentalPolicies:SelectedMethodologicalIssuesandCaseStudies.OECDPublishing.47OECD.2010.EnvironmentalCrossComplianceinAgriculture.Paris.48OECD.2013.GlobalFoodSecurity:ChallengesfortheFoodandAgricultureSystem.Paris.

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3.4. RoleofInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT) Inadditionto,orcomplementingsustainablesoilmanagementpractices,manyexistingand

importanttoolscanbeusedforsoilconservation,suchasInformationandCommunicationTechnology(ICT).Inthecontextofincreasingdigitalizationoftheeconomyandthesociety,ICTsarecrucialinassessingnaturalresourcesandprovidinginformationtotackleclimatechange.

Overthelasttwentyyears,farmersindevelopedcountrieshavealreadybeenusingICTsin

largescalefarmingforPrecisionAgriculture(PA)49includinginsoilanalysis,irrigation,farmingequipment,weatherforecasting,andmore.Thefastpaceoftechnologicaldevelopment,whichallowsforincreasingdatastorageandanalyticsandprogressivelylowercostshashelpedsupportthesefarmingadvances.

WhilethemainincentivetoadoptPrecisionAgriculture(PA)methodsistomaximiseprofitability,itcanalsoreduceenvironmentalimpactsoffarmingpractices.TheapproachiscurrentlyusedmainlybylargearablefarmsinCentralandNorthernEurope,theUSA,CanadaandAustralia,andithasthepotentialtoexpandintoemergingeconomieslikeIndia.AsuccessfulexampleoftheapplicationofthismethodistheuseofControlledTrafficFarming,whichreducescropdamageandsoilcompactionasitconfinesfieldvehiclestotheminimalareaofpermanenttrafficlaneswiththeaidofGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)technologyanddecisionsupportsystems.FarmersinAustraliaandtheUKhavebeenabletoreducemachineryandinputcostsandincreasecropyields.

Inmanydevelopingcountries,however,thedigitaldivideisnowheremoreevidentthaninagriculture.Thisisnotonlyduetothedifferentextenttowhichdigitaltechnologieshavepenetratedruralareasacrossthedevelopedeconomiesandthedevelopingworld,butalsoduetodifferentfarmstructures.Openaccessresources,particularlymobilephoneapplications,arevitalintheprovisionofinformationandknowledge.Forexample,theapplicationOpenForis50allowsevenasmallfamilyfarmerequippedwithasmartphonetobettermeasureandmonitorapieceoflandnobiggerthananacre.Otherapplications,suchastherecentlylaunchedSoilOrganicCarbonApp,51allowinvestorstoassesstowhatextentplannedeffortstorestoredegradedlandwillbindorganiccarboninsoilandmitigateclimatechange.

TechnologiessuchasDigitalSoilMapping(DSM)andsoilsensorsallowforinnovativebottom-upapproachestocharacterizesoils.Suchtechnologycanbeutilisedinefficientandprecisedecisionmakingonthefarm,andiskeytoadvancingsoilresearchandprovidinglocationspecificadvicebyextensionservicestoadoptbestpractices.ICTscanalsoprovidedigitalplatformsforcooperationandcollaborationbetweenscientistsandotherstakeholders,whichwouldimproveagriculturalpracticesandsoilconservation.52Finally,thedesignandimplementationofenvironmentalpoliciescanalsobenefitfromthesetechnologiesinordertomonitorsoilerosion,SOC,nutrientbalancesandotheragri-environmentalperformanceindicators,andbettertargetingpolicyandlegislationonenvironmentalpracticesindifferentlocations.

49PrecisionAgriculture(PA)isawhole-farmmanagementapproachusinginformationtechnology,satellitepositioning(GNSS)data,remotesensingandproximaldatagathering.50http://www.openforis.org/51https://wle.cgiar.org/solutions/soil-organic-carbon-app52Lin,Yu-Pin,etal.2017.Applicationsofinformationandcommunicationtechnologyforimprovementsofwaterandsoilmonitoringandassessmentsinagriculturalareas—AcasestudyintheTaoyuanirrigationdistrict.Environments,4.1:6.

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3.5. Ongoingcollectiveresponsesandinternationalgovernance Inrecentyears,significantprogresshasbeenmadeinthesupportofstrategiesandpoliciesto

improvetheglobalgovernanceofsoilresources.Inordertomeettheneedforamultilateralforumfocusingspecificallyonsoilchallengesandtoadvocateforsustainablesoilandlandmanagementatgloballevel,theGlobalSoilPartnership(GSP)wasestablishedbytheFAOCouncilinDecember2012.

GlobalSoilPartnership

TheGSPisaninteractive,responsiveandvoluntarypartnership,opentogovernments,regionalorganizations,institutionsandotherstakeholdersatvariouslevels.Itstrivestoraiseawarenessamongdecisionmakersontheroleofsoilresourcesinrelationtofoodsecurityandclimatechange,andtobuildcapacitiesandexchangeknowledgeandtechnologiesforsustainablemanagementofsoilresources.53

Table2.The5PillarsofActionoftheGlobalSoilPartnership.PillarNo. Action

1 Promotesustainablemanagementofsoilresourcesforsoilprotection,conservationandsustainableproductivity

2 Encourageinvestment,technicalcooperation,policy,educationawarenessandextensioninsoil

3 Promotetargetedsoilresearchanddevelopmentfocusingonidentifiedgapsandprioritiesandonsynergieswithrelatedproductive,environmentalandsocialdevelopmentactions

4 Enhancethequantityandqualityofsoildataandinformation:datacollection,analysis,validation,reporting,monitoringandintegrationwithotherdisciplines

5 Harmonizemethods,measurementsandindicatorsforthesustainablemanagementandprotectionofsoilresources

ThePartnership,beingacommoncommunicationplatformincorporatinglocalchallenges,allowsexperiencestobesharedamongfarmersandscientistsacrosscountriesandregions,anddevelopsglobalgovernanceguidelinesaimingtoimprovedsoilprotectionandsustainablesoilproductivity,inaccordancewiththesovereignrightofeachStateoveritsnaturalresources.Inordertoachieveitsmandate,theGSPaddressesfivepillarsofactiontobeimplementedincollaborationwithitsregionalsoilpartnerships.(Table2).

Anindicationoftheemergingpriorityaccordedtosoils,andameasureoftheimpactoftheGSP

wasthedeclarationbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyof2015astheInternationalYearofSoilsandtheinitiationoftheUNWorldSoilDay.

53http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/

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TheIntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils

TechnicalandscientificguidanceisprovidedbytheIntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils(ITPS).54ThemainfunctionoftheITPSistoprovidescientificandtechnicaladviceandguidanceonglobalsoilissuestotheGlobalSoilPartnershipprimarilyandtoaddressspecificrequestssubmittedbyglobalorregionalinstitutions.TheITPSadvocatesforaddressingsustainablesoilmanagementinthedifferentsustainabledevelopmentagendas,andcomplementsrelatedscientificadvisorypanelsincludingtheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),theIntergovernmentalPanelonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES),andtheUNCCD’sScience-PolicyInterface(SPI).

TheITPShasbeenkeytothedevelopmentofthePlansofActionforthefivepillarsofthe

GlobalSoilPartnership(Table2).IthasalsobeenengagedinthedevelopmentoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheinitiationofformalreportingmechanisms,includingthepublicationofTheStateofWorld’sSoilResources.

TherevisedWorldSoilCharter

TheWorldSoilCharter,adoptedin1981,establishedasetofbroadguidingprinciplesfortheuseoftheworld’ssoilresources,fortheimprovementoftheirproductivity,andfortheirconservationforfuturegenerations.Inviewofnewscientificfindingsandtherapidlychangingenvironmentalandsocialconditionsoftheworld,includingsoilpollutionanditsconsequencesfortheenvironment,urbanizationpressures,andclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation,theChapterwasrevisedin2015,bymeansofextensiveconsultationsorganizedbytheITPS.55TheChartercontainsanumberofkeyprinciplesandgeneralguidelinesandformsanormativeinstrumentforcountriestocharttherequiredpolicymeasuresandconcreteactionprogrammesthatpromotesustainablemanagement,conservationandrestorationofsoils.

TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagement

TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagement(VGSSM)weredevelopedthroughaninclusiveprocesswithintheframeworkoftheGlobalSoilPartnership.Theyaimtobeareferenceprovidinggeneraltechnicalandpolicyrecommendationsonsustainablesoilmanagementforawiderangeofstakeholders,andtocontributetoglobal,regionalandnationaleffortstowardstheeradicationofhungerandpovertyduetotheimportanceofsoilsinsustainabledevelopment.

TheVGSSMareofvoluntarynatureandarenotlegallybinding.Theyelaboratetheprinciples

outlinedintherevisedWorldSoilCharter,andprovideguidanceonhowtotranslatetheseprinciplesintopractice,takingintoaccountthescientificevidence.TheguidelinesaddresstechnicalaspectsofSSMincludingcorecharacteristicsofsustainablymanagedsoils,keychallengesandpotentialsolutionstoaddressthem.

TheVGSSMfocusmostlyonagriculturewhichisbroadlydefinedastheproductionoffood,fibre,feed,timberandfuel,althoughmanyoftheprincipleshaveasignificantinfluenceonecosystemservicesprovidedbymanagedandunmanagedsoilsystems.56

54TheIntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils(ITPS)wasestablishedatthefirstPlenaryAssemblyoftheGlobalSoilPartnershipheldatFAOHeadquarterson11and12ofJune,2013.TheITPSiscomposedof27topsoilexpertsrepresentingalltheregionsoftheworld.55TherevisedWorldSoilCharterwasendorsedbytheFAOConferenceatits39thsessioninJune2015.FAO(2015).TheRevisedWorldSoilCharter.http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4965e.pdf)56Theguidelineswereadoptedbythe4thGSPPlenaryAssembly(Rome,25May2016),approvedbythe25thsessionoftheFAOCommitteeonAgriculture(Rome,28September2016)andfinallyendorsedbythe155thsessionoftheFAOCouncil(Rome,5December2016).FAOandITPS.2017.VoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagement.Rome.http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl813e.pdf

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Box5:TheSDGsandsoil

TheGlobalSymposiumonSoilOrganicCarbon

In2017,FAOtogetherwithGSP-ITPS,IPCC,WMOandSPI-UNCCDsuccessfullyorganizedtheGlobalSymposiumonSoilOrganicCarbon(SOC)inordertosetanagendaforactiononSOClosses.Therecommendationsmadebasedonthisconsultationareaimedatsupportingthedevelopmentofpoliciesandactionsandtheimplementationofsoilandlandmanagementstrategiesthatfostertheprotection,sequestration,measurement,mapping,monitoringandreportingofSOC.57

4/1000initiative:SoilsforFoodSecurityandClimate

Francelaunchedthe“4/1000initiative:soilsforfoodsecurityandclimate”inDecember2015,aspartoftheCOP21.Theinitiativeaimstofostersoilorganiccarbonsequestrationbylookingattheannualgrowthrateofthesoilcarbonstockanditsimportanceinincreasingsoilfertility,agriculturalproduction,andcarbonsequestration.Soildegradationisanissueandpotentialthreatinover40percentofglobalsoils,andthe4/1000initiativeaimsatengagingstakeholdersinshiftingtowardssustainablesoilmanagementinordertoavoidtheconsequencesonagriculturalproduction,foodsecurityandclimatechange.Theinitiativehasalreadyestablisheditsforumandconsortiumandisplanningimplementationactivitieswithpartners.58

57FAO,GlobalSoilPartnership,IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,IntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils,Science-PolicyInterfaceoftheUNCCD,UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification,andtheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization.2017.UnlockingthePotentialofSoilOrganicCarbon:OutcomeDocument.Rome.58https://www.4p1000.org/

In2016,theUnitedNationsadopted17SustainableDevelopmentgoals,withaviewtomobilisingeffortstoendallformsofpoverty,fightinequalitiesandtackleclimatechange,whileensuringthatnooneisleftbehind.TheadoptionoftheSDG’srepresentedanopportunityforsoil-relatedissuestobeincludedinintergovernmentalprocesses.ThiswasexplicitlyrecognisedthroughtheinclusionofTarget15.3“By2030,combatdesertification,restoredegradedlandandsoil,includinglandaffectedbydesertification,droughtandfloods,andstrivetoachievealanddegradation-neutralworld”butthesustainablemanagementofsoilsalsohasthepotentialtocontributedirectlytoareasofimportanceforadditionalSDGs,forexample:

• Foodsecurityandnutrition(SDGs1,2and3)–Restorationofsoilproductivityandecosystemfunctionsthroughprecisionagriculture,soilnutrientmanagementandincreasingnutrientandwateruseefficiencycanimprovefoodsecurityandnutrition.

• Health(SDG3)–Soilssustainlifebyprovidingnotonlyfoodandwater,butalsobybeingasourceofmanyessentialmedicines,includingcertainantibiotics.

• Watersecurityandresources(SDGs3and6)–Soilsplayamajorroleinthestoringandtransmittingwatertoplants,theatmosphere,groundwater,lakesandrivers.Around74percentoffreshwaterappropriatedbyhumansisestimatedtocomefromsoil.

• Climatechange(SDG13)–Sustainablesoilmanagementcanassistwithclimatechangemitigation.

• Biodiversity(SDG15),Thereisincreasingevidencethatsoilbiodiversityisofgreatimportanceofbiogeochemicalcycles,above-groundbiodiversity,soilformation,thecontrolofplant,animal,andhumanpestsanddiseases,aswellasclimateregulation.

• Landmanagement(SDGs2,13and15)–Sustainablelandmanagementisimportanttoensureecosystemservicesandsoilfunctions.

Toachievesustainabledevelopment,weneedtorecognizethemultiplebenefitsthatsustainablesoilmanagementcouldprovidefortherealizationofthe2030agenda.

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GlobalSymposiumonSoilPollution

Finally,earlierthisyear,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssembly–3(UNEA-3)committedtoapollution-freeplanet,withresolutionsthatpromisetoimprovethestatusofourplanetbycleaningupourair,waterandland.Oneoftheadoptedresolutionsfocusesontheimportanceofmanagingsoilpollution,amajorsteptowardssustainabledevelopment.Inresponsetothis,FAO,GSP,ITPS,UNEP,WHOandtheBaselandRotterdamConventionsareorganizingtheGlobalSymposiumonSoilPollutioninMay2018inordertoprovideaforumforscientificevidence,onanissuethatrequiresjointboldactions.

Box6:Informationanddata

GlobalSoilInformationSystem,includingtheInternationalNetworkofSoilInformationInstitutions

In2017,GSPpartnersrecognizingtheneedforcomprehensiveandreliablesoildatatosupportevidence-basedpolicies,agreedontheestablishmentofGlobalSoilInformationSystem(GLOSIS),includingtheInternationalNetworkofSoilInformationInstitutions(INSII).

GLOSISwillhavethreeprimaryfunctions:(i)toprovidedataonsoilsatthegloballevel(e.g.theamountofarablelandwithsuitablesoiltofeedtheworld);(ii)toprovidetheglobalcontextformorelocaldecisions(e.g.transnationalaspectsoffoodsecurityanddegradationofnaturalresources);and,(iii)tosupplyfundamentalsoildataforunderstandingEarth-systemprocessestosupportworkonmajornaturalresourceissuesfacingtheworld(e.g.climatechange,foodsecurity,biodiversityloss).

TheGlobalSoilOrganicCarbonMap

TheGlobalSoilOrganicCarbonMap(GSOCmap)waslaunchedbytheGSPin2017insupportoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalIndicator15.3.1toassesscarbonstocksaboveandbelowground.GSOCmapaimsatprovidingapreciseandreliableglobalviewonsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)thatisneededunderdifferentUNconventions,suchastheUNConventiononClimateChangeandDesertification(UNCCD),butespeciallyaspartoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDG).

Atnationallevel,suchdatacanbeusedasareferenceforsoilcarbonstocks,withtheaimtorefinenationalgreenhousegasinventoriesandtoassessthesensitivityofsoilstodegradationandclimatechange.TheGSOCmapprovidesuserswithusefulinformationtomonitorthesoilcondition,identifydegradedareas,setrestorationtargets,exploreSOCsequestrationpotentials,supportthegreenhousegasemissionsreportingundertheUNFCCC,andmakeevidence-baseddecisionstomitigateandadapttoachangingclimate.

Internationalagreementsonsoilandlandresourcesarehelpfulbuttheyarealltonoavail,unlesstherearecomplementarypoliciesandcoordinatedactivitiesatregional,national,districtandlocallevels.Appropriateandeffectivepoliciesneedtoreflectthelocalcontextintermsofthenaturalresourceissues,culturallyacceptabilityandeconomicfeasibility.Sources:ProgressesontheGlobalSoilInformationSystem.http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/resources/highlights/detail/en/c/1026182/;TheGSOCmap,asteppingstoneinourknowledgeofsoils.http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/pillars-action/4-information-and-data/global-soil-organic-carbon-gsoc-map/en/

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3.6. Wayforward Soilsconstitutearesourcethatifsustainablymanaged–bypromotingcarbonsequestration,

enhancingsoilbiodiversityandthussoilhealthandincreasedsoilfertility-couldcontributetosustainableproductivitygrowth,climatechangeadaptationandmitigation,foodsecurityandnutrition,povertyalleviation,andsustainabledevelopment.

MaintainingandincreasingSOCstocksisnotonlycrucialforreducingGHGemissionsandremovingCO2fromtheatmospherebutalsoforharnessingthebenefitsofincreasedSOCforsoilhealthandfertility,throughimprovingwaterstorageandtherebyincreasingtheaccessofplantstowaterandresiliencetodrought.MaintainingandincreasingSOCstocksshouldbepromoted,therefore,underthewiderumbrellaofsustainablesoilmanagement(SSM).

Notingthatsoilsarecurrentlyconsideredinthedevelopmentagenda,itisfundamentalto

developandstrengthensynergiesbetweentheongoinginitiativesinordertofosterpositiveimpactandmakeproperuseofthelimitedresourcesavailable.Whilethisdocumenthighlightsmanyoftheeffortscurrentlybeingmade,italsofocusesonmanyissuesthatrequirefurthersupportinordertoachievehealthysoilsforahealthylife.

3.7. Recommendations1.Inrelationtointernationalinitiatives,G20members:1.1ContinuetosupporttheGlobalSoilPartnershipandtheIntergovernmentalTechnicalPanelonSoils,andundertakeactionstopromotethePrinciplesandGuidelinesoftherevisedWorldSoilCharterandtheVoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagement.

1.2Supporttheeffortstoestablishglobalinformationsystems,suchastheGlobalSoilInformationSystem,theInternationalNetworkofSoilInformationInstitutions,andtheGlobalSoilOrganicCarbonMap.

1.3SupporttheimplementationoftheKoroniviajointworkonagriculture,decidedatthe23rdConferenceoftheParties(COP23)totheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),anditsspecialfocusonsoilorganiccarbon,soilhealthandsoilfertility.591.4Takenoteofthe2017UnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblyMinisterialDeclaration60onmitigatingandmanagingsoilpollution,andtheorganizationoftheGlobalSymposiumonSoilPollution.

2.Atthenationallevel,G20members:2.1Promotesustainablefarmandsoilmanagementpracticesthataretailoredtospecificsoiltypesandtocountryneeds,andaddresssoildegradationbypreventionandrestoration/rehabilitationofdegradedsoils,throughpoliciesandmeasuresthatareinlinewiththeWTOAgreements.

59https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/bonn_nov_2017/application/pdf/cp23_auv_agri.pdf60http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/documents/political-declaration-pollution

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2.2PromotesustainablesoilmanagementbyfacilitatingthedevelopmentofsynergieswiththeVoluntaryGuidelinesontheResponsibleGovernanceofTenureofLand,ForestsandFisheriesintheContextofNationalFoodSecurity(VGGT)adoptedbytheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurityinMay2012.

2.3Integrateknowledgeofsoilresourcesintoformaleducation,promotemultilevelandinterdisciplinarytraining,andstrengthenresearch,developmentandextensionprograms.

2.4Developnationalsoilinformationsystemsandinstitutions,includingformonitoringsoilhealth,inconsistencywithglobalinformationsystems.

2.5EmbraceICTanddigitaldatainnovations:toimprovethesustainablesoilmanagement,andpromotetheirusetomonitorthestateofsoilsandimprovethequalityofresearch;todesignbetteragri-environmentalpoliciesandregulations;and,toprovidetargetedtechnicaladviceonfarmpracticesbyextensionservices.2.6Considertheroleofsoilmanagementpracticesintheadaptationtoandmitigationofclimatechangeandinmaintainingbiodiversity,asrecommendedbytheGlobalSymposiumonSoilOrganicCarbonanditsOutcomeDocument‘UnlockingthePotentialofSoilOrganicCarbon’.61

2.7Considerwaystostructurefinancialvehiclesandarrangementsthatwouldsupporttheinvestmentsneededtorestoresoilsandensuretheirhealthandsustainability,throughimprovingprojectpreparation,addressingdatagapsonfinancialperformance,improvinginstrumentsdesignedtofundinfrastructureprojects,andpromotingcoherence.62

61http://www.fao.org/3/b-i7268e.pdf62IFPRIBlog(Diaz-Bonilla,E.).Financingasustainablefoodfuture.HowArgentina'sG-20Presidencycantargetakeypriority.February16,2018.IFPRI.https://www.ifpri.org/blog/financing-sustainable-food-future

This report, prepared by FAO and the OECD with inputs from

IFPRI, IFAD, the World Bank and WTO, has been submitted

to the G20 Presidency of the Argentine Republic in response

to the Presidency’s request for information on future trends and

challenges faced by global agriculture, with a special focus on

the role of soils in promoting food security and the measures that

could be undertaken to facilitate sustainable soil management.

CA

0917

EN/1

/09.

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